====== Guam River ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== The Guam River family consists of at least three languages spoken along and around the Guam and Sogeram rivers, major tributaries of the Ramu river to the west, in the Middle Ramu and Bogia subdistricts of Papua New Guinea's Madang province. It is called the Tamolan Family in the works of Z'graggen, Tamol being the name of an abandoned village that was used as a reference point by the United States Army during the second world war (Z'graggen 1971: 80-81, Brooks 2018: 85-86.) ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of Guam River is as follows, with Z'graggen's language names in parentheses where they differ from current nomenclature:\\ \\ Guam River Inapang Midsivindi Itutang Yigavesakama Chini-Iski Chini (Akrukay) Iski Breri Romkun\\ \\ Kominimung and Igana are listed as Tamolan languages in Z'graggen (1972, Laycock and Z'graggen 1975: 739-740) but no vocabularies were elicited. Also listed in Z'graggen (1972) is Isarikan, which according to Z'graggen (1971: 81) is a village in which Itutang is spoken. Z'graggen's Midsivindi and Itutang are so similar to one another that tt might be asked whether they are dialects of the same language, Inapang. Brooks (2018: 33, 76) asserts that Inapang is a dialect continuum and Midsivindi and Itutang are among its members, as is another dialect Yigavesakama for which he provides a small number of terms (p. 87) and some example sentences (pp. 81. 83.) Breri and Romkun are also very similar to one another. Brooks (2018: 33, 76) denies that they are distinct languages and states that Iski is the name that the Breri call their own language, in which /iski/ means "no;" this is also the term for "no" in Romkun (q.v. Z'graggen 1972.)\\ \\ Z'graggen (1971: 81) gives lexicostatistical relationships between languages of the Tamolan Family as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | | Akrukay | Breri | Romkun | Itutang | Midsivin. | |Akrukay | --- | 38 | 35 | 36 | 46 | |Breri | 38 | --- | 73 | 38 | 42 | |Romkun | 35 | 73 | --- | 34 | 41 | |Itutang | 36 | 38 | 34 | --- | 73 | |Midsivin.| 46 | 42 | 41 | 73 | --- | Z'graggen (1971: 80) asserts that Akrukay belongs with Itutang-Midsivindi against Breri-Romkun, but there is not much lexical evidence to this effect. Brooks (2018: 78-79) affirms the validity of Z'graggen's Tamolan while suggeting that Chini (Akrukay) "in its current form is not simply the result of a clean branching off from an ancestor language, but rather a result of some sort of admixture between the Inapang and Breri sides of the subgroup in ways that match the geographical location of the respective groups." We find no support for this besides that Chini sometimes follows Iski-like sound changes and sometimes doesn't, but these changes look to be regular. ===== Sources ===== Z'graggen (1969, 1971: 80-83) brief descriptions of and (pp. 90-91) 18 comparative terms for Itutang, Midsivindi, Akrukay, Breri and Romkun Z'graggen (1972) 431 comparative terms for Itutang, Midsivindi, Akrukay, Breri and Romkun Z'graggen (1974) typewritten version of Z'graggen (1972) with some systematic omissions of detail O'Rear (1992) Inapang dialect survey (unobtained) Brooks (2018) verbal morphology for Chini of Andamang village including (p. 67) 25 lexical comparisons to Breri and Inapang\\ \\ In addition to these, survey vocabularies of seven Inapang villages designated as Misivindi, Mutungu, Ingawaia, Bogen, Ayat, Ongi and Porpor were provided to us in digitalized form by Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics, Ukarumpa; however they are undated and unattributed. A comparison of Misivindi with Brooks' (2018: 87) excerpts from O'Rear (1992) confirm these to be drawn from the same source. ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Proto Guam River had 15 consonants and 4 vowels as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | *ŋ | | *p | *t | *s | *k | | *mb | *nd | *ndz | *ŋg | | *w | *r | *j | *ɣ | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | *ʉ | *u | | | *a | | Even compared to other subfamilies of Ramu River, Guam River stands out among New Guinean families in having almost no discernible initial consonants, a situation reminiscent of some families of Australia's Cape York where erstwhile initial consonants have likewise been regularly dropped. Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is found as the first element in Z'graggen's Akrukay and Itutang attestations for the third person dual, which we presume to reflect Ramu River third person singular /*ma/ in contrast to the free form third person singular /*an/ < /*man/. There are two other examples of apparent initial /*m/. One, /*m₂ʉrʉk/ “meat”, is a loan from the Tomui River subgroup of West Madang. Another, /*m₂aru[a]p/ “ancestral spirit” is found in all Ramu River subfamilies, but its correspondence is similarly irregular in Ramu Coast, Ruboni Range and Moam River, most likely indicating a loan postdating the breakup of all these subfamilies. Still the example of /*ma/ appears to demonstrate that initial consonants can be preserved in a very small number of roots with the simple form /*CV/. There is one apparent example of initial apical non-stop /*r/ in /*rapar/ “leaf,” where /r/ is retained only in Midsivindi; this corresponds to initial /*r/ in other subfamilies of Ramu River. This is strongly suspected of being in error or (possibly) a loan from Igo-Tanggu in which the retention of intitial /*r/ is regular.\\ \\ Any consonant can occur medially.\\ \\ Only a restricted set of consonants occurs finally: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | *ŋ | | *p | | *s | *k | | | *r | *j | *ɣ | The majority of native roots are of the form /*VCVC(VC)/. Final vowels are not found on roots with more than two syllables. There are a small number of vowel-final roots /*VCV/. Two pronouns are monosyllables /*VC/. Consonant clusters do not occur.\\ \\ \\ Medial consonants generally correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Guam River | Akrukay | Breri | Romkun | Itutang | Midsivindi | | *-m-/_V(C) | m | mb | mb | mb | mb | | *-m-/_VN | m | m | m | m | m | | *-n-/_V(C) | n | | | nd | nd | | *-n-/_VN | n | n | n | n | n | | *-n-/i_V(C) | ɲ | ndz | ndz | ndz | ndz | | *-n-/i_VN | ɲ | ɲ | ɲ | ɲ | ɲ | | *-ŋ-/_V(C) | ŋ | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | | *-ŋ-/_VN | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | | *-p- | p | p | p | p | p | | *-t- | t | t | t | t | t | | *-s- | c | s | s | ts | ts | | *-k- | k | k | k | k | k | | *-k-/i_ | k | ts | ts | k | k | | *-k-/_Vj | k | ts | ts | k | k | | *-mb- | mb | mp | mp | mp | mp | | *-nd- | nd | nt | nt | nt | nt | | *-ndz- | nc | nts | nts | nts | nts | | *-ŋg- | ŋg | ŋk | ŋk | ŋk | ŋk | | *-ŋg-/_Vs | ŋg | nts | ndz | ŋg | ŋg | | *-w- | w | w | w | w | w | | *-r- | r | r | r | r | r | | *-j- | j | s | j | j | j | | *-j-/VN | n | s | j | n | ? | | *-ɣ- | ɣ | ɣ | ɣ | ɣ | ɣ | | *-ɣ-/i_ | ɣ | ɣ | ɣ | j | j | | *-ɣ-/u_u | ɣ | ɣ | ɣ | w | w | Final consonants generally correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Guam River | Akrukay | Breri | Romkun | Itutang | Midsivindi | | *-m | m(V) | mV | mV | mV | mV | | *-n | n(V) | nV | nV | nV | nV | | *-ŋ | ŋ(V) | ŋV | ŋV | ŋV | ŋV | | *-p | w(V) | wV | wV | wV | wV | | *-s | je | sV | jV | i | i | | *-k | k(V) | kV | kV | kV | kV | | *-r | r(V) | rV | rV | rV | rV | | *-j | Ø | Ø | Ø | ja | ja | | *-ɣ | gV | gV | Ø | Ø | Ø | Clusters involving medial and final consonants are formed as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Guam River | Akrukay | Breri | Romkun | Itutang | Midsivindi | | *-kVm | | | | | | | *-mbVm | | | | | | | *-ndVm | | | | | | | *-rVm | | | | | | | *-mbVn | | | | | | | *-ŋgVn | | | | | | | *-mbVŋ | | | | | | | *-ndVŋ | | | | | | | *-wVŋ | | | | | | | *-rVŋ | | | | | | | *-mVk | | | | | | | *-tVk | | | | | | | *-CVrVC | | | | | | | *-CVr₁ | CVr | CrV | CrV | CVr | CVr | | *-CVr₂ | CrV | CrV | CrV | CVr | CVr | These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with all attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1971, 1972.) For clarity of presentation, the general dispositions of initial consonants will presented first, then those of medial consonants, then those of final cononants. Some details of the forms which follow are necessarily tentative.\\ \\ \\ Generally, Goam River had no initial consonants as Ramu River initial consonants have invariably been lost. There is one very salient exception: the third person singular pronoun /*ma/, though its suffixed form /*ma-n/ dropped initial /*n/ just like any other word (beliow.) We assume that /*ma/ was exempted from initial dropping because it is a simple form /*CV/ whiere the great majority of Ramu River roots are multisyllabic, The original third person /*ma/ is visible indirectly in Z'graggen's attestations for the first person dual: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***m-** |**m** |**** |**** |**m** |**** | |3 sg.|*ma |ma- | | |ma | | A particle /*m-/ is found prefixed to a number of transitive verbs. It is distinguished from the reflexes of medial /*m/ (below) because it does not undergo preocclusion to [mb] in Iski and Inapang regardless of the quality of the following consonant. Brooks (2018: 107) characterizes this prefix in Chini as distal deictive /mɨ-/ with a high central vowel, though the vowel is overridden by the initial vowel of the root where one synchronically exists, and states that it is found also on nominals as an inanimate topic marker: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |plant (v.) |*m-indzi- | | | |m-əntsɨ- | | |blow (fire)|*m-iwi- | | | | |m-uβi-- | |take |*m-ʉni- |m-ʉnin- | | |m-ʉnɛ- |m-ʉndʒ- | |cut/chop |*m-ʉtʉ- | |m-ɪr-k-|m-ʉr-k-|m-ʉtʉ- |m-ʉtʉ-tʉ- | |tie |*m-ʉŋʉ- |m-ʉŋʉ- | | |m-ʉŋgʉ- |m-ʉŋgʉ- | |pull |*m-ʉŋʉ- |m-ʉŋʉ- | | |m-ʉŋgʉ- |m-ʉŋgʉ- | |see/know |*m-ʉŋgʉn- |m-uŋgʉnᵊ-| | | |m-ʉŋkʉn- | |shoot |*m-[ʉ/u]p[ʉ/u]-| | |m-up- | | | |eat/drink |*m-ama- | | | | |m-amba- | |sing |*m-aku- | | | |m-aku(w)-| | |make bow |*m-[a]ŋgu[r]- | | | | |m-aŋkʉr- | |roast |*m-utu- |m-utʉt- | | | |m-otu- | |chop/fell |*m-uŋu- |m-uŋu- | | |m-uŋgu- |mb-uŋgu- (?)| Besides these, the only known examples of apparent initial /*m/, /*m₂ʉrʉk/ “meat” and /*m₂aru[a]p₂/ “ancestral spirit”, are loans, the first from the Tomui River subgroup of West Madang, the second a regional term, found also in (at least) Monumbo of the Torricelli-Sepik Coast family, in which the retention of final [*p] in Guam River languages is also irregular (below.) These roots are included here even though they may not have been present in proto-Guam River because they help illustrate other phonological trends. This initial is designated /*m₂/ as a reminder of its origin and in keeping with its designation in other subfamilies of Ramu River. Phonologically, it behaves identically to medial /*m/ following a dropped initial vowel (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***m₂** |**m** |**mb** |**mb** |**mb** |**mb** | |meat/flesh|*m₂ʉrʉk |mřʌk |mbr̃ʉgʉ|mbrʊ |mbrəka |mbr̃ʉka | |ancestor |*m₂aru[a]p₂|mʌːrʊp |ombrɔwo|mbr̃oβo|mbʌrpa |mbarpa | … /*ndz-/ … Brooks (2018: 78, …) glosses as Chini middle voice …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***ndz(-)**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |vomit |*ndz-imi- |c-imea |ts-ɛmbə-g-|ts-ɛmbu | | | |be cooked |*ndz-isʉ- | | | | |c-icʉ- | |swim |*ndz-irʉ- | | | | |c-irʉ- | |laugh |*ndz-ʉmir- | | | |ts-ʉmbɪr-|c-imbʉru- | |be blind/deaf|*ndz-ʉŋgʉ- | | |tʃ-ikɨ(s)- |ts-ʉŋku- | | |boil (v.) |*ndz-amba- | |ts-əmba-g-|ts-am(bʌ-k)-|ts-amba- | | |be full |*ndz-api- |c-ʌpɪ |ts-ɛp- |tʃ-ɛpɪ- | | | |bathe |*ndz-ura- |nje-ar-oar-|ts-or-g- | |ts-ora- |c-orʌ- | One example iof an apparently apical non-stop /*r/ which is retained only in Midsivindi is most probably a loan into Midsivindi from Igom-Tanggu to the north: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***r-** |**Ø** |**Ø**|**Ø** |**Ø** |**r** | |leaf|*[r]apar |apař |apa |apra |apʌra |rapər- | Any consonant can occur medially.\\ \\ Medial nasals /*m *n *ŋ/, where immediately followed by a non-nasal consonant in the onset of the next syllable or by a final vowel are occluded to [*mb *nd *ŋg] in all descendants except Akrukay. Where immediately followed by another nasal either in the onset of the next syllable or finally, occlusion does not occur. This development is shared with Kire of the Ruboni Range subfamily to the north and with Atemple of the Sogeram River subfamily of West Madang.\\ \\ Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ where immediately followed by a non-nasal consonant in the onset of the next syllable or by a final vowel is occluded to prenasalized stop [mb] in all descendants except Akrukay. These occluded reflexes remain distinct from those of /*mb/ in Itutang and Midsivindi, where /*mb/ is devoiced to [mp] (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-m-/_V(C)**|**m** |**mb** |**mb** |**mb** |**mb** | |urine |*imi |-m- |í:mbi |ɪmbɪ | |mbi | |vomit |*imi- |c-imea |ts-ɛmbə-g-|ts-ɛmbu |mbeː-g- |mbe- | |tongue |*imʉɣ |mʉgai ~ mʉgᵊ|mbigi |iːmbʉ ~ imbʉ |mbíː ~ mbí |mbʊi | |areca nut |*imak |miag |ɛmkɛ |ɛmga |mbía |mbía | |laugh |*ʉmir- | |m̩br- | |ts-ʉmbɪr- |c-imbʉru- | |woman |*ami |ami |ɛmbi |ɛmbᵊ ~ ɛmbʉ |ambɛ |ambí | |grass skirt|*amiɣ | |ɛmbigi |ɛːmbʉ | | | |eye |*amʉrʉk |amᵒrʌgᵓ |ɛmbr̃ʉgʉ |əmbr̃ɨ ~ ɛmbr̃-|ɛmbrʉka |ambɨrika | |mami yam |*ama |ama- ~ ʌm |amba |amba |ambʌ |amba | |eat/drink |*ama- |ama- |mba-g- |m- (?) |ʌm- ~ ʌmba-|m-amba- | |boil (v.) |*ama- | |ts-əmba-g-|ts-am(bʌ-k)- |ts-amba- | | |louse |*am[a]rak |amark |mbʌga |ɔmbrɔ |ambʌraka |ambareka | |stomach |*umus |mije | | |mbí |mbʊɪ | One verb … : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-m-** |**m** |**** |**** |**m** |**** | |cut (grass)|*aŋgum- |amu- | | |aŋkom- | | When medial /*m/ is immediately followed by a nasal /*m *n *ŋ/ either in the onset of the next syllable or finally, occlusion does not occur: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-m-/_VN**|**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |bow |*imiŋ |mʊŋᵊ |ɪmŋí ~ ɪmᴵŋ-|imʉ |mɪŋa |miɲa | |sister |*inumaŋ |nmaŋ |ɪnmʌga |ʊnmʉ |nʊmaŋa |ʊnʊmoŋa | |male |*ʉman |man |ɔmno |omonɔ |mʌna |mana | |mother/thumb|*amʉŋ |amʉŋ ~ amʊŋᵊ| | |amʉŋ ~ aməŋa|(a)mʉŋi | |new/unripe |*aŋʉmVŋ |aŋmaŋ |ɛnɪmŋɪ |anɨmũ |aŋamʉn- |aŋamʉŋ- | |kunai grass |*utumʉn | |ʊtᶷmɔno |uːtubunu [sic]|tumna |tʊmʊna | Medial apical nasal /*n/ where immediately followed by a non-nasal consonant in the onset of the next syllable or by a final vowel is occluded to prenasalized stop [nd nt] in all descendants except Akrukay: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-n-/_V(C)**|**n** |**** |**** |**nt** |**nd nt** | |dirty |*ʉnʉk-Vtʉk |nʉgʉ-rk| | |ndʉgɛ-tga|ndʉ-tʉga | |heart |*[ʉ/u]nʉk |nʉkʉ | | |ntʉga |ʊntʉga ~ ndʊga | |clay pot |*ana |nːʌ |ʌnd- |ʌndʌ |nda |nda | |paddle |*anap |anʌb |ʌnbʌ |ʌnbʌ |andʌβa |andʌβa | |shoulder |*anap |anaw |ʌnbʌ | | |andaβa | |fear (v.)|*unar- |nar- |andr-|ʌndr- |undʌr- |ondʌr- | |ripe |*unup |nduo |unmbú|unbu |nduβu- |unduβua\\ ~ andʊo| |one |*unuɣ |nʊwo |ʊndʊ-|ndʊ |ndu |n̩dʊ | |same |*unuɣ |ma-nugu| | |-ndu |m-undu | When medial /*n/ is immediately followed by a nasal /*m *n *ŋ/ either in the onset of the next syllable or finally, occlusion does not occur: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri |Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-n-/_VN**|**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |stone axe|*inaŋ |anaŋ |ɛniŋɛ | |ɪnʌ |ɛna | |sister |*inumaŋ |nmaŋ |ɪnmʌga|ʊnmʉ |nʊmaŋa |ʊnʊmoŋa | |water |*anʉm |ʌːnMə |ɛnmə |ɛnMə |anəma |anʉma | |taro |*anam |anam |ʌːnma |ʌnMa |anʌma |anama | |thatch |*unʉm | | | |onoma |onoma | When medial /*n/ is preceded by high front vowel /*i/, it is palatalized to [ɲ], then to be occluded or not in all descendants except Akrukay according to the same rules as outlined above. These occluded reflexes remain distinct from those of /*ndz/, which are typically devoiced in all descendants (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-n-/i_V(C)**|**n [n ɲ]** |**ns nts** |**nʒ ndʒ** |**nz** |**nz ndʒ nts** | |excrement |*ini[k] |n̯igəti |insɪgími |nʒikə | |n̩zí | |belly |*inis | |í:nsi |inʒɪ | | | |vulva |*inʉɣ |ɲigʉ |insigi |indʒʉ |nzʉ |ntsʉ | |wild fowl sp.|*ina |ɲia |íntsi |inʒɨ |n̩za |n̩tsa | |skin/bark |*inatʉk |nɪar̃k~ɲark~ɲak|ɲtsɛːr̃kɛ ~\\ insɛr̃kɛ|ɛnʒɛr̃kʌ ~\\ ɛnʒatiɛ|nzʌːtʉga ~\\ nzʌtəga|ndʒɛatʉga ~\\ intsatʉga| When palatalized medial /*n/ [ɲ] is immediately followed by a nasal /*m *n *ŋ/ either in the onset of the next syllable or finally, occlusion does not occur: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri|Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-n-/i_VN**|**ɲ** |**ɲ**|**ɲ [ɲ n]**|**ɲ** |**ɲ** | |shadow |*ina-ina[ŋ] |ɲaɲaŋ |ɛɲɛɲɛ|ɲɛɲa |ɲaɲa |nʲaɲa | |leg |*inaŋ | | | |ɲía |n̥ɲa | |stone axe |*inaŋ |anaŋ |ɛniŋɛ| |ɪnʌ |ɛna | |earth/ground|*inuan |ʌɲoʌn |ɛɲana|nʌːnʌ | | | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-n-/_i**|**n ɲ** |**ɲ**|**ɲ** |**n** |**n ndʒ** | |take |*ʉni- |m-ʉnin- | | |m-ʉnɛ- |m-ʉndʒ- | |shoot|*Vŋgʉni- |kʉni- (?)| | | | | |give |*aniŋ- |aɲiŋ- |ɲ- |ɛɲ- |ɛnʉŋ- |ɛn- | In two examples where medial /*n/ is followed by /*i/, it is palatalized but not occluded, even though there is no nasal consonant following final /*i/. It is likely that these words were originally compounds: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-n-/_i**|**ɲ** |**ɲ**|**ɲ** |**ɲ** |**ɲ** | |1 pl.|*ani |aɲi |ɛɲɛ |ɛɲə |ɛɲi |aɲʉ | |2 pl.|*uni |ɲi |iɲi |iɲᵊ |ɲiu |ɲʊ | …[ɲ] …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-n-** |**ɲ** |**** |**ɲ** |**Ø** |**Ø** | |two|*uŋani (?)|ŋʊɲi | |ŋuʌːɲa|ŋ̩ueː pʌɪ|ŋʷɛe-pai | Medial velar nasal /*ŋ/ when it is not followed by another nasal consonant /*m *n *ŋ/ is occluded to prenasalized voiced stop /ŋg/ outside of Akrukay. It has not been found either preceded or followed by high fton vowel /*i/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-ŋ-** |**ŋ** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** | |branch |*aŋak | |aŋka (?)|aŋk- (?)| | | |tie |*-ʉŋʉ- |m-ʉŋʉ- |ŋgə-k- |ŋgʉ-t- |m-ʉŋgʉ-|m-ʉŋgʉ- | |pull |*-ʉŋʉ- |m-ʉŋʉ- | | |m-ʉŋgʉ-|m-ʉŋgʉ- | |face |*uŋak |ŋʊwʊkʊ | |ɔˑŋgɔ |ŋgʷʌka |ŋgaka | |spear |*uŋak |ŋuʌk |ɔŋgˈno |oŋgo |ŋgʷʌ | | |chop/fell|*uŋu- |m-uŋu- | | |m-uŋgu-|mb-uŋgu- | In one example, medial /*ŋ/ is assimilated to apical [n] in Breri and Romkun when in a cluster with the reflex of final /*s/ (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-ŋVs** |**ŋVje**|**nsV**|**nʒV**|**ŋgVi**|**ŋgVi** | |sugarcane|*uŋʉs |ŋʊje |ʊnsʊ |ʊnʒu |oŋgʊi |oŋgəɪ | … /*ŋ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-ŋ-** |**mM** |**ŋ ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg [ŋg ŋk]**|**ŋg** | |tail|*aŋu |amMʊ |ɔŋo ~ oŋgo|ŋgʷatsa|ŋgo ~ ŋkə |aŋgo | When medial /*ŋ/ is immediately followed by a nasal /*m *n *ŋ/ either in the onset of the next syllable or finally, occlusion does not occur: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri |Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-ŋ-/_VN**|**ŋ** |**** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** | |crayfish|*aŋun |aŋʊnʊ | |ʉŋʉn |aŋʊn-ɛma|aŋʊn-ema | |two |*uŋani (?) |ŋʊɲi | |ŋuʌːɲa|ŋ̩ueː |ŋʷɛe- | |man |*uwaŋʉn | |ʊwɛŋɛne|ɛŋənʉ |waŋʌna |waŋᵊna | … /*ŋ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri |Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-ŋ-/_VN**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |new/unripe|*aŋʉmVŋ |aŋmaŋ |ɛnɪmŋɪ|anɨmũ |aŋamʉn-|aŋamʉŋ- | Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-p-** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** | |wallaby |*ipʉr |pr̩ᵊ |ipi |ipɨ |ípra |ɛpʉra | |sit |*ipʉr- | | |ip- |ipʉ- |ɛp(ʉ)r̃- | |nose |*ipa |pʌ |p-ʉːsgrʉ |p-ʉskŋə|ipʌ |ʉpʌ | |shoot |*[ʉ/u]p[ʉ/u]-|pu- |əpə-g-ʉpə-g-|m-up- |pʉ- |pʉ- | |be full |*api- |c-ʌpɪ |ts-ɛp- |tʃ-ɛpɪ-|wapi- |apia- | |father |*apʉk | | | |ʌpᵊk | | |arm/hand|*apar |apʌr |ap- |ʌpr̃ʌ |apara ~ ap-|apara ~ ap-| |straight|*ap[ʉ/u]m |apm(o)-|ɛpm- |ɛpm- |apuʌ |apumua | |leaf |*apar |apař |apa |apra |apʌra | | |mountain|*upuɣ | |ʊpʊgʊ |ʊpʊ | | | Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-t-** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |knee |*itup |tʊa- |ɪtʉwʌ- |tuwʌ- |tuβʌ ~ ʊtʊwa |ʊtʊwa ~ ʊtʊβa| |cut/chop |*ʉtʉ- | |m-ɪr-k-|m-ʉr-k- |m-ʉtʉ- |m-ʉtʉ-tʉ- | |short/piece|*atʉp |tʊə | | |atʉβa ~ ʌtʉβa| | |black/blue |*utʉm |pMu |ʊːtmʊ |utMʊ ~ ʊtMʉ |otuma ~ atuma|ɔtɨma | |path |*utaɣ | | | |ʊtʌ |otʌ | |roast |*utu- |m-utʉt-| | |utu- |m-otu- | |fill |*[u]tu- | |tu- |ot- ~ otp- |tuawa- |tuawa- | |kunai grass|*utumʉn | |ʊtᶷmɔno|uːtubunu [sic]|tumna |tʊmʊna | |hear/know |*ukat- | | | |kʷʌt(o)- |(u)kʷʌtu- | When /*t/ is followed by velar nasal /*ŋ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-t-/V_Vŋ**|**kŋ** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |flying fox |*utʉŋ |rʊkŋʊ | |urkŋʊ |otʉŋa |otʉŋa | |top (of tree)|*utuŋ | | | |utuŋi |ʊtʊŋi | As with all cluster formation, this does not occur in Akrukay if the second vowel is low central /*a/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri |Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-t-/V_aŋ**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |wooden plate|*utaŋ |tʊaŋ |ɔːr̃kŋo|orkŋo |utuʌ̃ |ʊtʊã | When postthematic /*t/ is followed by final /*k/, …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-tVk** |**rVk rk k** |**rVkV rkV** |**rkV tV rV** |**tVkV rVkV** |**tVkV rkV** | |skin/bark|*inatʉk |nɪar̃k~ɲark~ɲak|ɲtsɛːr̃kɛ ~\\ insɛr̃kɛ|ɛnʒɛr̃kʌ ~\\ ɛnʒatiɛ|nzʌːtʉga ~\\ nzʌtəga|ndʒɛatʉga ~\\ intsatʉga| |finger |*aŋgVtʉk | | | |ŋkrʉka | | |vine |*aŋgatʉk |aŋgə- |ŋgə- | |aŋgʌraka |aŋgarka | |stone |*aɣut[a/u]k|ʌːgʊrʌg |ogr̃ʊgʊ |oʊgʊr̃ʊ |agrʊkʌ |aɣʊrkʷa | … /*s/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-s-** |**c** |**t**|**t** |**ts** |**c** | |g-string|*asam |acam ~ acʌm|ʌ́tma|ɛtMa |atsʌma |acama | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri |Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-s-** |**Ø** |**s** |**s** |**ts** |**ts** | |cough |*isi[ŋ] | |ətsiŋ-|(ɛ)cɛ-|itseː(n)-|ice- | |get up |*isʉ- |ci-k- |tsi-g-|ic- |tsᵊ- |icʉ- | |be cooked |*isʉ- | | |tʃʌ- |tsɨ- |c-icʉ- | |snake |*[i]s[ʉ/u]k|jiːkʊ |ʊskʊ |isk̩u |otsʉga |ɔtsʉga | |spirit sp.|*asʉŋ | | | |atsʉŋa |atsɨŋa | |crocodile |*asik |aikə |eski |ɛskʉ |atsʉga |atsʉga | |go up |*usi- |ci-t- | | |utsɛ- |oce- | Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-k-** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k [k g Ø]** |**k [k g]** | |weep/cry |*iki- |ki-p- |iki-g- |k- | |ekʉ- | |talk to |*ʉkʉ- |kʉ-p- |kə-g- |k- |kʉ- |kʉ- | |throw |*ʉkaw- | |okp- ~ okɔ-|okʷ- ~ kʷ-|kaβ- |kawa- | |heavy |*ʉkʉrʉk |kṛʉṛkʉ |kʉrkʉ |kɨrkɨ | | | |cassowary |*andʉkam |ankam | |kʌːma |antʉgʉma |antʉgama | |bury |*akʉ- |ʌkʌ- |əkə- | |-(ʌ)ːkə-- |-(ʌ)ːkʉ- | |this/here |*aka |ka |akə |ʌka | | | |mouth/speech|*akam |aːkam | |kʌma |akama\\ ~ akʌma~akʌm|akama ~ akam| |speak |*akam- |akʌːmɔ-|akm- |akaw- |akʌm- |akʌmʉ- | |sing |*aku- |aku-p- |ku-g- |-ku- |m-aku(w)- |aku- | |arm |*akur | | | |ʌkurʌ |akʊrʊa | |hear/know |*ukat- | | | |kʷʌt(o)- |(u)kʷʌtu- | |rat |*ukara |krʌ- |ʌkr̃a |ʌkra |okʌra |okʌra | |1 sg. |*uku |kʊ | |uku | | | |dig |*uku- | |kuː-g- |ukw- |ku- |ku- | When medial /*k/ is … it is realized as a laminal affricate [ts tʃ s] in Breri and Romkun. It's not clear whether this is synchronically distinct from the reflexes of /*s/ (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-k-/i_** |**k** |**s** |**tʃ** |**k** |**k** | |tree |*ika |kʌ- |eːsi |itʃə |kʌ |kʌ ~ -ika | | |***-k-/_Vj**|**k** |**ts**|**ts** |**k** |**k** | |egg |*akij |aki ~ akije|ets- |etsɪ ~ ətsɪ|ʌkəɪ |akeɪka | |smoke|*ukaj |wʊoki |tsʊ |tsʌ- |ukuja |kɨja | When medial /*k/ is followed by final /*m/, it tends in Akrukay, Breri and Romkun to form a cluster with /*m/, which is then appended with a copy vowel: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-kVm** |**pMV**|**pMV**|**kmV kV**|**kVmV**|**kVmV** | |penis|*ʉkʉm |p̀Mʉ |ǐpMʉ |ʊkmʊ |kəma |ɨkɨma | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-k-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |betel pepper|*ukam |ʌkʷʌm |ɔko |ɔgmɔ |okʌma |okama | |bamboo |*ukam | |ɔko |okMo |kʷʌma |kʷama | |ear |*ukar |koʌr |okɔ- |ɔkrɔ |ʊwʌra (?)|ʊkʊʌra | Medial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ is devoiced to [mp] in Itutang and Midsivindi and sometimes in Breri and Romkun, remaining distinct from the occluded [mb] reflexes of /*m/ (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-mb-** |**mb** |**mp [mp mb]**|**mp [mp mb b]**|**mp [mp mb]**|**mp [mp p]**| |walk |*imbiɣar- | |impign- |mpʌːr- |mpi(g)ara- |mpiar- | |stick (n.) |*ʉmbʉn |mbʉn-ʌːt | |ʊmbr̃ʊ |mpəna |pʉna | |canoe |*ʉmbar |bʌr |ɔmpo |ɔnto ~ ɔnpo |mpʌra |pʌra | |fence |*ambʉ |ʌmbᵊ |ɛmpʉ ~ əmpʉ |ɛmpʉ | | | |stand |*[a]mbʉ- | | |umpʷ- |mpʉ- |mpʉ- | |big |*ambʉk | | | |ampʉga |ampʉga | |neck/throat|*ambʉn |ambʉn |mbon-ombono |mro-mbro |(a)mpʉna |(a)mpʉna | |men's house|*ambʉɣ |ʌmbʊgᵊ\\ ~ ambʉgʉ |ɛmpʉgʉ |əmpʉ |ʌmpʉ |ampɨ ~ ampʉ | |head |*amban |amban |ambᵊna |ambr̃ʌ |ampʌna |ampana | |tanget |*ambaŋ | |amŋa | | | | |thigh |*ambun |aːmbʊn-ʌːt ~\\ ambʊan|ombʊn-ot |br̃ɔt | |ompana | |go inside |*ambuk- |ambʉgʉ- |umk- (?) | |umpu(t)- |ompʉ- | |chicken |*umbar |ambr(o)- |ɔmpo |ɔmpɔ |ʊmpʌra |ompar̃a | When medial /*mb/ is followed by final /*m/, it tends in Akrukay, Breri and Romkun to form a cluster with /*m/, which is then appended with a vowel: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-mbVm**|**mpMV**|**nmV (?)**|**mMV**|**mpVm** |**mpVm** | |branch |*Vmbum | | | |mpuma |mpʊmʊa | |hand drum|*umbum |ḿpMʊ |inmʉ (?) |ʊmMʊ |mpuma |ʊmpʊmʊa | |upper leg|*umbum | | |ʊmMʊ |mpʊma ~\\ mpʊmʌ|mpʊmʊa ~\\ pʊmʊa| Medial apical prenasalized voiced stop /*nd/ … : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-nd-** |**nd** |**nd [nt]**|**** |**nd [nt]** |**nd [nt]** | |upper leg |*[i]nd[ʉ/u]p |ndʉwʉ |ɪntʉbʊ | | | | |think |*ʉndʉŋ-ʉndʉŋ-|ts-intʉ-nt-|n̩tigintig-| |tʉŋ-tʉŋ- |ntʉŋ-tʉŋ- | |root |*ʉndʉr |ndrə |intʉ |ʉntɨ |n̩tərʌ |ʌntɨr̃- | |that/there |*andʉ |andʉ | | |tʉ ~ antʉ-n |ãntʉ ~ ʌntʉ-n| |cassowary |*andʉkam |ankam | |kʌːma |antʉgʉma |antʉgama | |tooth |*andar |andʌr |ʌˑntr̃ʌ | |antʌrɨ |antʌrʉ | |dry |*andurak |atuʌrk (?) | |(a)ntʌrka| |andʌr βa- | |bow string |*undam |andʊam |-onmo |onMo |ontʌma | | |tree possum|*undan |andʊan | |ɔndrɔ |amtʌna [sic]|antana | |fence |*unduŋ | | | |ntʊŋa |ʊntʊŋʷa | When medial /*nd/ is followed by final nasals /*m *ŋ/, it tends in Akrukay, Breri and Romkun to form a cluster with the final nasal, which is then appended with a vowel in Akrikay as well as in other descendants where one would be appended anyway (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-ndVm**|**** |**nmV**|**nMV**|**ntVmV**|**ntVmV** | |stump |*undum | |ʊnmʊ |ʊnMʊ |ntumʌ |ntʊmʊa | | |***-ndVŋ**|**nŋV**|**kŋV**|**** |**ntVŋV**|**ntVŋV** | |younger brother|*[i]ndʉŋ |ʌːnŋᵊ |íˑkŋ- | |antəŋa |ʌntɨŋai | One puzzling example is known to have medial /*nd/ in other Ramu subfamilies which is likewise followed by voiceless velar stop /*k/; it seems probable that Z'graggen's Akrukay and Breri forms are in error: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-ndVk**|**nVk (?)**|**mk (?)**|**nk**|**nt** |**** | |arrow sp.|*indʉk |nʉkʉ |ímkí (?) |inkʉ |ɪntí | | Medial laminal prenasalized voiced /*ndz/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-ndz-**|**nc nts** |**nts**|**nts** |**nts** |**nts nc**| |plant (v.) |*indzi- |ci-nd- |tsi-g- | |m-əntsɨ- |inc- | |left (side)|*indzʉn |ɪncɪna |ǹtsin- |ntsɛn- |ɪntsᵊn(a)-|ɛːntsʉnɪ | |flame |*indzʉk |ɪnts̩kʉ | | |ntsʉga | | |salt |*ʉndzaŋ |dʒaŋ-dʒaŋ (?)| | | | | |be in pain |*andzʉ- | |ɛntsi- |ɛnʒ- ~ zi-|anzʉ |-anʒʉ | |carry |*andzʉr- |-ndʒuru- |antsur-|ɛnʒ- |antsur- |ancʉru- | |sago |*andzʉɣ |ʌncɨgɨ |ɛntsigi|ɛntsʉ |antsʉ |ʌntsʉ | |sap |*andzaɣar | |askra |nʒagʌːr̃a | |andʒar | |breast |*undzʉɣ |ncʊgʊ |ʊntsʊgʊ|n̩tsʊ |ʊntsɪ |ontsʉ | Medial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ is usually devoiced to [ŋk] in Itutang and Midsivindi and sometimes in Breri and Romkun: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-ŋg-** |**ŋg** |**ŋk [ŋk ŋg]**|**ŋk [ŋk ŋg k]**|**ŋk [ŋk ŋg]**|**ŋk [ŋk ŋg k]**| |navel |*ijʉrʉŋgʉn |inaŋgʉnʊ |ísiŋiŋgíni |izʉŋgr̃ʉ |zənʉkʌna |iʒʉrʉŋkʉna | |testicle(s) |*ʉŋgʉn |ŋgʉri |iŋkr̃ʉ |ŋ̩krɨ |ŋkʉrʉ |ŋkʉna | |see/know |*ʉŋgʉn- |gʉna- ~ m-uŋgʉnᵊ-| | |ŋkʉn- |m-ʉŋkʉn- | |shoot |*Vŋgʉni- |kʉni- (?) | | | | | |village |*ʉŋgʉɣ |ŋgʉgʉ |ɪŋkʉ |ɨŋkɨ |ŋ̩kə |ɨŋkɨ | |be blind/deaf|*ʉŋgʉ- | |ŋkʉ-g- |tʃ-ikɨ(s)- |ts-ʉŋku- | | |sand |*Vŋgʉr[ʉ]a[n/ŋ]|ŋgʉrʌŋ |ŋkrɪɲi |krʌːŋʌ |kʉŋ-kʉrʉna |krʉna | |1 dl. |*aŋgʉ |aŋgᵊ |ʌkʌ- |aŋg- |aŋgʉ |akᵊ | |banana |*aŋgʉn |aŋgɨn |ɛŋgini |ɛŋgr̃ʉ |aŋkʉna |aŋkʉna | |finger |*aŋgVtʉk | | | |ŋkrʉka | | |vine |*aŋgatʉk |aŋgə- |ŋgə- | |aŋgʌraka |aŋgarka | |leg |*aŋgar |aŋgʌr |aŋka |aŋkra- |aŋkʌra ~ kʌra |aŋkara | |sleep |*aŋgu- |aŋgu- |oŋku- |ŋku- ~ aŋkʷ- |aŋko- |aŋko- | |mosquito |*aŋgun |aŋgʊnʊ |ɔŋgʊnʊ |ɔŋgr̃u |aŋkunʷa |aŋkʊnʊa | |nape |*aruŋgan | | | |rʊŋkʌna |rʊːŋkɨna | |make bow |*[a]ŋgu[r]- | |uŋgu-g- |ŋgu- | |m-aŋkʉr- | |SE. monsoon |*aɣarʉŋg |grʌ-ːʉŋk | | |ɣʌr-ʉŋkʉ | | |arrow sp. |*uŋgan |aŋgʊʌnᵅ |oŋgona |oŋgro |ʊŋkʌna |oŋkʌna ~ okana | |slit drum |*uŋgan |gʊʌn |oŋgˈno |ɔngrɔ |uŋkʷʌna |ʊŋʷʌna | |bird |*uŋgarak |ŋgarag ~oŋgrag |ŋkʌːga |ʌŋka |oŋkʌraka |oŋkareka | |2 dl. |*uŋgu |ŋgu | |oŋgʷ- |ŋgu | | |kill |*uŋgu- | | |ŋgw- |ŋku- | | |belly |*uŋgun | |ʊŋgʊnʊ |ʊŋgr̃ʊ | |ŋkʊnʊa | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-ŋgVm-**|**m** |**** |**** |**ŋkVm**|**** | |cut (grass)|*aŋgum- |amu- | | |aŋkomo- | | Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ tends to be occluded to [β] in all descendants except Akrukay: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-w-** |**w [w β]**|**w [β w]** |**w [β]** |**w [β w]**|**w [w β bʷ v]**| |hair/feather|*iwi |wʊŋan |iw-ŋini |í:βɪ ~iβi ~iβí ~iβɪ|iβí ~ íβi |βí ~ ɨbi | |sky/cloud |*iwi | |íβi- | |uβí |ʊβi ~ ɨbʷí | |blow (fire) |*iwi- |wi- |iβi-g- |iβ- |bi- |m-uβi-- | |fly (n.) |*iwirʉ[a][ŋ/k]|ẁrʌ́g |iβrigi ~ iβŋini|iβrʉŋʉ |ʊβrʉka |vrʉka | |throw |*ʉkaw- | |okp- ~ okɔ- |okʷ- ~ kʷ- |kaβ- |kawa- | |buttocks |*Vwin | | |ɛpr̃a |iβina |ʊβːina | |sharp |*awin | |ɛbɛnɛ |ɛbrɨri ~ɛb̵ur(ʌ) |aβena |aβɪnᵊ ~ aβɛna | |fingernail |*awik |awiag |ɛβkɛ |ɛβʊɣa |βía |wia | |go down |*awʉ- |awə- |ɛb- |wʉt- |abu- |aβə- | |rain |*awʉn |ʌːwᶶnə |ɛwʉ̆ni |ɛwrə |aβəna |ʌβʉna | |ashes |*awʉj |-ʌːwi |iβí- |ɛːβʉ |aβuja |aβiʒa | |bone |*awaŋ |awaŋ |ʌːβŋa |ʌːβŋʌ ~ ʌːwŋʌ |aβa |aβa | |wing |*awʉ[k] | |ɛwʉ- |ɛβ- |aβə |awʊ- | |yesterday |*uwis |uβije |ɔβɛs- |ɛβɛs- |oβe- |oβe | |coconut |*uwaŋ |wʌŋ |owʊŋo |ɔːβɔŋo |ʊwʌ̃ |ʉwa | |man |*uwaŋʉn | |ʊwɛŋɛne |ɛŋənʉ |waŋʌna |waŋᵊna | |swell |*uwa- |wʉa- |oβu-g- |oβ- |βa-g- |wa- | |old |*uwuk |uwuku |ubku |ubku ~ ʊpkʊ | | | Medial apical non-stop /*r/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-r-** |**r** |**r** |**r** |**r** |**r** | |walk |*imbiɣar- | |impign- (?) |mpʌːr- |mpi(g)ara-|mpiar- | |fall down |*irʉ- | | | |irʉ- |ɛrʉ- | |swim |*irʉ- |rʉi- | | |rʉ- |c-irʉ- | |lip(s) |*irʉp |lʊw- |irw- |ɨrɨvə | | | |blood/sap |*irʉ[n/ŋ] |rʉŋʉ ~ r̩ŋə ~ r̩ŋ|iːr̃i |ɪnnʉ ~ iʔnə|ɪrəna |eːri | |moon |*irʉɣ |rʉgᶶ |iːr̃ɪgí |ʉrɨ |erʉ |eirʉ | |armpit |*irak(-siŋ) | |isri (?) |r̃ɪʌːk-ma |ʉrʉ |ʉrʉtsiŋ | |fly (n.) |*iwirʉ[a][ŋ/k] |ẁrʌ́g |iβrigi ~ iβŋini|iβrʉŋʉ |ʊβrʉka |vrʉka | |liver |*ijaram |irʌm |í:srama |idɬʌma |zərʌma | | |star |*iɣarak |gʌːrk |ʌgr̃ʌga |ʌgarʌ |zɛrʉka |iʒerka | |laugh |*ʉmir- | |m̩br- | |ts-ʉmbɪr- |c-imbʉru- | |heavy |*ʉkʉrʉk |kṛʉṛkʉ |kʉrkʉ |kɨrkɨ | | | |fly (v.) |*ʉɣʉr- |gʉr- | | |ʉgʉ- (?) | | |sand |*Vŋgʉr[ʉ]a[n/ŋ]|ŋgʉrʌŋ |ŋkrɪɲi |krʌːŋʌ |kʉŋ-kʉrʉna|krʉna | |lime |*VrV[k] |ʌrɪ | |ɛuru |írʉga |ɛrʉga | |dry |*andurak |atuʌrk (?) | |(a)ntʌrka | |andʌr βa- | |carry |*andzʉr- |-ndʒuru- |antsur- |ɛnʒ- |antsur- |ancʉru- | |dog |*arʉj |ʌːrʉ |ɛːr̃ɨ |ɛrʉ |ʌrɪga |aría ~ aríaʒa| |good |*ara[p] |ʌrʌ |ʌr̃ʌ | |arʌ |arawa- | |nape |*aruŋgan | | | |rʊŋkʌna |rʊːŋkɨna | |SE. monsoon |*aɣarʉŋg |grʌ-ʉŋk | | |ɣʌrʉŋkʉ | | |fear (v.) |*unar- |nar- |andr- |ʌndr- |undʌr- |ondʌr- | |rat |*ukara |krʌ- |ʌkr̃a |ʌkra |okʌra |okʌra | |forest |*ura |aroa |ɔr̃o |ɔr̃o |orʌ |oːr̃ʌ | |wash |*ura- |ar-or- |orog- |or- |ra- |ora- | |bathe |*ura- |nje-ar-oar- |ts-or-g- | |ts-ora- |c-orʌ- | |two days ago|*uras | |arʌːs-kŋᵉ |orʌːs-kŋa |uraɪ |oraj | |long |*urar |arua |or̃ɔt-mo |orɔt-mo |orʌra |orara | When medial /*r/ is followed by final bilabial nasal /*m/, it tends in Akrukay, Breri and Romkun to form a cluster with /*m *ŋ/, which is then appended with a vowel: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-rVm** |**tMV nMV**|**tmV** |**nmV**|**rVmV**|**rVmV [r n]**| |dream|*irʉm |ətMa |iːdm(u)-|n̩m(a)-|ɛrʉm(a)-|eːrəma | |cane |*arʉm |ʌːtMə |eːtmᵉ |ɛnMə |arəma |ʉnʉma ~arʉma | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-rVm** |**rVm**|**tmV**|**nmV**|**rVmV**|**rVmV** | |pig|*ʉram |ram |ɔːtmo |ɔnmo |rʌma |rama | One example of /*rVm/ though found also in Igom-Tanggu is attested only in Akrukay [dʒandʒaŋ ʌːnMo] "sea" and is probably a loan from Sogeram River /*arum/ "big, old" (q.v. Daniels 2010: 186): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-m/…-**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |big|*arum |ʌːnMo | | | | | One example of medial /*r/ followed by final velar nasal /*ŋ/ forms clusters in Breri and Romkun but not in Akrukay: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-rVŋ** |**rVŋV**|**gŋV**|**ŋV**|**rVŋV**|**rŋV** | |yam|*urʉŋ |rʊŋʊ |ʊgŋʊ |ʊŋʊ |oruŋa |ɔːrŋa | When medial /*r/ occurs postthematically, it tends to form a cluster with the consonant in the onset of the preceding syllable, sometimes resulting in the loss of [r] in Breri and Romkun: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-r-** |**r [r Ø]** |**r [r Ø]**|**r [r Ø]** |**r** |**r** | |eye |*amʉrʉk |amᵒrʌgᵓ |ɛmbr̃ʉgʉ |əmbr̃ɨ ~ ɛmbr̃-|ɛmbrʉka |ambɨrika | |louse |*am[a]rak |amark |mbʌga |ɔmbrɔ |ambʌraka|ambareka | |bird |*uŋgarak |ŋgarag ~oŋgrag|ŋkʌːga |ʌŋka |oŋkʌraka|oŋkareka | |meat/flesh|*m₂ʉrʉk |mřʌk |mbr̃ʉgʉ |mbrʊ |mbrəka |mbr̃ʉka | |ancestor |*m₂aru[a]p₂|mʌːrʊp |ombrɔwo |mbr̃oβo |mbʌrpa |mbarpa | Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ is occluded and aspirated to [s] in Breri, where it merges with the reflexes of /*s/, and occluded to [z ʒ] in Romkun, Itutang and Midsivindi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-j-** |**j [j i]** |**s** |**j [s z ʒ i]**|**j [z ʒ]**|**j [ʒ]** | |navel |*ijʉrʉŋgʉn |inaŋgʉnʊ |ísiŋiŋgíni |izʉŋgr̃ʉ |zənʉkʌna |iʒʉrʉŋkʉna| |no |*ijʉk | |iski |íːskɨ |zʉgʌ | | |name |*ijʉɣ |jigʉ |isigi |ɪʒʊ |zʉ |ʒʉ | |white |*ija | | | |zʌ |izea | |forehead |*ijap |iʌβ |ɛsɪwɛ |ɛːw- |zʌβa |iʒaβa | |liver |*ijaram |irʌm |í:srama |idɬʌma |zərʌma | | |bean |*aj[i/ʉ][ŋan]|aiŋan | | |azʉŋna |ʌːʒi | |knife |*ajʉm | | | |azɪma |ajʉma | |fish |*ajʉk | | | |ʌzʉga |aʒʉga | |fat/grease|*ajuɣ |ajugʉ ~ aɪjigᶶ|ɛsɪgi ~ esigi|ɛːʒʊ ~ ɛʒʊ |aʒə ~ azʉ |ʌʒi ~ aʒʉ | |buy |*ujʉ[ɣ]- | | | |ozo |oʒo- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-jVm** |**nVm** |**pmV**|**mV**|**nVmV [ɲ]**|**** | |sore (n.)|*ijim |nim-əkŋi|íːpmɪ |íːmə |ɲɪma | | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-jVm** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |knife|*ajʉm | | | |azɪma |ajʉma | Medial velar non-stop /*ɣ/ is usually occluded to [g] in all descendants except Midsivindi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-ɣ-** |**ɣ [g ɣ]**|**g [g k]**|**ɣ [g ɣ Ø]**|**ɣ [g ɣ]** |**ɣ [ɣ g Ø]** | |walk |*imbiɣar- | |impign- |mpʌːr- |mpi(g)ara- |mpiar- | |fog |*iɣu[ɣ] | |uːgʊ | |íːgwʌ | | |look for |*[ʉ]ɣan- |gaŋ- |gʌna- |gʌna- | | | |fly (v.) |*ʉɣʉr- |gʉr- | | |ʉgʉ- | | |sap |*andzaɣar | |askra |nʒagʌːr̃a | |andʒar | |go outside |*aɣʉ- | |æg- | |agʉ- |agu- | |red |*aɣʉp | |ɛːβə |ɛβʉ- |ʌɣʉβʌ |ʌɣʉβa | |back/spine |*aɣʉ… |ak̯ŋan | | |ag̵ʉŋkɨna\\ ~ agʉŋkʌna|ʌːg̵ʉnta | |sun |*aɣar |ɣʌːr |ʌgʌ |ʌːɣa |ɣʌra |ɣara | |SE. monsoon|*aɣarʉŋg |grʌːʉŋk | | |ɣʌrʉŋkʉ | | |stone |*aɣut[a/u]k|ʌːgʊrʌg |ogr̃ʊgʊ |oʊgʊr̃ʊ |agrʊkʌ |aɣʊrkʷa | |river |*aɣur | |ɔgo |oʊwo |ogu- | | |salt |*aɣur | |agr̃ʌ-gr̃ʌ | | |aɣor-ma ~\\ aʊgor-ma| |pandanus |*uɣij |g:í | | |oʒɪka |oːgiʒa | … /*ɣ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-ɣVm** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |right (arm) |*uɣVm |oːbMo |ugmɔː- | |uɣumi |ʊɣʊmɪ | |night |*uɣum |moː |ubm- |umMu ~ umu-|uɣuma ~ ugum-|uɣuma ~ umʌ-| | |***-ɣVŋ** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |after/behind|*[i/ʉ]ɣʉŋ |ʉgŋʉ |íːgŋi ~ əːgŋi|íŋɨ | | | | |***-ɣVp** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |red |*aɣʉp | |ɛːβə |ɛβʉ- |ʌɣʉβʌ |ʌɣʉβa | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-ɣVn** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |net bag|*aɣan |agʌn |aŋᵊna|ʌna |aɣʌna ~ agʌna|aɣana | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-ɣ-/…**|**g** |**g** |**g** |**z** |**ʒ** | |star|*iɣarak |gʌːrk |ʌgr̃ʌga|ʌgarʌ |zɛrʉka |iʒerka | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-ɣ-/u_u**|**g** |**g**|**ɣ** |**β** |**β** | |fire|*uɣu |ʊgʊ |ʊgʊ |ʊɣʊ |uβo |ʊβʊ | In one example, medial /*ɣ/ is lost in Breri and Romkun when in a cluster with the reflex of final /*s/ (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-ɣVs** |**gVje**|**sV**|**zV**|**gi** |**gVi** | |firewood|*aɣʉs |ʌgije |eːsi |ɛːɪzə |ʌgɪ |ʌgɨ̀i | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-(ɣ)(-)**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |vomit |*imi- |c-imea |ts-ɛmbə-g-|ts-ɛmbu |mbeː-g- |mbe- | |get up |*isʉ- |ci-k- |tsi-g- |ic- |tsᵊ- |icʉ- | |plant (v.) |*indzi- |ci-nd- |tsi-g- | |m-əntsɨ- |inc- | |weep/cry |*iki- |ki-p-- |iki-g- |k- | |ekʉ- | |blow (fire) |*iwi- |wi- |iβi-g- |iβ- |bi- |m-uβi-- | |be blind/deaf|*ʉŋgʉ- | |ŋkʉ-g- |tʃ-ikɨ(s)- |ts-ʉŋku- | | |talk to |*ʉkʉ- |kʉ-p- |kə-g- |k- |kʉ- |kʉ- | |eat/drink |*ama- |ama- |mba-g- |m- (?) |ʌm- ~ ʌmba-|m-amba- | |boil (v.) |*ama- | |ts-əmba-g-|ts-am(bʌ-k)-|ts-amba- | | |sing |*aku- |aku-p- |ku-g- |-ku- |m-aku(w)- |aku- | |dig |*uku- | |kuː-g- |ukʷ- |ku- |ku- | |swell |*uwa- |wʉa- |oβu-g- |oβ- |βa-g- |wa- | |wash |*ura- |ar-or- |oro-g- |or- |ra- |ora- | |bathe |*ura- |nje-ar-oar-|ts-or-g- | |ts-ora- |c-orʌ- | |buy |*ujʉ[ɣ]- | | | |ozo |oʒo- | Only a restricted set of consonants occurs finally. This set includes nasals /*m *n *ŋ/, voiceless stops /*p *s *k/ and non-stops /*r *j *ɣ/.\\ \\ Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants, with a vowel appended in all except Akrukay: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-m** |**m** |**mV** |**mV**|**mV** |**mV** | |sore (n.) |*ijim |nim-əkŋi|íːpmɪ |íːmə |ɲɪma | | |liver |*ijaram |irʌm |í:srama|idɬʌma|zərʌma | | |straight |*ap[ʉ/u]m |apm(o)- |ɛpm- |ɛpm- |apuʌ (?) |apumua | |water |*anʉm |ʌːnMə |ɛnmə |ɛnMə |anəma |anʉma | |taro |*anam |anam |ʌːnma |ʌnMa |anʌma |anama | |cassowary |*andʉkam |ankam | |kʌːma |antʉgʉma |antʉgama | |mouth/speech|*akam |aːkam | |kʌma |akama\\ ~ akʌma~akʌm|akama ~ akam| |thatch |*unʉm | | | |onoma |onoma | Akrukay as well appends a vowel to final /*m/ when /*m/ has formed a cluster with a consonant in the onset of the preceding syllable (above.) In these instances /*m/ becomes an sound which in Z'graggen's (1972) vocabularies is given as capital as opposed to regular . No key is given to explain the meaning of this sound, but Brooks (2018: 61, 106) describes Chini [ƥm ƭm] as a prestopped nasal preceded by ingressive voiceless stops, while giving other clusters such as that in "water" as merely (e.g.) . The distinction does not appear to be phonemic. Following Z'graggen's we show this sound in Akrukay, Breri and Romkun as since the international phonestic alphabet lacks any way to symbolize ingressive nasals: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-m/nV_** |**MV** |**mV** |**MV** |**mV** |**mV** | |water |*anʉm |ʌːnMə |ɛnmə |ɛnMə |anəma |anʉma | | |***-m/tV_** |**MV** |**mV** |**MV** |**mV** |**mV** | |black/blue |*utʉm |pMu |ʊːtmʊ |utMʊ ~ ʊtMʉ|otuma ~ atuma |ɔtɨma | | |***-m/kV_** |**MV** |**MV** |**mV** |**mV** |**mV** | |penis |*ʉkʉm |p̀Mʉ |ǐpMʉ |ʊkmʊ |kəma |ɨkɨma | |betel pepper|*ukam |ʌkʷʌm |ɔko |ɔgmɔ |okʌma |okama | |bamboo |*ukam | |ɔko |okMo |kʷʌma |kʷama | | |***-m/mbV_**|**** |**** |**MV** |**mV** |**mV** | |branch |*Vmbum | | | |mpuma |mpʊmʊa | |hand drum |*umbum |ḿpMʊ |inmʉ (?)|ʊmMʊ |mpuma |ʊmpʊmʊa | |upper leg |*umbum | | |ʊmMʊ |mpʊma ~\\ mpʊmʌ|mpʊmʊa ~\\ pʊmʊa| | |***-m/ndV_**|**m** |**mV** |**MV** |**mV** |**mV** | |bow string |*undam |andʊam |-onmo |onMo |ontʌma | | |stump |*undum | |ʊnmʊ |ʊnMʊ |ntumʌ |ntʊmʊa | | |***-m/rV_** |**MV mV**|**mV** |**MV mV** |**mV** |**mV** | |dream |*irʉm |ətMa |iːdm(u)-|n̩m(a)- |ɛrʉm(a)- |eːrəma | |pig |*ʉram |ram |ɔːtmo |ɔnmo |rʌma |rama | |cane |*arʉm |ʌːtMə |eːtmᵉ |ɛnMə |arəma |ʉnʉma ~arʉma | | |***-m/ɣV_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |right (arm) |*uɣVm |oːbMo |ugmɔː- | |uɣumi |ʊɣʊmɪ | |night |*uɣum |moː |ubm- |umMu ~ umu-|uɣuma ~ ugum- |uɣuma ~ umʌ- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-m/…-**|**c** |**t**|**t** |**ts** |**c** | |g-string|*asam |acam ~ acʌm|ʌ́tma|ɛtMa |atsʌma |acama | In a restricted class of monosyllables of the form /*Vn/, Itutang realizes final apical nasal /*n/ as [n] or as [nd] like the medial reflex of /*n/ (above.) Akrukay's second person singular looks to be irregular: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-n/V_**|**n** |**nV**|**nV**|**nV [n nd]**|**nV** | |3 sg.|*an |ʌn |ʌna |ʌna |anʉ ~ andə |anə | |2 sg.|*un |nʊ |ʊnʊ |ʊnʊ |nʊ ~ ndʊ |nʊ | On roots with more than one syllable, final /*n/ is when preceded by a nasal retained as such in all descendants, with a vowel appended in all except Akrukay: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-n/NV_**|**n** |**nV** |**nV** |**nV** |**nV** | |earth/ground|*inuan |ʌɲoʌn |ɛɲana |nʌːnʌ | | | |male |*ʉman |man |ɔmno |omonɔ |mʌna |mana | |crayfish |*aŋun |aŋʊnʊ | |ʉŋʉn |aŋʊn-ɛma|aŋʊn-ema | |kunai grass |*utumʉn | |ʊtᶷmɔno|uːtubunu [sic]|tumna |tʊmʊna | |man |*uwaŋʉn | |ʊwɛŋɛne|ɛŋənʉ |waŋʌna |waŋᵊna | When final /*n/ is preceded by a stop in the onset of the following syllable, it is sometimes realized as apical non-stop [r] and tends form a cluster with the consonant in the onset of the preceding syllable as does final /*r/ in the same environment (below.) This change is invariable only in Romkun: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-n/CV_**|**n nV [n r]** |**nV [n r]**|**rV** |**nV [n r]** |**nV** | |testicle(s)|*Vŋgʉn |ŋgʉri |iŋkr̃ʉ |ŋ̩krɨ |ŋkʉrʉ |ŋkʉna | |navel |*ijʉrʉŋgʉn |inaŋgʉnʊ |ísiŋiŋgíni |izʉŋgr̃ʉ |zənʉkʌna |iʒʉrʉŋkʉna | |stick (n.) |*ʉmbʉn |mbʉn-ʌːt | |ʊmbr̃ʊ |mpəna |pʉna | |buttocks |*Vwin | | |ɛpr̃a |iβina |ʊβːina | |neck/throat|*amb[ʉ/u]n |ambʉn |mbon-ombono |mro-mbro |(a)mpʉna |(a)mpʉna | |head |*amban |amban |ambᵊna |ambr̃ʌ |ampʌna |ampana | |thigh |*ambun |aːmbʊn-ʌːt ~\\ ambʊan|ombʊn-ot |br̃ɔt | |ompana | |banana |*aŋgʉn |aŋgɨn |ɛŋgini |ɛŋgr̃ʉ |aŋkʉna |aŋkʉna | |mosquito |*aŋgun |aŋgʊnʊ |ɔŋgʊnʊ |ɔŋgr̃u |aŋkunʷa |aŋkʊnʊa | |sharp |*awin | |ɛbɛnɛ |ɛbrɨri ~ɛb̵ur(ʌ)|aβena |aβɪnᵊ ~ aβɛna | |rain |*awʉn |ʌːwᶶnə |ɛwʉ̆ni |ɛwrə |aβəna |ʌβʉna | |nape |*aruŋgan | | | |rʊŋkʌna |rʊːŋkɨna | |net bag |*aɣan |agʌn |aŋᵊna |ʌna |aɣʌna ~ agʌna|aɣana | |tree possum|*undan |andʊan | |ɔndrɔ |amtʌna |antana | |arrow sp. |*uŋgan |aŋgʊʌnᵅ |oŋgona |oŋgro |ʊŋkʌna |oŋkʌna ~ okana| |slit drum |*uŋgan |gʊʌn |oŋgˈno |ɔngrɔ |uŋkʷʌna |ʊŋʷʌna | |belly |*uŋgun | |ʊŋgʊnʊ |ʊŋgr̃ʊ | |ŋkʊnʊa | In one example where final /*n/ follows medial /*r/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri|Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-rVn** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |blood/sap|*irʉ[n/ŋ] |rʉŋʉ ~ r̩ŋə ~ r̩ŋ|iːr̃i|ɪnnʉ ~ iʔnə|ɪrəna |eːri | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri |Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-n/ndzV_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |left (side)|*indzʉn |ɪncɪna |ǹtsin-|ntsɛn-|ɪntsᵊn(a)-|ɛːntsʉnɪ | Final velar nasal /*ŋ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***-ŋ** |**ŋ ŋV** |**ŋV** |**ŋV** |**ŋV** |**ŋV** | |bow |*imiŋ |mʊŋᵊ |ɪmŋí ~ ɪmᴵŋ- |imʉ |mɪŋa |miɲa | |leg |*inaŋ | | | |ɲía |n̥ɲa | |stone axe |*inaŋ |anaŋ |ɛniŋɛ | |ɪnʌ |ɛna | |sister |*inumaŋ |nmaŋ |ɪnmʌga |ʊnmʉ |nʊmaŋa |ʊnʊmoŋa | |younger brother|*[i]ndʉŋ |ʌːnŋᵊ |íˑkŋ- | |antəŋa |ʌntɨŋai | |after/behind |*[i/ʉ]ɣʉŋ |ʉgŋʉ |íːgŋi ~ əːgŋi|íŋɨ | | | |think |*ʉndʉŋ-ʉndʉŋ-|ts-intʉ-nt- (?)|n̩tigintig- | |tʉŋ-tʉŋ- |ntʉŋ-tʉŋ- | |salt |*ʉndzaŋ |dʒaŋ-dʒaŋ (?) | | | | | |mother/thumb |*amʉŋ |amʉŋ ~ amʊŋᵊ | | |amʉŋ ~ aməŋa|(a)mʉŋi | |tanget |*ambaŋ | |amŋa | | | | |spirit sp. |*asʉŋ | | | |atsʉŋa |atsɨŋa | |new/unripe |*aŋʉmVŋ |aŋmaŋ |ɛnɪmŋɪ |anɨmũ |aŋamʉn- |aŋamʉŋ- | |bone |*awaŋ |awaŋ |ʌːβŋa |ʌːβŋʌ ~ ʌːwŋʌ|aβa |aβa | |flying fox |*utʉŋ |rʊkŋʊ | |urkŋʊ |otʉŋa |otʉŋa | |wooden plate |*utaŋ |tʊaŋ |ɔːr̃kŋo |orkŋo |utuʌ̃ |ʊtʊã | |fence |*unduŋ | | | |ntʊŋa |ʊntʊŋʷa | |coconut |*uwaŋ |wʌŋ |owʊŋo |ɔːβɔŋo |ʊwʌ̃ |ʉwa | |yam |*urʉŋ |rʊŋʊ |ʊgŋʊ |ʊŋʊ |oruŋa |ɔːrŋa | Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is lenited and deoccluded to bilabial non-stop /w/ [w β] in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-p** |**w wV [w β]**|**wV**|**wV**|**wV [β w]** |**wV [β w]** | |knee |*itup |tʊa- |ɪtʉwʌ-|tuwʌ- |tuβʌ ~ ʊtʊwa |ʊtʊwa ~ ʊtʊβa | |upper leg |*[i]nd[ʉ/u]p|ndʉwʉ |ɪntʉbʊ| | | | |lip(s) |*irʉp |lʊw- |irw- |ɨrɨvə | | | |forehead |*ijap |iʌβ |ɛsɪwɛ |ɛːw- |zʌβa |iʒaβa | |paddle |*anap |anʌb |ʌnbʌ |ʌnbʌ |andʌβa |andʌβa | |shoulder |*anap |anaw |ʌnbʌ | | |andaβa | |short/piece|*atʉp |tʊə | | |atʉβa ~ ʌtʉβa| | |red |*aɣʉp | |ɛːβə |ɛβʉ- |ʌɣʉβʌ |ʌɣʉβa | |ripe |*unup |nduo |unmbú |unbu |nduβu- |unduβua\\ ~ andʊo| One apparent exception to this family-wide lenition is irregular in its initial as well, indicating a Ramu river regional loan (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-p₂** |**p** |**w** |**β** |**p** |**p** | |ancestor|*m₂aru[a]p₂|mʌːrʊp |ombrɔwo|mbr̃oβo|mbʌrpa |mbarpa | Final apical voiceless stop /*t/, if it occured, is not distinguishible from final /*r/ (below.)\\ \\ Final laminal voiceless /*s/ is lenited and deoccluded to palatal non-stop [j] or high front vowel [i] in all descendants, including Breri and Romkun where [s] and [z ʒ] are the regular reflexes of medial /*j/ (above.) This development is shared with Tanguat of the Moam River subgroup to the northeast. In Akrukay, Breri and Romkun it is appended with a vowel. These reflexes are distinct from those of final /*j/ (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-s** |**je** |**sV**|**jV [z ʒ]**|**j [i]**|**j [i ɪ]**| |belly |*inis | |í:nsi |inʒɪ | | | |firewood |*aɣʉs |ʌgije |eːsi |ɛːɪzə |ʌgɪ |ʌgɨ̀i | |stomach |*umus |mije | | |mbí |mbʊɪ | |sugarcane|*uŋʉs |ŋʊje |ʊnsʊ |ʊnʒu |oŋgʊi |oŋgəɪ | … /*s/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-s** |**je** |**s** |**s** |**Ø** |**Ø** | |yesterday |*uwis |uβije |ɔβɛs-kŋe |ɛβɛs-kŋa |oβe- |oβe | |two days ago|*uras | |arʌːs-kŋᵉ|orʌːs-kŋa|uraɪ |oraj | Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-k** |**k kV [k g]** |**kV [k g]** |**kV [k g Ø]** |**kV [k g]** |**kV [k g]** | |skin/bark |*inatʉk |nɪar̃k~ɲark~ɲak|ɲtsɛːr̃kɛ ~\\ insɛr̃kɛ|ɛnʒɛr̃kʌ ~\\ ɛnʒatiɛ|nzʌːtʉga ~\\ nzʌtəga|ndʒɛatʉga ~\\ intsatʉga| |arrow sp. |*indʉk |nʉkʉ |ímkí |inkʉ |ɪntí (?) | | |snake |*[i]s[ʉ/u]k|jiːkʊ |ʊskʊ |isk̩u |otsʉga |ɔtsʉga | |flame |*indzʉk |ɪnts̩kʉ | | |ntsʉga | | |star |*iɣarak |gʌːrk |ʌgr̃ʌga |ʌgarʌ |zɛrʉka |iʒerka | |no |*ijʉk | |iski |íːskɨ |zʉgʌ | | |heavy |*ʉkʉrʉk |kṛʉṛkʉ |kʉrkʉ |kɨrkɨ | | | |heart |*[ʉ/u]nʉk |nʉkʉ | | |ntʉga |ʊntʉga ~ ndʊga | |eye |*amʉrʉk |amᵒrʌgᵓ |ɛmbr̃ʉgʉ |əmbr̃ɨ ~ ɛmbr̃- |ɛmbrʉka |ambɨrika | |louse |*am[a]rak |amark |mbʌga |ɔmbrɔ |ambʌraka |ambareka | |father |*apʉk | | | |ʌpᵊk (?) | | |big |*ambʉk | | | |ampʉga |ampʉga | |dry |*andurak |atuʌrk | |(a)ntʌrka | |andʌr βa- | |crocodile |*asik |aikə |eski |ɛskʉ |atsʉga |atsʉga | |branch |*aŋak | |aŋka |aŋk- | | | |finger |*aŋgVtʉk | | | |ŋkrʉka | | |vine |*aŋgatʉk |aŋgə- |ŋgə- | |aŋgʌraka |aŋgarka | |stone |*aɣut[a/u]k|ʌːgʊrʌg |ogr̃ʊgʊ |oʊgʊr̃ʊ |agrʊkʌ |aɣʊrkʷa | |fish |*ajʉk | | | |ʌzʉga |aʒʉga | |face |*uŋak |ŋʊwʊkʊ | |ɔˑŋgɔ |ŋgʷʌka |ŋgaka | |spear |*uŋak |ŋuʌk |ɔŋgˈno (?) |oŋgo |ŋgʷʌ (?) | | |bird |*uŋgarak |ŋgarag ~oŋgrag |ŋkʌːga |ʌŋka |oŋkʌraka |oŋkareka | |old |*uwuk |uwuku |ubku |ubku ~ ʊpkʊ | | | |meat/flesh|*m₂ʉrʉk |mřʌk |mbr̃ʉgʉ |mbrʊ |mbrəka |mbr̃ʉka | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***-k** |**[g]**|**[kV]**|**[gV]**|**Ø** |**Ø** | |areca nut |*imak |miag |ɛmkɛ |ɛmga |mbía |mbía | |fingernail|*awik |awiag |-ɛβkɛ |ɛβʊɣa |βía |wia | Prenasalized voiced stops /*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg/ do not occur finally.\\ \\ Final apical non-stop /*r/ reflects both Guam and Moam Rivers finals /*t *r/, which are not distinguishable in Guam River. Only found thusfar in disyllabic roots, final /*r/ forms clusters with the consonant in the preceding syllable. in Breri and Romkun and sometimes in Akrukay, often leading to the loss of [r]. Where this occurs in Akrukay, a final vowel is appended as it always is in other descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-CVr** |**CVr** |**CV CrV**|**CrV CV** |**CVrV** |**CVrV** | |wallaby |*ipʉr |pr̩ᵊ |ipi |ipɨ |ípra |ɛpʉra | |canoe |*ʉmbar |bʌr |ɔmpo |ɔnto ~ ɔnpo|mpʌra |pʌra | |leaf |*apar |apař |apa |apra |apʌra | | |arm/hand|*apar |apʌr |ap- |ʌpr̃ʌ |apara ~ ap- |apara ~ ap-| |tooth |*andar |andʌr |ʌˑntr̃ʌ | |antʌrɨ |antʌrʉ | |arm |*akur | | | |ʌkurʌ |akʊrʊa | |leg |*aŋgar |aŋgʌr |aŋka |aŋkra- |aŋkʌra ~ kʌra|aŋkara | |sun |*aɣar |ɣʌːr |ʌgʌ |ʌːɣa |ɣʌra |ɣara | |ear |*ukar |koʌr |okɔ- |ɔkrɔ |ʊwʌra |ʊkʊʌra | |long |*urar |arua (?)|or̃ɔt-mo |orɔt-mo |orʌra |orara | | |***-CVr** |**CrV** |**CV CrV**|**CrV CV** |**CVrV** |**CVrV** | |chicken |*umbar |ambr(o)-|ɔmpo |ɔmpɔ |ʊmpʌra |ompar̃a | |root |*ʉndʉr |ndrə |intʉ |ʉntɨ |n̩tərʌ |ʌntɨr̃- | Final palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri|Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-j** |**Ø** |**Ø**|**Ø** |**ga ka ja**|**ga ʒa ja Ø**| |egg |*akij |aki ~ akije|ets- |etsɪ ~ ətsɪ|ʌkəɪ |akeɪka | |ashes |*awʉj |-ʌːwi |iβí- |ɛːβʉ |aβuja |aβiʒa | |dog |*arʉj |ʌːrʉ |ɛːr̃ɨ|ɛrʉ |ʌrɪga |aría ~ aríaʒa | |smoke |*ukaj |wʊoki |tsʊ |tsʌ- |ukuja |kɨja | |pandanus|*uɣij |g:í | | |oʒɪka |oːgiʒa | Final velar non-stop /*ɣ/ is occluded to [g] and appended with a vowel in Akrukay and in Breri and lost elsewhere else: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-ɣ** |**gV** |**gV** |**Ø** |**Ø** |**Ø** | |tongue |*imʉɣ |mʉgai ~ mʉgᵊ |mbigi |iːmbʉ ~ imbʉ|mbíː ~ mbí|mbʊi | |vulva |*inʉɣ |ɲigʉ |insigi |indʒʉ |nzʉ |ntsʉ | |moon |*irʉɣ |rʉgᶶ |iːr̃ɪgí |ʉrɨ |erʉ |eirʉ | |name |*ijʉɣ |jigʉ |isigi |ɪʒʊ |zʉ |ʒʉ | |village |*ʉŋgʉɣ |ŋgʉgʉ |ɪŋkʉ (?) |ɨŋkɨ |ŋ̩kə |ɨŋkɨ | |men's house|*ambʉɣ |ʌmbʊgᵊ\\ ~ ambʉgʉ|ɛmpʉgʉ |əmpʉ |ʌmpʉ |ampɨ ~ ampʉ| |grass skirt|*amiɣ | |ɛmbigi |ɛːmbʉ | | | |sago |*andzʉɣ |ʌncɨgɨ |ɛntsigi |ɛntsʉ |antsʉ |ʌntsʉ | |fat/grease |*ajuɣ |ajugʉ ~ aɪjigᶶ |ɛsɪgi ~ esigi|ɛːʒʊ ~ ɛʒʊ |aʒə ~ azʉ |ʌʒi ~ aʒʉ | |mountain |*upuɣ | |ʊpʊgʊ |ʊpʊ | | | |one |*unuɣ |nʊwo (?) |ʊndʊgʊ- |ndʊ |ndu |n̩dʊ | |same |*unuɣ |ma-nugu | | |-ndu |m-undu | |path |*utaɣ | | | |ʊtʌ |otʌ | |breast |*undzʉɣ |ncʊgʊ |ʊntsʊgʊ |n̩tsʊ |ʊntsɪ |ontsʉ | One of Z'graggen's examples suggests that final /*ɣ/ is at least sometimes retained in Midsivindi phrases or compounds: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***-ɣ** |**** |**** |**** |**ɣ** |**Ø** | |roof|*ambʉɣ\\ [a]ŋgum| | | |ʌmpʉɣ aŋkʉma|ampɨ aŋkʊma| While Goam River had only four vowels /*i *ʉ *a *u/ and no vowel sequences or diphthongs, these vowels often metathesize between syllables and interactions between them are not straightforwardly segmental. The general rule is that disyllables /*VCVC/ are always metathesized to /*VCCV/ in Breri and Romkun, are never metathesized in Itutang and Midsivindi, and are often but not always metathesized in Akrukay depending upon the qualities of the second vowel and the second consonant.\\ \\ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***iCi** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |urine |*imi |-m- |í:mbi |ɪmbɪ | |mbi | |vomit |*imi- |c-imea |ts-ɛmbə-g-|ts-ɛmbu|mbeː-g- |mbe- | |plant (v.)|*indzi- |ci-nd- |tsi-g- | |m-əntsɨ-|inc- | |weep/cry |*iki- |ki-p- |iki-g- |k- | |ekʉ- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***iwi** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |hair/feather|*iwi |wʊŋan (?)|iw-ŋini |í:βɪ ~iβi ~iβí ~iβɪ|iβí ~ íβi|βí ~ ɨbi | |sky/cloud |*iwi | |íβi- | |uβí |ʊβi ~ ɨbʷí| |blow (fire) |*iwi- |wi- |iβi-g- |iβ- |bi- |m-uβi-- | |fly (n.) |*iwirʉ[a][ŋ/k]|ẁrʌ́g |iβrigi ~ iβŋini|iβrʉŋʉ |ʊβrʉka |vrʉka | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***iCiC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |bow |*imiŋ |mʊŋᵊ |ɪmŋí ~ ɪmᴵŋ-|imʉ |mɪŋa |miɲa | |belly |*inis | |í:nsi |inʒɪ | | | |excrement|*ini[k] |n̯igəti |insɪgími |nʒikə | |n̩zí | |cough |*isi[ŋ] | |ətsiŋ- |(ɛ)cɛ- |itseː(n)- |ice- | |sore (n.)|*ijim |nim-əkŋi|íːpmɪ |íːmə (?)|ɲɪma | | |walk |*imbiɣar- | |impign- |mpʌːr- |mpi(g)ara-|mpiar- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***ʉCʉ** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |cut/chop |*ʉtʉ- | |m-ɪr-k-|m-ʉr-k- |m-ʉtʉ- |m-ʉtʉ-tʉ- | |tie |*ʉŋʉ- |m-ʉŋʉ- |ŋgə-k- |ŋgʉ-t- |m-ʉŋgʉ- |m-ʉŋgʉ- | |pull |*ʉŋʉ- |m-ʉŋʉ- | | |m-ʉŋgʉ- |m-ʉŋgʉ- | |talk to |*ʉkʉ- |kʉ-p- |kə-g- |k- |kʉ- |kʉ- | |be blind/deaf|*ʉŋgʉ- | |ŋkʉ-g- |tʃ-ikɨ(s)-|ts-ʉŋku-| | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***ʉCʉC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |stick (n.) |*ʉmbʉn |mbʉn-ʌːt | |ʊmbr̃ʊ (?)|mpəna |pʉna | |think |*ʉndʉŋ-ʉndʉŋ-|ts-intʉ-nt- (?) |n̩tigintig- (?)| |tʉŋ-tʉŋ- |ntʉŋ-tʉŋ- | |root |*ʉndʉr |ndrə |intʉ |ʉntɨ |n̩tərʌ |ʌntɨr̃- | |penis |*ʉkʉm |p̀Mʉ |ǐpMʉ |ʊkmʊ (?) |kəma |ɨkɨma | |testicle(s)|*ʉŋgʉn |ŋgʉri |iŋkr̃ʉ |ŋ̩krɨ |ŋkʉrʉ |ŋkʉna | |see/know |*ʉŋgʉn- |gʉna- ~ m-uŋgʉnᵊ-| | |ŋkʉn- |m-ʉŋkʉn- | |village |*ʉŋgʉɣ |ŋgʉgʉ |ɪŋkʉ |ɨŋkɨ |ŋ̩kə |ɨŋkɨ | |fly (v.) |*ʉɣʉr- |gʉr- | | |ʉgʉ- (?) | | |heavy |*ʉkʉrʉk |kṛʉṛkʉ |kʉrkʉ |kɨrkɨ | | | |dirty |*ʉnʉk-Vtʉk |nʉgʉ-rk | | |ndʉgɛ-tga|ndʉ-tʉga | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***uC** |**Cu** |**uCu** |**uCu** |**Cu** |**Cu** | |2 sg. |*un |nʊ |ʊnʊ |ʊnʊ |nʊ ~ ndʊ |nʊ | | |***uCu** |**uCu Cu**|**uCu Cu**|**uCu Cu**|**uCu Cu**|**uCu Cu**| |roast |*utu- |m-utʉt- | | |utu- |m-otu- | |chop/fell|*uŋu- |m-uŋu- | | |m-uŋgu- |mb-uŋgu- | |1 sg. |*uku |kʊ | |uku | | | |dig |*uku- | |kuː-g- |ukʷ- |ku- |ku- | |2 dl. |*uŋgu |ŋgu | |oŋgʷ- (?) |ŋgu | | |kill |*uŋgu- | | |ŋgw- |ŋku- | | |fire |*uɣu |ʊgʊ |ʊgʊ |ʊɣʊ |uβo |ʊβʊ | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***uCuC** |**CuCu CuCo**|**uCCu**|**uCCu** |**uCuCa** |**(u)CuCua** | |hand drum |*umbum |ḿpMʊ |inmʉ (?)|ʊmMʊ |mpuma |ʊmpʊmʊa | |ripe |*unup |nduo |unmbú |unbu |nduβu- |unduβua\\ ~ andʊo (?)| |upper leg |*umbum | | |ʊmMʊ |mpʊma ~\\ mpʊmʌ|mpʊmʊa ~\\ pʊmʊa | |one |*unuɣ |nʊwo |ʊndʊ- |ndʊ |ndu |n̩dʊ | |same |*unuɣ |ma-nugu | | |-ndu |m-undu | |fence |*unduŋ | | | |ntʊŋa |ʊntʊŋʷa | |stump |*undum | |ʊnmʊ |ʊnMʊ |ntumʌ |ntʊmʊa | |belly |*uŋgun | |ʊŋgʊnʊ |ʊŋgr̃ʊ | |ŋkʊnʊa | |old |*uwuk |uwuku (?) |ubku |ubku ~ ʊpkʊ | | | | |***uCuC** |**…** |**uCCu**|**uCCu** |**uCuma** |**uCuma** | |night |*uɣum |moː (?) |ubm- |umMu ~ umu- |uɣuma ~ ugum- |uɣuma ~ umʌ- | | |***uCuC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |stomach |*umus |mije | | |mbí |mbʊɪ | |mountain |*upuɣ | |ʊpʊgʊ |ʊpʊ | | | |top (of tree)|*utuŋ | | | |utuŋi |ʊtʊŋi | |kunai grass |*utumʉn | |ʊtᶷmɔno |uːtubunu [sic]|tumna |tʊmʊna | In roots of the form /*Ca/ and /*aCa/, low central vowel /*a/ is retained as such in all descendants, with Z'grggen's [ʌ] representing an allophone of /a/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***Ca** |**Ca** |**** |**** |**Ca** |**** | |3 sg. |*ma |ma- | | |ma | | | |***aCa** |**aCa** |**aCa** |**aCa** |**aCa** |**aCa** | |mami yam |*ama |ama- ~ ʌm|amba |amba |ambʌ |amba | |eat/drink|*ama- |ama- |mba-g- |m- (?) |ʌm- ~ ʌmba-|m-amba- | |boil (v.)|*ama- | |ts-əmba-g-|ts-am(bʌ-k)-|ts-amba- | | |clay pot |*ana |nːʌ |ʌnd- |ʌndʌ |nda |nda | |this/here|*aka |ka |akə |ʌka | | | Roots of the form /*aCaC/ are retained as such in Akrukay and in Inapang and are metathesized to /aCCa/ in Breri and Romkun:: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***aCaC** |**aCaC** |**aCCa**|**aCCa** |**aCaC** |**aCaC** | |arm/hand |*apar |apʌr |ap- |ʌpr̃ʌ |apara ~ ap- |apara ~ ap- | |leaf |*apar |apař |apa |apra |apʌra | | |head |*amban |amban |ambᵊna |ambr̃ʌ |ampʌna |ampana | |tanget |*ambaŋ | |amŋa | | | | |taro |*anam |anam |ʌːnma |ʌnMa |anʌma |anama | |paddle |*anap |anʌb |ʌnbʌ |ʌnbʌ |andʌβa |andʌβa | |shoulder |*anap |anaw |ʌnbʌ | | |andaβa | |tooth |*andar |andʌr |ʌˑntr̃ʌ | |antʌrɨ |antʌrʉ | |g-string |*asam |acam ~ acʌm|ʌ́tma |ɛtMa |atsʌma |acama | |branch |*aŋak | |aŋka |aŋk- | | | |mouth/speech|*akam |aːkam | |kʌma (?) |akama\\ ~ akʌma~akʌm|akama ~ akam| |speak |*akam- |akʌːmɔ- |akm- |akaw- |akʌm- |akʌmʉ- | |leg |*aŋgar |aŋgʌr |aŋka |aŋkra- |aŋkʌra ~ kʌra |aŋkara | |bone |*awaŋ |awaŋ |ʌːβŋa |ʌːβŋʌ ~ ʌːwŋʌ|aβa |aβa | |good |*ara[p] |ʌrʌ |ʌr̃ʌ | |arʌ |arawa- | |net bag |*aɣan |agʌn |aŋᵊna |ʌna |aɣʌna ~ agʌna |aɣana | |sun |*aɣar |ɣʌːr |ʌgʌ |ʌːɣa |ɣʌra |ɣara | |louse |*am[a]rak |amark |mbʌga |ɔmbrɔ |ambʌraka |ambareka | |sap |*andzaɣar | |askra |nʒagʌːr̃a | |andʒar | |vine |*aŋgatʉk |aŋgə- |ŋgə- | |aŋgʌraka |aŋgarka | |SE. monsoon |*aɣarʉŋg |grʌ-ʉŋk | | |ɣʌrʉŋkʉ | | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***aCaC** |**CaC**|**aCCa**|**aCCa**|**CaC**|**CaC** | |sun|*aɣar |ɣʌːr |ʌgʌ |ʌːɣa |ɣʌra |ɣara | The first /*a/ in roots /*aCaC/ is fronted and raised to /e/ in Romkun if the following consonant is laminal voiceless /*s/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***aCa** |**aCaC** |**aCCa**|**eCCa**|**aCaC**|**aCaC** | |g-string|*asam |acam ~ acʌm|ʌ́tma |ɛtMa |atsʌma |acama | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***iCʉ** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |get up |*isʉ- |ci-k- |tsi-g-|ic- |tsᵊ- |icʉ- | |be cooked|*isʉ- | | |tʃʌ- |tsɨ- |c-icʉ- | |fall down|*irʉ- | | | |irʉ- |ɛrʉ- | |swim |*irʉ- |rʉi- | | |rʉ- |c-irʉ- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***iCʉC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |tongue |*imʉɣ |mʉgai ~ mʉgᵊ |mbigi |iːmbʉ ~ imbʉ|mbíː ~ mbí|mbʊi | |wallaby |*ipʉr |pr̩ᵊ |ipi |ipɨ |ípra |ɛpʉra | |sit |*ipʉr- | | |ip- |ipʉ- |ɛp(ʉ)r̃- | |vulva |*inʉɣ |ɲigʉ |insigi |indʒʉ |nzʉ |ntsʉ | |younger brother|*[i]ndʉŋ |ʌːnŋᵊ |íˑkŋ- | |antəŋa |ʌntɨŋai | |arrow sp. |*indʉk |nʉkʉ |ímkí (?)|inkʉ |ɪntí | | |left (side) |*indzʉn |ɪncɪna |ǹtsin- |ntsɛn- |ɪntsᵊn(a)-|ɛːntsʉnɪ | |flame |*indzʉk |ɪnts̩kʉ | | |ntsʉga | | |dream |*irʉm |ətMa |iːdm(u)-|n̩m(a)- |ɛrʉm(a)- |eːrəma | |lip(s) |*irʉp |lʊw- |irw- |ɨrɨvə | | | |blood/sap |*irʉ[n/ŋ] |rʉŋʉ ~ r̩ŋə ~ r̩ŋ|iːr̃i |ɪnnʉ ~ iʔnə |ɪrəna |eːri | |moon |*irʉɣ |rʉgᶶ |iːr̃ɪgí |ʉrɨ |erʉ |eirʉ | |no |*ijʉk | |iski |íːskɨ |zʉgʌ | | |name |*ijʉɣ |jigʉ |isigi |ɪʒʊ |zʉ |ʒʉ | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***iCu** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | | |***iCuC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |knee |*itup |tʊa- |ɪtʉwʌ-|tuwʌ- |tuβʌ ~ ʊtʊwa|ʊtʊwa ~ ʊtʊβa| |fog |*iɣu[ɣ] | |uːgʊ | |íːgwʌ | | |sister|*inumaŋ |nmaŋ |ɪnmʌga|ʊnmʉ |nʊmaŋa |ʊnʊmoŋa | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***iCa** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |nose |*ipa |pʌ |p-ʉːsgrʉ|p-ʉskŋə|ipʌ |ʉpʌ | |wild fowl sp.|*ina |ɲia |íntsi |inʒɨ |n̩za |n̩tsa | |tree |*ika |kʌ- |eːsi |itʃə |kʌ |kʌ ~ -ika | |white |*ija | | | |zʌ |izea | |shadow |*ina-ina[ŋ]|ɲaɲaŋ |ɛɲɛɲɛ |ɲɛɲa |ɲaɲa |nʲaɲa | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***iCaC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |areca nut|*imak |miag |ɛmkɛ |ɛmga |mbía |mbía | |leg |*inaŋ | | | |ɲía |n̥ɲa | |stone axe|*inaŋ |anaŋ |ɛniŋɛ | |ɪnʌ |ɛna | |armpit |*irak(-siŋ)| |isri (?) |r̃ɪʌːk-ma |ʉrʉ |ʉrʉtsiŋ | |forehead |*ijap |iʌβ |ɛsɪwɛ |ɛːw- |zʌβa |iʒaβa | |liver |*ijaram |irʌm |í:srama |idɬʌma |zərʌma | | |star |*iɣarak |gʌːrk |ʌgr̃ʌga |ʌgarʌ |zɛrʉka |iʒerka | |skin/bark|*inatʉk |nɪar̃k~ɲark~ɲak|ɲtsɛːr̃kɛ ~\\ insɛr̃kɛ|ɛnʒɛr̃kʌ ~\\ ɛnʒatiɛ|nzʌːtʉga ~\\ nzʌtəga|ndʒɛatʉga ~\\ intsatʉga| …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***ʉCi** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |take|*ʉni- |m-ʉnin-| | |m-ʉnɛ- |m-ʉndʒ- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***ʉCiC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |laugh|*ʉmir- | |m̩br-| |ts-ʉmbɪr-|c-imbʉru- | |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| ||***ʉCu** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| ||***ʉCuC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| ||***ʉCa** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***ʉCaC** |**CaC** |**oCCo** |**oCCo** |**CaCa**|**CaCa** | |male |*ʉman |man |ɔmno |omonɔ |mʌna |mana | |canoe|*ʉmbar |bʌr |ɔmpo |ɔnto ~ ɔnpo|mpʌra |pʌra | |salt |*ʉndzaŋ |dʒaŋ-dʒaŋ (?)| | | | | |throw|*ʉkaw- | |okp- ~ okɔ-|okʷ- ~ kʷ- |kaβ- |kawa- | |pig |*ʉram |ram |ɔːtmo |ɔnmo |rʌma |rama | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***uCi** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |2 pl.|*uni |ɲi |iɲi |iɲᵊ |ɲiu |ɲʊ | |go up|*usi- |ci-t- | | |utsɛ- |oce- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***uCiC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |yesterday|*uwis |uβije |ɔβɛs-|ɛβɛs- |oβe- |oβe | |pandanus |*uɣij |g:í | | |oʒɪka |oːgiʒa | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| ||***uCʉ** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***uCʉC** |**CuCu**|**uCCu**|**uCCu** |**oC[ʉ]Ca**|**oC[ʉ]Ca**| |thatch |*unʉm | | | |onoma |onoma | |black/blue|*utʉm |pMu |ʊːtmʊ |utMʊ ~ ʊtMʉ|otuma |ɔtɨma | |flying fox|*utʉŋ |rʊkŋʊ | |urkŋʊ |otʉŋa |otʉŋa | |breast |*undzʉɣ |ncʊgʊ |ʊntsʊgʊ |n̩tsʊ |ʊntsɪ |ontsʉ | |sugarcane |*uŋʉs |ŋʊje |ʊnsʊ |ʊnʒu |oŋgʊi |oŋgəɪ | |yam |*urʉŋ |rʊŋʊ |ʊgŋʊ |ʊŋʊ |oruŋa |ɔːrŋa | |buy |*ujʉ[ɣ]- | | | |ozo |oʒo- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun|Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***uCa** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |swell |*uwa- |wʉa- |oβu-g- |oβ- |βa-g- |wa- | |forest|*ura |aroa |ɔr̃o |ɔr̃o |orʌ |oːr̃ʌ | |wash |*ura- |ar-or- |oro-g- |or- |ra- |ora- | |bathe |*ura- |nje-ar-oar-|ts-org--| |ts-ora-|c-orʌ- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***uCaC** |**CuaC** |**oCCo** |**oCCo** |**uCuaC**|**uCuaC** | |wooden plate|*utaŋ |tʊaŋ |ɔːr̃kŋo |orkŋo |utuʌ̃ |ʊtʊã | |ear |*ukar |koʌr |okɔ- |ɔkrɔ |ʊwʌra |ʊkʊʌra | |slit drum |*uŋgan |gʊʌn |oŋgˈno |ɔngrɔ |uŋkʷʌna |ʊŋʷʌna | |coconut |*uwaŋ |wʌŋ |owʊŋo |ɔːβɔŋo |ʊwʌ̃ |ʉwa | | |***uCaC** |**CuaC** |**oCCo** |**oCCo** |**CuaCa**|**CuaCa** | |face |*uŋak |ŋʊwʊkʊ | |ɔˑŋgɔ |ŋgʷʌka |ŋgaka | |spear |*uŋak |ŋuʌk |ɔŋgˈno |oŋgo |ŋgʷʌ | | |bamboo |*ukam | |ɔko |okMo |kʷʌma |kʷama | |hear/know |*ukat- | | | |kʷʌt(o)- |(u)kʷʌtu- | | |***uCaC** |**aCuaC** |**oCCo** |**oCCo** |**oCaCa**|**oCaCa** | |bow string |*undam |andʊam |-onmo |onMo |ontʌma | | |betel pepper|*ukam |ʌkʷʌm |ɔko |ɔgmɔ |okʌma |okama | |arrow sp. |*uŋgan |aŋgʊʌnᵅ |oŋgona |oŋgro |ʊŋkʌna |oŋkʌna ~ okana| |long |*urar |arua |or̃ɔt-mo |orɔt-mo |orʌra |orara | | |***uCaC** |**aCCo** |**oCCo** |**oCCo** |**oCaCa**|**oCaCa** | |chicken |*umbar |ambr(o)- |ɔmpo |ɔmpɔ |ʊmpʌra |ompar̃a | | |***uCaC** |**aCuaC** |**** |**oCCo** |**aCaCa**|**aCaCa** | |tree possum |*undan |andʊan | |ɔndrɔ |amtʌna |antana | | |***uCaC** |**CaC** |**aCCa** |**aCCa** |**oCaC** |**oCaC** | |fear (v.) |*unar- |nar- |andr- |ʌndr- |undʌr- |ondʌr- | |rat |*ukara |krʌ- |ʌkr̃a |ʌkra |okʌra |okʌra | |bird |*uŋgarak |ŋgarag ~oŋgrag|ŋkʌːga |ʌŋka |oŋkʌraka |oŋkareka | | |***uCaC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |path |*utaɣ | | | |ʊtʌ |otʌ | |smoke |*ukaj |wʊoki |tsʊ |tsʌ- |ukuja |kɨja | |two days ago|*uras | |arʌːs-kŋᵉ|orʌːs-kŋa|uraɪ |oraj | |man |*uwaŋʉn | |ʊwɛŋɛne |ɛŋənʉ |waŋʌna |waŋᵊna | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi| | |***aCi** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |woman |*ami |ami |ɛmbi |ɛmbᵊ ~ ɛmbʉ|ambɛ |ambí | |be full|*api- |c-ʌpɪ |ts-ɛp-|tʃ-ɛpɪ- |wapi- |apia- | |1 pl. |*ani |aɲi |ɛɲɛ |ɛɲə |ɛɲi |aɲʉ | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang|Midsivindi | | |***aCiC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |grass skirt|*amiɣ | |ɛmbigi|ɛːmbʉ | | | |give |*aniŋ- |aɲiŋ- |ɲ- |ɛɲ- |ɛnʉŋ- |ɛn- | |crocodile |*asik |aikə |eski |ɛskʉ |atsʉga |atsʉga | |egg |*akij |aki ~ akije|ets- |etsɪ ~ ətsɪ |ʌkəɪ |akeɪka | |sharp |*awin | |ɛbɛnɛ |ɛbrɨri ~ɛb̵ur(ʌ)|aβena |aβɪnᵊ ~ aβɛna| |fingernail |*awik |awiag |ɛβkɛ |ɛβʊɣa |βía |wia | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***aCʉ** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |fence |*ambʉ |ʌmbᵊ |ɛmpʉ ~ əmpʉ|ɛmpʉ | | | |that/there|*andʉ |andʉ | | |tʉ ~ antʉ-n|ãntʉ ~ ʌntʉ-n| |be in pain|*andzʉ- | |ɛntsi- |ɛnʒ- ~ zi-|anzʉ |-anʒʉ | |bury |*akʉ- |ʌkʌ- |əkə- | |-(ʌ)ːkə-- |-(ʌ)ːkʉ- | |1 dl. |*aŋgʉ |aŋgᵊ |ʌkʌ- |aŋg- |aŋgʉ |akᵊ | |go down |*awʉ- |awə- |ɛb- |wʉt- |abu- |aβə- | |go outside|*aɣʉ- | |æg- | |agʉ- |agu- | In roots of the form *aCʉC/, /*a/ is generally fronted to /ɛ/ [ɛ ə], or in some instances dropped, in Breri and Romkun: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***aCʉC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |mother/thumb|*amʉŋ |amʉŋ ~ amʊŋᵊ | | |amʉŋ ~ aməŋa |(a)mʉŋi | |father |*apʉk | | | |ʌpᵊk | | |neck/throat |*ambʉn |ambʉn |mbon-ombono|mro-mbro |(a)mpʉna |(a)mpʉna | |big |*ambʉk | | | |ampʉga |ampʉga | |men's house |*ambʉɣ |ʌmbʊgᵊ\\ ~ ambʉgʉ|ɛmpʉgʉ |əmpʉ |ʌmpʉ |ampɨ ~ ampʉ | |water |*anʉm |ʌːnMə |ɛnmə |ɛnMə |anəma |anʉma | |short/piece |*atʉp |tʊə | | |atʉβa ~ ʌtʉβa | | |spirit sp. |*asʉŋ | | | |atsʉŋa |atsɨŋa | |carry |*andzʉr- |-ndʒuru- |antsur- (?)|ɛnʒ- |antsur- |ancʉru- | |sago |*andzʉɣ |ʌncɨgɨ |ɛntsigi |ɛntsʉ |antsʉ |ʌntsʉ | |banana |*aŋgʉn |aŋgɨn |ɛŋgini |ɛŋgr̃ʉ |aŋkʉna |aŋkʉna | |rain |*awʉn |ʌːwᶶnə |ɛwʉ̆ni |ɛwrə |aβəna |ʌβʉna | |wing |*awʉ[k] | |ɛwʉ- |ɛβ- |aβə |awʊ- | |ashes |*awʉj |-ʌːwi |iβí- (?) |ɛːβʉ |aβuja |aβiʒa | |cane |*arʉm |ʌːtMə |eːtmᵉ |ɛnMə |arəma |ʉnʉma ~arʉma | |dog |*arʉj |ʌːrʉ |ɛːr̃ɨ |ɛrʉ |ʌrɪga |aría ~ aríaʒa| |knife |*ajʉm | | | |azɪma |ajʉma | |fish |*ajʉk | | | |ʌzʉga |aʒʉga | |red |*aɣʉp | |ɛːβə |ɛβʉ- |ʌɣʉβʌ |ʌɣʉβa | |firewood |*aɣʉs |ʌgije |eːsi |ɛːɪzə |ʌgɪ |ʌgɨ̀i | |eye |*amʉrʉk |amᵒrʌgᵓ |ɛmbr̃ʉgʉ |əmbr̃ɨ ~ ɛmbr̃-|ɛmbrʉka |ambɨrika | |back/spine |*aɣʉ… |ak̯ŋan | | |ag̵ʉŋkɨna\\ ~ agʉŋkʌna|ʌːg̵ʉnta | |new/unripe |*aŋʉmVŋ |aŋmaŋ |ɛnɪmŋɪ |anɨmũ (?) |aŋamʉn- |aŋamʉŋ- | |cassowary |*andʉkam |ankam | |kʌːma |antʉgʉma |antʉgama | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay|Breri|Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi| | |***aCu** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |sing |*aku- |aku-p- |ku-g-|-ku- |m-aku(w)-|aku- | |sleep|*aŋgu- |aŋgu- |oŋku-|ŋku- ~ aŋkʷ-|aŋko- |aŋko- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River |Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | | |***aCuC** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |thigh |*ambun |aːmbʊn-ʌːt ~\\ ambʊan|ombʊn-ot |br̃ɔt | |ompana | |go inside |*ambuk- |ambʉgʉ- |umk- (?) | |umpu(t)- |ompʉ- | |crayfish |*aŋun |aŋʊnʊ | |ʉŋʉn |aŋʊn-ɛma |aŋʊn-ema | |arm |*akur | | | |ʌkurʌ |akʊrʊa | |cut (grass)|*aŋgum- |amu- | | |aŋkom- | | |mosquito |*aŋgun |aŋgʊnʊ |ɔŋgʊnʊ |ɔŋgr̃u |aŋkunʷa |aŋkʊnʊa | |big |*arum |ʌːnMo | | | | | |fat/grease |*ajuɣ |ajugʉ ~ aɪjigᶶ |ɛsɪgi ~ esigi|ɛːʒʊ ~ ɛʒʊ|aʒə ~ azʉ|ʌʒi ~ aʒʉ | |river |*aɣur | |ɔgo |oʊwo |ogu- | | |salt |*aɣur | |agr̃ʌ-gr̃ʌ | | |aɣor-ma ~\\ aʊgor-ma| |stone |*aɣut[a/u]k|ʌːgʊrʌg |ogr̃ʊgʊ |oʊgʊr̃ʊ |agrʊkʌ |aɣʊrkʷa | |dry |*andurak |atuʌrk (?) | |(a)ntʌrka | |andʌr βa- | |nape |*aruŋgan | | | |rʊŋkʌna |rʊːŋkɨna | ===== Pronouns ===== Guam River nominative pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1972): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Guam River|Akrukay |Breri |Romkun |Itutang |Midsivindi | |1 sg.|*uku |kʊ |aŋma |uku |ŋgʌɪ |ŋgʌj | |2 sg.|*un |nʊ |ʊnʊ |ʊnʊ |nʊ ~ ndʊ |nʊ | |3 sg.|*an; *ma |ʌn |ʌna |ʌna |anʉ ~ andə|anə, antan, ikʌn| |1 pl.|*ani |aɲi |ɛɲɛ |ɛɲə |ɛɲi |aɲʉ | |2 pl.|*uni |ɲi |iɲi |iɲᵊ |ɲiu |ɲʊ | |3 pl.|? |kʊwi, ma|oməŋgɪ |omoŋgᵊ |ɲi |wʊnanɲʉ | |1 dl.|*aŋgʉ |aŋgᵊ |ʌkʌːna |aŋg-aɲa |aŋgʉ pʌɪ |akᵊ paj | |2 dl.|*uŋgu |ŋgu |ɛkɛːnɛ |oŋgʷ-aɲa |ŋgu pʌɪ |anta paj | |3 dl.|? |ma-ŋʊɲi |aɲɛ ninɔso|omoŋʷ-aɲa|ma pʌɪ |ika paj | Although Akrukay and Itutang /ma/ in third person plurals and duals is not attested in the singular, third person singular /*an/ continues Guam and Moam Rivers /*ma-n/ and it is highly likely that the /*ma/ is the disposition of this form when not suffixed. Akrukay's second person singular [nʊ] would normally suggest /*unu/, but the failure of /*n/ to undergo occlusion to /nd/ in the other languages, except in Itutang as an alternate form where the third person singular is also affected, as it does in /*unu/ “one,” suggests that Akrukay has irregularly metathesizanded expected /un/ to /nu/, as initial /*n/ does not otherwise occur and final /*n/ does not undergo occlusion (above.) ===== Loans to and from neighboring languages ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ … Tomjui River subgroup of West Madang …:\\ \\ …:\\ \\ …:\\ \\ …:\\ \\