====== Kaian ======

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

===== Situation =====
Kaian (Kayan) is spoken by 322 people (1975) living in a village of the same name on the coast in the northwest corner of Papua New Guinea's Madang province (Z'graggen 1975: 79.)

===== Sources =====
Z'graggen (1971: 90-91) 12 Kaian reflexes of proto-Ramu River or proto-Ramu Coast cognate series and (pp. 110-118) Kaian 120 singular-plural pairs

Z;graggen (1972) 400 comparative terms for Kaian

Foley (2005: 116-118) 60 comparative terms for Kaian

===== Phonology =====
**[under construction]**\\
\\

…\\


===== Pronouns =====
Z'graggen (1972) gives free pronouns for Kaian as follows:

|< - 80px 80px >|
|1 sg.|ʌʔ      |
|2 sg.|go ~ gwa|
|3 sg.|mʌ      |
|1 pl.|aɛ ~ ɛ  |
|2 pl.|nɛ      |
|3 pl.|mi      |
|1 dl.|aŋ-     |
|2 dl.|oŋ-     |
|3 dl.|maniŋ   |


===== Nominal morphology =====
The most conspicuous feature of Kayan nominative morphology is the existence of lexically-specified plural formatives, which have led some (e.g. Foley 1999) to posit that proto-Ramu Coast had a large number of noun classes. Z'graggen (1971: 110-118) gives singular-lural pairs for 120 nominals and careful analysis along with comparison to Watam and Bore (Parrish 1989: 10-13) examples shows that they form only three classses, the allomorphs of the first class being determined by the quality of the inal of the root..These three classes are abstractly summarized as follows, where /C/ following /N/ is homoorganic with /N/ and umlaut is singified by /i/ although its effect varies depending upon the preceding vowel (below):

|< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >|
|   |N  |N      |C  |C      |V  |V       |
|   |sg.|pl.    |sg.|pl.    |sg.|pl.     |
|I  |-N |-iN-C  |-C |-iC    |---|---     |
|II |-N |-N-Vr  |-C |-C-Vr  |-V |-V-Vr   |
|III|-N |-N-ɛm-p|-C |-C-ɛm-p|-V |-V-rɛm-p|

Class I roots with final nasals are suffixed with a homoorganic voiceless stop and the vowel of the final syllable of the root is umltaued by an element /*i/ (below)::

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|     |sg.     |pl.        |
|     |**-m**  |**-[i]m-p**|
|knife|urim    |urim-p     |
|pig  |markum  |markum-p   |
|salt |sɛrɛm   |sɛrɛm-p    |
|water|ŋarum   |ŋarum-p    |
|bow  |warkam  |warkaim-p  |
|     |**-n**  |**-[i]n-t**|
|food |amnaɣain|amnaɣain-t |
|head |paŋan   |paŋan-t    |
|     |**-ŋ**  |**-[i]ŋ-k**|
|stump|muniŋ   |muniŋ-k    |
|dog  |piraŋ   |piraiŋ-k   |
|fish |siŋ     |siŋ-k      |
|good |jauŋ    |jauŋ-k     |

When the initial consonant of the previous syllable is a prenasalized voiced stop the root-final nasal is dropped in the plural:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|           |sg.        |pl.       |
|           |**-m/NCV_**|**-[i]-p**|
|grass skirt|kagum      |kagu-p    |
|new        |ŋgam       |ŋgai-p    |
|ship       |jaŋgum     |jagu-p    |
|           |**-ŋ/NCV_**|**-[i]-k**|
|arrow sp.  |ondzaŋ     |ozai-k    |
|tanket sp. |kindiŋ     |kindi-k   |

Class I roots with final non-nasal consonants remian the same in the plural except that the vowel of the final syllable of the root is umlauted by an element /*i/ (below.) There are no known examples of class I roots with final apical voiceless stop /t/. All roots with final glottal stop /ʔ/ rather than /k/ belong to class I:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|               |sg.    |pl.        |
|               |**-p** |**-[i]p-Ø**|
|voice          |ŋap    |ŋaip       |
|younger brother|jap    |jaip       |
|               |**-s** |**-[i]s-Ø**|
|banana         |ŋas    |ŋais       |
|               |**-ʔ** |**-[i]k-Ø**|
|small          |inoʔ   |inuk       |
|big            |anɛaʔ  |anik       |
|axe            |otɛaʔ  |otɛik      |
|woman          |mɛaʔ   |mik        |
|areca nut      |mboʔ   |mbuk       |
|spear          |taʔpoʔ |taʔpuk     |
|fence          |goaʔ   |goaik      |
|bird           |ŋgoaraʔ|ŋgoraik    |
|bad            |ŋgorɛaʔ|ŋgurik     |
|               |**-r** |**-[i]r-Ø**|
|hand           |par    |pair       |
|ear            |koar   |koair      |
|canoe          |koːr   |kuour      |
|leaf           |rapar  |rapair     |
|egg            |jor    |jur        |

Class I roots undergo umlaut in which an originally suffixed element /*i/ has been transposed to the final syllable vowel of the root, affecting it as follows:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|               |sg.    |pl.      |
|               |**i**  |**i**    |
|knife          |urim   |urim-p   |
|stump          |muniŋ  |muniŋ-k  |
|fish           |siŋ    |siŋ-k    |
|tanket sp.     |kindiŋ |kindi-k  |
|               |**u**  |**u**    |
|pig            |markum |markum-p |
|water          |ŋarum  |ŋarum-p  |
|grass skirt    |kagum  |kagu-p   |
|ship           |jaŋgum |jagu-p   |
|good           |jauŋ   |jauŋ-k   |
|               |**o**  |**u**    |
|small          |inoʔ   |inuk     |
|areca nut      |mboʔ   |mbuk     |
|spear          |taʔpoʔ |taʔpuk   |
|canoe          |koːr   |kuour    |
|egg            |jor    |jur      |
|               |**ɛ**  |**ɛ**    |
|salt           |sɛrɛm  |sɛrɛm-p  |
|               |**ɛa** |**i**    |
|big            |anɛaʔ  |anik     |
|axe            |otɛaʔ  |otɛik (?)|
|woman          |mɛaʔ   |mik      |
|bad            |ŋgorɛaʔ|ŋgurik   |
|               |**a**  |**ai**   |
|arrow sp.      |ondzaŋ |ozai-k   |
|dog            |piraŋ  |piraiŋ-k |
|head           |paŋan  |paŋan-t  |
|hand           |par    |pair     |
|voice          |ŋap    |ŋaip     |
|banana         |ŋas    |ŋais     |
|ear            |koar   |koair    |
|fence          |goaʔ   |goaik    |
|bird           |ŋgoaraʔ|ŋgoraik  |
|bow            |warkam |warkaim-p|
|leaf           |rapar  |rapair   |
|younger brother|jap    |jaip     |

There are no vowel-final roots in class I.\\
\\

Class II roots take a plural suffix /-Vr/. Often the addition of this suffix induces syncope of the vowel in the final syllable of the root and sometimes the metathesis of its vowel to an adjacent syllable, presumably due to a change in stress:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|            |sg.      |pl.         |
|            |**-m**   |**-m-Vr**   |
|yam         |im       |im-ɛr       |
|mother      |aim      |aim-ɛr      |
|nail        |-amboum  |-ambam-ur   |
|            |**-n**   |**-n-Vr**   |
|navel       |tɛn      |tɛn-ar      |
|elbow       |-digin   |-dign-ar    |
|            |**-p**   |**-p-Vr**   |
|nose        |iːndup   |iːndp-ar    |
|snake       |mindop   |mindp-or    |
|shoulder    |nakɛp    |naikp-ar    |
|pandanus sp.|nuŋgup   |nuŋgp-ar    |
|            |**-t**   |**-t-Vr**   |
|short/piece |ait      |ait-ɛr      |
|pain        |ukut     |ukt-air     |
|man         |namot    |namt-air    |
|husband     |kaŋgait  |kaŋt-ɛr     |
|stone       |waut     |wat-ur      |
|forehead    |rambaŋgut|rambaŋgut-ar|
|heart       |rukut    |rukt-ar     |
|            |**-s**   |**-s-Vr**   |
|top of tree |os       |us-ir       |
|sore        |pis      |pis-ir      |
|thigh       |-bis     |-bis-ir     |
|father      |ʌis      |ʌs-ɛr       |
|            |**-k**   |**-k-Vr**   |
|heavy       |makuk    |makuk-ur    |
|liver       |bɛbɛk    |bɛbk-ar     |
|fire        |saːk     |saːg-air    |
|back/roof   |kupik    |kupk-ar     |
|white       |gogouk   |gogog-or    |
|fat         |waipak   |waipk-ar    |
|eye         |ramɛak   |ramik-ur    |
|            |**-r**   |**-r-Vr**   |
|breast      |mur      |mur-ir      |
|old         |bagar    |bagr-ir     |
|smoke       |sakor    |sakr-ar     |
|mountain    |sakur    |sawkr-ir    |
|arrow sp.   |ndzikar  |ndzikr-ar   |
|yellow      |ŋorŋor   |ŋorŋor-or   |
|bone        |gaɣar    |gaɣr-ir     |
|sharp       |wiwir    |wiwir-ar    |

Roots with final glottal stop /ʔ/ are generally found in class I (above,) but there is one unexplained exception:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|      |sg.    |pl.        |
|      |**-ʔ** |**-k-Vr**  |
|ground|waɣapaʔ|waɣapag-air|

Class II roots with final velar nasal /ŋ/ in the singular change it to /ŋg/ when suffixed with /-Vr/, suggesting final [ŋ] to be underlyingly prenasalized voiced stop /ŋg/ which otherwise does not occur root-finally:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|         |sg.    |pl.        |
|         |**-ŋ** |**-ŋg-Vr** |
|stomach  |mimoŋ  |mimg-ur    |
|tongue   |mɛmraŋ |mɛmraŋg-ar |
|cassowary|mbunoŋ |mbung-or   |
|chin     |kamuniŋ|kamuniŋg-ar|
|forest   |raŋ    |raŋg-air   |

In a number of class II plurals with root-final apical voiceless stop /t/, /t/ is dropped. Because the vowel of the final syllable always remains the same, which is not the case with plurals /-t-Vr/ (above,) we assume this to results from the reduction of /-Vr/ to /-r/ followed by the simplication of derived cluster /tr/ to /r/. Probably relatedly, most of these are either trisyllables or disyllables with medial clusters, which also pattern with trisyllables in being immune to syncope (below):

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|          |sg.        |pl.         |
|          |**CVCVCVt**|**CVCVCV-r**|
|tanket sp.|bomborot   |bomboro-r   |
|          |**CVCCVt** |**CVCCV-r** |
|fly (n.)  |numkɛt     |numkɛ-r     |
|body hair |dibrat     |dibra-r     |
|hair      |-tsaprit   |-tsapri-r   |

One example however appears to be a disyllable, suggesting an erstwhile medial cluster which has been simplified:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|        |sg.      |pl.       |
|        |**CVCVt**|**CVCV-r**|
|mosquito|naŋgit   |naŋgi-r   |

One trisyllabic root with final /t/ does not undergo the expected reduction, perhaps suggesting that it is a compound:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|        |sg.        |pl.         |
|        |**CVCVCVt**|**CVCVCV-r**|
|forehead|rambaŋgut  |rambaŋgut-ar|

All vowel-final roots fall into either class II or III (below.) Those with final simple vowels generally take the suffix /-ar/:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|      |sg.   |pl.        |
|      |**-i**|**-i-ar**  |
|sister|mbi   |mbi-ar     |
|      |**-o**|**-o-ar**  |
|mother|ʌβo   |ʌβo-ar     |
|      |**-ɛ**|**-ɛ-ar**  |
|moon  |kaːrɛ |kaːrɛ-ar   |
|      |**-a**|**-a-[a]r**|
|bamboo|za    |za-r       |

Another example patterns with these, but with a suffix in the singular and a reduplication in the plural (cf. Gamei i.e. Bore [wɛ], Watam [weːna] Z'graggen 1972):

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|        |sg.        |pl.      |
|        |**-ɛ(-ta)**|**-ɛ-ar**|
|singsing|uɛ-ta      |uɛ-uɛ-ar |

There is however one exception which regularly reflects Ramu Coast [*rao] < /*aro/:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|   |sg.   |pl.      |
|   |**-a**|**-a-ir**|
|sun|ra    |ra-ir    |

If the final vowel of the root is a diphthong /ai au/, the vowel of the class II suffix is dropped. At least half these words are loans from Manam (below):

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|         |sg.    |pl.      |
|         |**-ai**|**-ai-r**|
|string   |mɛndzai|mɛndzai-r|
|tooth    |nadaɣai|ndaɣai-r |
|tobacco  |sokai  |sokai-r  |
|star     |goai   |goai-r   |
|         |**-au**|**-au-r**|
|house    |ɛndau  |ɛndau-r  |
|sugarcane|tau    |tau-r    |
|feather  |rarau  |rarau-r  |

The vowels of /-Vr/ suffixes following final consonants are not fully predictable from the forms of the singulars, suggesting the former presence of final vowels which have been dropped in the singulars but surface in or affect the forms of the plurals:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|            |sg.      |pl.         |
|            |**-C**   |**-C-ir**   |
|top of tree |os       |us-ir       |
|river       |ok       |uk-ɛr       |
|breast      |mur      |mur-ir      |
|sore        |pis      |pis-ir      |
|thigh       |-bis     |-bis-ir     |
|old         |bagar    |bagr-ir     |
|mountain    |sakur    |sawkr-ir    |
|bone        |gaɣar    |gaɣr-ir     |
|            |**-C**   |**-C-ur**   |
|nail        |-amboum  |-ambam-ur   |
|stomach     |mimoŋ    |mimg-ur     |
|heavy       |makuk    |makuk-ur    |
|stone       |waut     |wat-ur      |
|eye         |ramɛak   |ramik-ur    |
|            |**-C**   |**-C-or**   |
|snake       |mindop   |mindp-or    |
|cassowary   |mbunoŋ   |mbung-or    |
|yellow      |ŋorŋor   |ŋorŋor-or   |
|white       |gogouk   |gogog-or    |
|            |**-C**   |**-C-ɛr-**  |
|yam         |im       |im-ɛr       |
|mother      |aim      |aim-ɛr      |
|short/piece |ait      |ait-ɛr      |
|father      |ʌis      |ʌs-ɛr       |
|river       |ok       |uk-ɛr       |
|husband     |kaŋgait  |kaŋt-ɛr     |
|            |**-C**   |**-C-air**  |
|pain        |ukut     |ukt-air     |
|man         |namot    |namt-air    |
|fire        |saːk     |saːg-air    |
|ground      |waɣapaʔ  |waɣapag-air |
|forest      |raŋ      |raŋg-air    |
|            |**-C**   |**-C-ar**   |
|nose        |iːndup   |iːndp-ar    |
|tongue      |mɛmraŋ   |mɛmraŋg-ar  |
|liver       |bɛbɛk    |bɛbk-ar     |
|shoulder    |nakɛp    |naikp-ar    |
|pandanus sp.|nuŋgup   |nuŋgp-ar    |
|navel       |tɛn      |tɛn-ar      |
|elbow       |-digin   |-dign-ar    |
|smoke       |sakor    |sakr-ar     |
|arrow sp.   |ndzikar  |ndzikr-ar   |
|chin        |kamuniŋ  |kamuniŋg-ar |
|back/roof   |kupik    |kupk-ar     |
|sharp       |wiwir    |wiwir-ar    |
|fat         |waipak   |waipk-ar    |
|forehead    |rambaŋgut|rambaŋgut-ar|
|heart       |rukut    |rukt-ar     |

Monosyllabic roots of the form /oC/ undergo umlaut when followed by high front vowel suffixes /-ir -ɛr/; this would probably be true of /a/ as well (see class I umlaut above) but there are no clear examples in monosyllables while most disyllables undergo syncope (below):

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|           |sg.   |pl.      |
|           |**oC**|**uC-ir**|
|top of tree|os    |us-ir    |
|           |**oC**|**uC-ɛr**|
|river      |ok    |uk-ɛr    |

In disyllabic roots with medials which simple medials and simple second vowels, the addition of the class II plural suffix and concomitant change in stress results in the syncope of the vowel of the final syllable of the root:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|            |sg.        |pl.          |
|            |**(C)VCVC**|**(C)VCC-Vr**|
|nose        |iːndup     |iːndp-ar     |
|pain        |ukut       |ukt-air      |
|stomach     |mimoŋ      |mimg-ur      |
|snake       |mindop     |mindp-or     |
|liver       |bɛbɛk      |bɛbk-ar      |
|cassowary   |mbunoŋ     |mbung-or     |
|old         |bagar      |bagr-ir      |
|man         |namot      |namt-air     |
|pandanus sp.|nuŋgup     |nuŋgp-ar     |
|elbow       |-digin     |-dign-ar     |
|smoke       |sakor      |sakr-ar      |
|arrow sp.   |ndzikar    |ndzikr-ar    |
|back/roof   |kupik      |kupk-ar      |
|bone        |gaɣar      |gaɣr-ir      |
|fat         |waipak     |waipk-ar     |
|heart       |rukut      |rukt-ar      |

If the vowel pattern of a consonant-final disyllabic root in class II which undergos syncope is /(C)aCɛC/ or /(C)aCuC/, high vowel /i/ or /u/ is metathesized to the first syllable. This is probably true of roots /(C)aCiC/ as well, see metathesis in class III roots (below,) but Z'graggen gives no examples:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|        |sg.      |pl.         |
|        |**CaCɛC**|**CaiCC-Vr**|
|shoulder|nakɛp    |naikp-ar    |
|        |**CaCuC**|**CauCC-Vr**|
|mountain|sakur    |sawkr-ir    |
|chicken |kakur    |kawkr-ir    |

One exeption which undergoes neither syncope nor vowel metathesis is probably due to the fact that he medial and final consonants are identical:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|     |sg.      |pl.         |
|     |**CVkVk**|**CVkVk-Vr**|
|heavy|makuk    |makuk-ur    |

Another disyllable which resists syncope is likely a reduplication and once had a medial cluster /rw/; cf. Gamei (i.e. Bore) [wʉrwʉr] (Z'graggen 1972):

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|     |sg.       |pl.          |
|     |**CV-CVC**|**CV-CVC-Vr**|
|sharp|wiwir     |wiwir-ar     |

Trisyllabic roots in class II generally do not undergo syncope, nor do apparently disyllabic roots with medial clusters, uggesting the latter to be in some sense underlyingly trisyllabic:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|          |sg.        |pl.           |
|          |**CVCCVC** |**CVCCVC-Vr** |
|tongue    |mɛmraŋ     |mɛmraŋg-ar    |
|fly (n.)  |numkɛt     |numkɛ-r       |
|body hair |dibrat     |dibra-r       |
|hair      |-tsaprit   |-tsapri-r     |
|yellow    |ŋorŋor     |ŋorŋor-or     |
|          |**CVCVCVC**|**CVCVCVC-Vr**|
|chin      |kamuniŋ    |kamuniŋg-ar   |
|ground    |waɣapaʔ    |waɣapag-air   |
|forehead  |rambaŋgut  |rambaŋgut-ar  |
|          |**CVCVCVt**|**CVCVCV-r**  |
|tanket sp.|bomborot   |bomboro-r     |

Similarly, disyllables in class II with an apparent diphthong in the second syllable generally do not undergo syncope, perhaps suggesting these too to be trisyllabic; however the diphthong is reduced to a simple vowel:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|     |sg.       |pl.         |
|     |**CVCVVC**|**CVCVC-Vr**|
|nail |-amboum   |-ambam-ur   |
|white|gogouk    |gogog-or    |
|eye  |ramɛak    |ramik-ur    |

There is however one exception in which an apparent diphthong in the seocnd syllable is dropped rather than merely simplified:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|       |sg.       |pl.        |
|       |**CVCVVC**|**CVCC-Vr**|
|husband|kaŋgait   |kaŋt-ɛr    |

One trisllabic root appears to undergo syncope of the vowel in the first syllable rather than that in the second; however Z'graggen (1972) gives ['ndakai] (cf. Watam [dakʌɩ]) so the singular form as quoted may be in error:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|     |sg.       |pl.        |
|     |**CVCVCV**|**CCVCV-r**|
|tooth|nadaɣai   |ndaɣai-r   |

One conspicuous exception to looks to be entirely irregular, suggesting the singular form to be a compound although it is tracable to proto-Ramu River:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|    |sg.       |pl.        |
|    |**CVCCVC**|**CVC-air**|
|rope|naŋtik    |naŋg-air   |

That class II remains productive may be seen as several recent loans from Tok Pisin fall into this class, the suffix in these instances being /-ar/:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|        |sg.    |pl.       |
|        |**-s** |**-s-ar** |
|trousers|trausis|trausis-ar|
|        |**-r** |**-r-ar** |
|pencil  |pɛntsir|pɛntsir-ar|

Class III plurals are formed by the addition of a suffix /-(r)ɛm-p/, itself a pluralized member of class I, the base of which is presumably /-rem/, as final prenasalized stops do not otherwise occur. In roots with final vowels, this suffix is realized as [-rɛmp]:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|            |sg.   |pl.         |
|            |**-V**|**-V-rɛm-p**|
|name        |wi    |wi-rɛm-p    |
|pandanus sp.|wi    |wi-rɛm-p    |
|fog         |wau   |wau-rɛm-p   |

In roots with final consonants, initial apical non-stop /r/ of the the class III plural suffix is dropped such that it is realized as [-ɛmp -amp]:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|         |sg.   |pl.           |
|         |**-n**|**-n-ɛm-p**   |
|tail     |bugon |bugn-am-p (?) |
|grassland|ndain |ndan-ɛm-p     |
|         |**-ŋ**|**-ŋ-ɛm-p**   |
|garden   |wariŋ |wairŋ-ɛm-p    |
|         |**-p**|**-p-ɛm-p**   |
|mouth    |up    |up-ɛm-p       |
|knee     |-tutup|-tutp-am-p (?)|
|path     |raup  |rapu-ɛm-p     |
|red      |jaup  |jaup-ɛm-p     |
|         |**-t**|**-t-ɛm-p**   |
|throat   |jokot |jokt-ɛm-p     |
|         |**-k**|**-k-ɛm-p**   |
|wing     |auk   |auk-ɛm-p      |
|trunk    |-arik |-airk-ɛm-p    |
|belly    |niːk  |niːk-ɛm-p     |
|skin     |siːk  |siːk-ɛm-p     |
|         |**-r**|**-r-ɛm-p**   |
|sole     |tagir |taigr-ɛm-p    |

In disyllabic roots, the addition of the class III plural suffix and concomitant change in stress results in the syncope of the vowel of the final syllable of the root::

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|      |sg.      |pl.          |
|      |**CuCuC**|**CuCC-am-p**|
|knee  |-tutup   |-tutp-am-p   |
|      |**CuCoC**|**CuCC-am-p**|
|tail  |bugon    |bugn-am-p    |
|      |**CoCoC**|**CoCC-ɛm-p**|
|throat|jokot    |jokt-ɛm-p    |

If the vowel pattern of a consonant-final disyllabic root in class III is /(C)aCiC/, high front vowel /i/ is metathesized to the first syllable:

|< - 100px 100px 100px >|
|      |sg.        |pl.             |
|      |**(C)aCiC**|**(C)aiCC-ɛm-p**|
|trunk |-arik      |-airk-ɛm-p      |
|sole  |tagir      |taigr-ɛm-p      |
|garden|wariŋ      |wairŋ-ɛm-p      |

There are no known trisyllabic roots or disyllables with medial clusters in class III.



===== Verbal morphology =====
No information about Kaian verbal morphology is curretnly available to us.



===== Loans from neighboring languages =====
**[under construction]**\\
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