====== Ramu Coast ====== ­ Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== The Ramu Coast family consists of five languages spoken along and inland from the north coast of Papua New Guinea near the mouth of the Ramu River, just east of the border between Madang and East Sepik provinces, with Watam also spoken in East Sepik province. It is called the Ottilien Family in the works of Z'graggen, after the name first given to the Ramu River by German explorers (Z'graggen 1969, 1971: 74-75.) ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of Ramu Coast is as follows:\\ \\ Ramu Coast East Ramu Coast Awar Bosngun (Bosman) North Ramu Coast Bore (Gamei) Kaian Watam\\ \\ Awar and Bosngun are significantly more different from one another than are the languages of the North Ramu Coast subgroup. Foley (p.c. 2020) considers Kaian and Watam to be dialects of the same language.\\ \\ Z'graggen (1969, 1971: 75) gives lexicostatistical relationships between the languages of the Ottilien Family as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | | Awar | Bosman | Gamei | Kaian | Watam | |Awar | --- | 63 | 41 | 39 | 38 | |Bosman| 63 | --- | 45 | 42 | 43 | |Gamei | 41 | 45 | --- | 77 | 73 | |Kaian | 39 | 42 | 77 | --- | 77 | |Watam | 38 | 43 | 73 | 77 | --- | These subgroups are differentiated by a number of mutually exclusive isoglosses: |< - 100px 100px 100px >| | |E. Ramu Coast|N. Ramu Coast| |1 sg. |*ŋgo |*… | |2 sg. |*mo |*u(-n) | |thigh/calf |*b[i/e]n |*mbuis | |father |*sate |*ais | |flesh/meat |*sak |*mbuis | |know/think |*j[e/a]mb- |*jaŋmi- | |mother |*mame |*aim | |near |*nuŋ |*rambum | |spirit/soul|*ndom |*andurum | |tail |*ŋgun |*nambuŋgen | |tree |*kan |*paraŋ | |… |*… |*… | ===== Sources ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Pöch (1908: 170-173) grammar sketch and vocabulary of Watam Ray (1919) … Capell (1951-1952: 132-138) sketch descriptions of and (pp. 198-200) 83 comparative terms for Watam, Gamai, Bosngun and Nubia (Awar,) with Watam attestations drawn from Pöch (1908) Höltker (1966) Bosngun … Z'graggen (1969, 1971: 74-76) … (pp. 90-91) … (pp. 110-118) 120 Kaian singular-plural pairs Z'graggen (1972) 431 comparative terms for Watam, Kaian, Gamei, Awar and Bosman Parrish (1989) grammar of Bore Foley (1992) grammar of Watam (unobtained) Foley (1999) grammar sketch of Watam Foley (2005: 116-118) 65 comparative terms for Watam, Kaian, Gamay, Bosmun and Awar and (pp. 118, 119-121) 43 Proto-WAG (i.e. Ramu Coast) reconstructions Levy (2002) grammar of Awar ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]** **[NOTE: values given below are subject to change!]**\\ \\ Proto-Ramu Coast had 15 consonants and … vowels as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | *ŋ | | *p | *t | *s | *k | | *mb | *nd | *ndz | *ŋg | | *w | *r | *j | *ɣ | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | *ɨ | *u | | *e | [*ɐ] | *o | | | *a | | …\\ \\ Only a restricted set of consonants occurs initially: |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | *w | *r | *j | Only a restricted set of consonants occurs finally: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | *ŋ | | *p | *t | *s | *k | | | *r | | | … stress …\\ \\ \\ Initial consonants correspond as follows:\\ \\ …\\ \\ Medial consonants correspond as follows:\\ \\ …\\ \\ Final consonants correspond as follows:\\ \\ …\\ \\ Vowels correspond as follows:\\ \\ …\\ \\ These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with attestions in the sections following drawn from Z'graggen (1971, 1972) and Levy (2002) unless otherwise indicated. Those drawn from Foley (2005: 116-118) are indicated by [WF]. Some of the comparisons presented below originate with Z'graggen (1971: 90-91) or Foley (2005: 116, 119-121.)\\ \\ \\ At first glance, Ramu Coast languages allow any consonant to appear initially and these consonants are generally retained in all descandants. However there are a number of examples in which a consonant which appears in the North Ramu Coast languages is absent from the East Ramu Coast languages along with the vowel which follows. This phenomenon has been found with only a few consonants, including nasals /*m *n/ and non-stops /*w *r *j/. Outcomparison to other Ramu languages which likewise preserve an attentuated set of original initial consonants, namely Igom and Tanggu of the Moam River subgroup and Waran (Banaro,) as well as those which drop all initial consonants but usually preserve the following vowels such as the languages of the Goam River subgroup, shows this limited subset to reflect bonafide initial consonants in proto-Ramu River, while the consonants which are not dropped in Awar or Bosngun were originally medial. The frequency of this word shape was increased by a number of loans from the Oceanic language Manam or a near relatiove thereof (below,) although some of them undergo the same process of initial loss. This situation introduces major complications to the recontruction of Ramu Coast. First, if a root is attested only in North Ramu Coast, it is sometimes impossible to say whether an apparently initial cononant was really initial or had a preceding vowel which has been dropped. Further, loans from Oceanic are pervasive and, because the loaning language(s) in many instances can't have been Manam itself and some are quite ancient, they look nearly indistinguishable from native roots, "moon" being an excellent example. Because many native roots drop initial vowels, thus preserving the erstwhile medial consonant, it is sometimes the case that we cannot be sure if there was an intial vowel or if the word was a loan unless its etymology in either Ramu River or Oceanic is known.\\ \\ Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is always retained as such in Watam and Kaian and sometimes lost in Bore and Kaian, its loss possibly conditioned by the character of the following stop. It is always lost in Awar and Bosngun: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen| | |***m-** |**Ø** |**Ø**|**Ø** |**m Ø** |**m Ø** |**m** | |snake |*mindop | | |ndup ~ dup |nduop |mindop |míndop | |net bag |*mendzait |nziɛt | |ʒə̆t |mɪndʌit |mɛndzai |mɛnzep | |frog |*mɨk[i/e]p| | | |k̯ɛp |keːp | | |3 sg. |*ma(-n) |nə |nɐ |nə-na |mʌ-n |mʌ |mʌ | |heavy |*makuk | | | |makuk |makuk |makuk | |sap |*manVŋgat | | | |manŋʌr |maŋnat |mangʌt | |shore |*maŋar | | | |maŋʌr |maŋar |maŋʌr | |short |*matʉp | | | |matʉp | | | |loincloth |*masiVk |siɛʔ |sjeʔ |siʌk ~ síɔk|tíʌʔ |mʌsík |masík | |rattan/rope|*moneak | | | |moneaʔ ~ monʌʔ|monɛaʔ ~ monɛʔ| | |sugarcane |*mowit |wít |vit |wɪt |moɪt | | | |stump/base |*muniŋ |nʉː |nĩ |nʉŋ |mʉmʉŋ |muniŋ |mʊniŋ | |smoke |*mutur |tur | |tur |tʌʔ-tur | | | |pig |*marakum |rãgʌm |ɽɐɣɐm|rakʌm |markɨm |markum |markʊm | Initial apical nasal /*n/ is always retained as such in Watam and only sometimes in Bore and Kaian, its loss possibly conditioned by the character of the following stop. Like intiail bilabial /*m/ (above) it is always lost in Awar and Bosngun: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen | | |***n-** |**Ø** |**Ø** |**Ø** |**n Ø** |**n Ø** |**n** | |night |*nimoŋ |mũː |mu |muŋ |moŋ |nimoŋ |niːmaŋ | |2 pl. |*ne(-n) |ní |ne |ní |ne-n |nɛ |neːɪ | |girl |*namoŋ |mɔ |mõ |moŋ |moŋ |namoŋ |namoŋ | |tail |*nambuŋgen | | | |bugan |bugon |nabugɛn | |banana |*naŋas |ŋʌs |ŋas |ŋʌs |ŋat |ŋʌs |naŋas | |village |*naŋu |ŋu-niʔ |ŋu-niʔ|(u)gu-nis|auŋ |noŋ |noŋ | |shoulder |*nakep | | | |ŋakɛp |nakep |nʌkp | |mosquito |*naŋgit |ŋget |ŋget |ntsɛt |ŋgit |naŋgit |naŋgit | |vine |*naŋgatik |ŋgəriʔ |ŋgɐriʔ|gətʉk |gʌtʉk |naŋtik |naŋtik ~ naŋtɪ́k| |crocodile|*n[o/u]ŋgumai|gumí: |ŋgumi |gomɛ |mʊgmaɪ (?)|noːmᶷɣʌɪ |nʊgmʌɪ | Initial velar nasal /*ŋ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar|Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***ŋ-** |**** |****|**** |**** |**ŋ** |**Ø** | |male child|*ŋ[o]ndar | | | | |ŋandar̃ | | |water |*ŋarum | | | | |ŋarum |arum | Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is retained as such in North Ramu Coast and lost in Awar and Bosngun: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen | | |***w-** |**Ø** |**Ø**|**Ø** |**w** |**w [w u]**|**w [w u]**| |louse/flea|*wasis |sɛt |set | |watit |wasis |wasis | |garden |*wariŋ |rĩ: |ɽi |reiŋ-pʌk |warʉŋ |wariŋ | | Initial apical non-stop /*r/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar|Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy|Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen | | |***r-** |**Ø** |****|**Ø** |**r Ø** |**r** |**r** | |hand drum |*rindiŋ | | |díŋ |dindiŋ (?) |rindiŋ |rindiŋ | |betel pepper|*rʉndʉm |ndʉm | |dʉm |rʉndʉm | | | |slit drum |*r[ʉ/u]mb[ʉ/u]ŋ|mbə |mbẽ |bʉŋ |rʉmbʊŋ |rʊmbʊŋ |rʊbʊk ~ rʊbʊg| |come |*rVkʉp- |kʉw- |kɨp |kɨpʉ- |kʉb- |-rkub- | | |man/male |*ramut |mɔt |mot |mɔt ~ umɔt |ramot |namot |namot | |leaf |*rapar |pʌr |paɽ |pʌr |rapar |rapar |rapʌr | |basket sp. |*ramba |mbʌː |mba | |rʌm |ramp |rʌmp | |fingernail |*rambaum | | | |rambam |rambaum |rabom | |forehead |*ramba[n] | | | | |rambaŋgut| | |fly (v.) |*raraji- | | |- |raji-- |rarei-- |rarai- | |pour out |*rumbuki- | | |buki- |rumki- |rumki- |rumki- | |heart |*ruɣut |gut |gut |uguːt ~ ugutᶷ|rugut ~ ruɣut|rukut | | Initial palatal stop /*j/ has been identified in only one root, where it is retained in Bore and Kaian and lost in Awar and Bosngun. We ssume that it should be retained in Watam but have no examples against which to check this assumption. The reflex /l/ is regular in Bore for medial /*j/ as well (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen | | |***j-** |**Ø** |**Ø**|**Ø** |**l [l r]**|**j** |**l** | |slowly |*jauŋan | | | |lɑŋʌn |iaŋonɛam |jauŋan | |spear |*japok |poʔ |poʔ | | |ɛaʔpoʔ |japok | |know/think |*jaŋmi- | | | |lamni- |jaŋmi- |iami- | |push |*jakVpak- | | | |rapaʔ- |jaʔpʌʔ- |jak̩pʌḳ(ka)-| |ship |*jaŋgum | | | |laŋgum |jaŋgum |jaŋgum | |red |*jawup- | | | |laup |jaup |iʌup | |laugh |*jaroŋg- |roŋg- |roŋg-|rɔŋgɔ- |laraŋg- |iaruŋ(ɣ)-| | |neck/throat|*joɣot |wɔt |vot |ɔɣɔt |logot |jokot | | Any consonant can occur medially. Medial consonants include those which prima facie appear to be initial but are secondary as discussed above; these are often shown below with an unspecified intial vowel <*VM> where the quality of the vowel cannot be determined through outcomparison.\\ \\ Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants. Where initial vowels have been lost in all attestations, these can look like intiial /*m/ (above) but are distinguished from them because they are not dropped in East Ramu Coast: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen| | |***Vm-** |**m** |**m**|**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |areca nut |*imindzak | | | | | |mindzak | |tongue |*Vm[i/e] | | | |mɛm |mɛmraŋ |mí: | |woman |*ameak | | |mɛs |mɛaʔ |mɛaʔ | | |rain |*amok |mok |mok |mɔk | | | | |child (sg.)|*Vmuŋ |-mu |-mu | | |-muŋ ~ -moŋ| | |breast |*Vmur |mʉr | |mʉr |mʉr |mur |muːr | … /*m/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | |***-m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |yam |*eimi |mí: ~ mí-|mi |eim |im ~ iːm |im |í:m | |mother/thumb|*ami | | | |aim ~ aɪm |aim |aim | |do/be/make |*amo- |moŋgo- |mõ- ~ moŋg(o)-|moŋgo- |amo- ~ mo-|mo- |mo- | |chin |*akam-muniŋ |kamani | |kɛmɪŋ |kabgʉn |kamuniŋ |kamuniŋ| |eye |*arameak |ramaʔ | |ramʌk |lamniaʔ |ramɛaʔ |namʌk | |now/today |*mandeak | | |mándes |mandɛaʔ |mandɛaʔ |mandʌ | |night |*nimoŋ |mũː |mu |muŋ |moŋ |nimoŋ |niːmaŋ | |crocodile |*n[o/u]ŋgumai|gumí: |ŋgumi |gomɛ |mʊgmaɪ |noːmᶷɣʌɪ|nʊgmʌɪ | |man/male |*ramut |mɔt |mot |mɔt ~ umɔt|ramot |namot |namot | |know/think |*jaŋmi- | | | |lamni- |jaŋmi- |iami- | Medial apical nasal /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***Vn-** |**n** |**n**|**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |belly/inside|*inik |nɪk ~ nik|nik |nís |inik |niːk |níːk | |child |*Vnok |nɔk | |nɔg |-nɔʔ | | | … /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen| | |***-n-** |**n** |**n**|**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |skin/bark |*in[i]t | | |ɲit ~ ɲɪt|ɪŋɪt | | | |small |*inok | | |nɔg |nɔʔ |inɔk ~ inoʔ/inuk| | |give |*… | | | | | | | |paddle |*anu[a]p |nop | |noʌp |nup |anʊp |anʊp | |two |*Vmbuniŋ |buni | |buniŋ |mbuniŋ |mbuniŋ |mboini | |cassowary |*Vmbunoŋ |mbʊnu |mbunu|bonoŋ |mbunoŋ |mbunoŋ | | |sap |*manVŋgat | | | |manŋʌr |maŋnat |mangʌt | |rattan/rope|*moneak | | | |moneaʔ ~ monʌʔ|monɛaʔ ~ monɛʔ | | |stump/base |*muniŋ |nʉː |nĩ |nʉŋ |mʉmʉŋ [sic] |muniŋ |mʊniŋ | |chin |*akam-muniŋ |kamani | |kɛmɪŋ |kabgʉn |kamuniŋ |kamuniŋ | |point |*[w][i]n[i]m| |nɨm | | | | | Medial velar nasal /*ŋ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***-ŋ-** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** | |branch |*aŋak |aŋʌʔ | |ŋak ~ aŋak|ŋʌʔ | |ŋʌk | |shore |*maŋar | | | |maŋʌr |maŋar |maŋʌr | |banana |*naŋas |ŋʌs |ŋas |ŋʌs |ŋat |ŋʌs |naŋas | |village|*naŋu |ŋu-niʔ |ŋu-niʔ|(u)gu-nis |auŋ |noŋ |noŋ | |slowly |*jauŋan | | | |lɑŋʌn |iaŋonɛam |jauŋan | In one example, Awar drops medial /*ŋ/ when followed by final /*n/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***-ŋ-/_VN**|**Ø** |**Ø**|**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** | |head|*apaŋan |pʌn ~ pan|pan |paŋan |paŋʌn ~ paŋan|paŋan |paŋan | Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***Vp-** |**p** |**p**|**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** | |sore |*Vpis |pɪ̀s |pis |pɪ̀s |pít |piːt |pís | |dog |*apiraŋ | | |pɛraŋ |piraŋ |piraŋ | | |shadow |*Vpapak | | |papʌk |papaʔ |papʌʔ | | |tree/wood|*Vparaŋ | | | |pʌraŋ |paraŋ |padaŋ | |head |*apaŋan |pʌn ~ pan |pan |paŋan |paŋʌn ~ paŋan|paŋan |paŋan | |arm/hand |*apar |pʌːr ~ pʌr|paɽ |pʌːr |pʌr |par |pʌr | … /*p/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen | | |***-p-** |**p** |**p**|**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** | |mouth/lips |*opu |puː |pu |oʊp |up |up |up | |speak |*Vmbop- | | |bopo- |mbop- |mbop- |mbop- | |top (of tree)|*upor | | |por |upur | | | |shadow |*Vpapak | | |papʌk |papaʔ |papʌʔ | | |get up |*Vŋgeap- |gə- | |gəapa- |ŋgep- |ŋgep- |ŋgepɛ- | |leaf |*rapar |pʌr |paɽ |pʌr |rapar |rapar |rapʌr | |spear |*japok |poʔ |poʔ | | |ɛaʔpoʔ |japok | |push |*jakVpak- | | | |rapaʔ- |jaʔpʌʔ- |jak̩pʌḳ(ka)-| When /*p/ is the initial segment of a suffix, it is lenited to non-stop /w%%//%% [w v] in Awar: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen| | |***p-** |**w** |**v**|**p** |**** |**p** |**** | |paucal|*-pak |-waʔ |-vaʔ |-pʌk | |-paʔ ~ -pʌʔ| | Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***-t-** |**t** |**** |**t** |**t [t d]**|**t** |**t** | |shin |*itandaŋ | | |tiɛndaŋ |dɛndaŋ (?) |teːndaŋ |tɛndaŋ | |wooden plate |*[i]tuaŋ |tũŋ | |duoŋ (?) |tuoŋ |tɔŋ | | |knee |*[i]tu[p]tup|tup | | |tutup |tutup |tutup | |buttocks |*Vtok |tɔʔ | |tɔk | | |tok | |testicles |*otu |tʊ | |oʊt |ʊt-niŋ |ʊːt-niŋ | | |swallow |*Vt[uo]k- |tu(ʔ)- |mbʌ-tu(ʔ)-|duɔko- (?)|tuʔo- |toʔ- |tokɛ- | |stand |*utik- |tik(ʌ)- ~ tíg-|tik ~ tiɣɐ|tís(i)- |wutʉk- |utik- |ut(i)ki- | |climb |*ɣote- | | |tuɛ- |otɛ- |gotɛ- | | | |***Vt-** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |bamboo |*itam |tíɛm |tʲem | | | | | |knee |*[i]tu[p]tup|tup | | |tutup |tutup |tutup | |buttocks |*Vtok |tɔʔ | |tɔk | | |tok | |piece of wood|*[o]tʉp |tʌp | | |tʉp | | | …/*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***-t-** |**t** |**t**|**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |short|*matʉp | | | |matʉp | | | |smoke|*mutur |tur | |tur |tʌʔ-tur | | | Medial laminal voiceless /*s/ is merged with apical stop /t/ in Bore: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen| | |***s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**t** |**s** |**s** | |bamboo |*sa | | | |tʌː |sa | | |mountain |*Vsakur | | | |takur |sakur |sʌkᶷr-íŋ | |walk/go |*Vsaŋg- |saŋg(a)- |saŋg-/saŋga-|saŋg(a)- |taŋg- |-sʌŋg- ~ saŋ|saŋ- | |saliva/spittle|*Vsumbe | | |sombe |tʌb |sʊːbe |subɛ | … /*s/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen| | |***-s-** |**s** |**s**|**s** |**t** |**s** |**s** | |run |*osa- |suʌ- |swa- |ɔs |ot- |ma-us- |os- | |fire |*usak |suʌʔ |sʷaʔ |suʌkᵅ |tʌʔ |saːk |sʌk | |armpit |*isap | | | |tíʌp |siap |isap- | |penis |*esi |sí |si |eɪs |it |í:s |is | |skin/hide |*asik |sʌk | | |tík |síːk ~ siːk|asìg | |father |*ase | | | |ʌit |ʌis |ais | |make bow |*VsambVri-| | | |tabri- |sʌbri- | | |far | | | | |tawʌn |sawʌn |sawan | |run |*osa- |suʌ- |swa- |ɔs |ot- |ma-us- |os- | |loincloth |*masiVk |siɛʔ |sjeʔ |siʌk ~ síɔk|tíʌʔ |mʌsík |masík | |louse/flea|*wasis |sɛt |set | |watit |wasis |wasis | |see |*wase- |wʌs(ɛ)- |vas- |wasɛ- |wat- | | | Loans from Manam (below) are likewise affected: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Manam |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | |Turner|Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |**s** |**s** |**s**|**s** |**t** |**s** |**s** | |tobacco |sokai |soɣaj |soɣaⁱ|sokai |tɔʔai |sokai |sokai | |sea/salt|makasi|mɛsi- |meⁱs |makis |makait |maɣʌɪs | | Final /*s/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***-s** |**s** |**s**|**s** |**t** |**s** |**s** | |flesh/thigh|*umbis | | | |búit |bis |bis | |sore |*Vpis |pɪ̀s |pis |pɪ̀s |pít |piːt |pís | |flesh/calf |*… | | | |búit ~ buít ~bʊit|bis |bis | |banana |*naŋas |ŋʌs |ŋas |ŋʌs |ŋat |ŋʌs |naŋas | |buttocks |*… | | | |kabít |kabɪs- | | |[European] |*… | | | |kʌʔkɔt | |kʌkos | Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***k-** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** | |tanget |*kindiŋ |kʉndʉ | | |kɨndɨŋ |kindiŋ |kindiŋ | |speech |*akam |kam | | |kam | | | |chin |*akam-muniŋ|kamani | |kɛmɪŋ |kabgʉn |kamuniŋ |kamuniŋ | |buttocks |*… | | | |kabít |kabɪs- | | |possum |*kand[o]n | | |kandon |kandon |kʌndon | | |aroww sp. |*kakat | | | |kʌʔt-ʌr |kʌkʌt | | |one |*kaku | | |goku | |kakʊ |kʌkʊ- | |[European]|*… | | | |kʌʔkɔt | |kʌkos | |basket sp.|*akaram | |kɽɐm |karʌm | | | | |moon |*KɐrVwei |kərí |kɐɽi |kɛrwi |karwej |kaɪre | | |ear |*uk[o/u]ar |kur |kuɽ |kur |koʌr |koar |koʌr | |canoe |*k[u]or |koːr |koɽ |kɔːr |kɔr |koːr |kɔːr | | |***k-/_ia**|**k** |**k** |**s** |**k** |**** |**** | |flying fox|*ikakɐr |kíʌgar |kʲaɣɐɽ|sakʌr |kɛkɛr̃ | | | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***…** |**g** |**g** |**g** |**k** |**k** |**k** | |urine|*… |gʉmbʌr̃ |gɐmbaɽ|gəm(bʌr) |kɛmbar |keːbʌr |kebʌr | Medial …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen| | |***…** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |shoulder |*nakep | | | |ŋakɛp |nakep |nʌkp | |mountain |*Vsakur | | | |takur |sakur |sʌkᶷr-íŋ | |one |*kaku | | |goku | |kakʊ |kʌkʊ- | |older brother |*… | | | | |jakai |jakʌi | | |***…** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |heart |*ruɣut |gut |gut |uguːt ~ ugutᶷ |rugut ~ ruɣut|rukut | | | |***-k-** |**g** |**ɣ** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** | |scratch |*indzik- |nzig- |ndʒik- |dʒisi- |íːk- |íːg- |iki- | |sew |*indzuk- |tsʉg- |dʒuk- |ískʉ- |juːk- | | | |call out |*ako- |ko- |ko- | |ʌʔ- |ʌoʔ- |aka- | |taro |*Vk[o/u]r |kor |koɽ |kor |kur | | | |vomit |*oweak- |juʔɛ-; juːɛ-| |uaka- | |wɛʌʔ- |ojʌk- | |swallow |*Vt[uo]k- |tu(ʔ)- |mbʌ-tu(ʔ)-|duɔko- (?) |tuʔo- |toʔ- |tokɛ- | |frog |*mɨk[i/e]p | | | |k̯ɛp |keːp | | |heavy |*makuk | | | |makuk |makuk |makuk | |pig |*marakum |rãgʌm |ɽɐɣɐm |rakʌm |markɨm |markum |markʊm | |mountain |*Vsakur | | | |takur |sakur |sʌkᶷr-íŋ | |flying fox |*ikakɐr |kíʌgar |kʲaɣɐɽ |sakʌr |kɛkɛr̃ | | | |aroww sp. |*kakat | | | |kʌʔt-ʌr |kʌkʌt | | |bow |*warVkam | | | |wʌrkam |warkam |warkʌm- | |arrow sp. |*ndzikar |dɪɣar |ndiɣar |dezɛr̃-pʌk |ndikar |ndʒikar |ndzekar | |sharp/bad |*indzakak | | | |jakʌk |tsʌkʌʔ |dʒakʌk | |come |*rVkʉp- |kʉw- |kɨp |kɨpʉ- |kʉb- |-rkub- | | | |***…** |**g** |**ɣ** |**g ɣ** |**g** |**g** |**g** | |bone |*aɣar(-ɣar)|agʌr ~ gagʌr|gaɣɐɽ |agʌːr ~gʌːr~aɣʌr̃|gagʌr ~ gagar|gaɣar ~ gagar|gagʌr | | |***…** |**w** |**v** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |b. hair/feather|*… |wrʌːr |vɐɽaɽ |rakʌr̃ |laukʌr | | | | |***…** |**w** |**v** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |neck/throat |*joɣot |wɔt |vot |ɔɣɔt |logot |jokot | | Final /*k/ is typically reflected as glottal stop [ʔ] in Awar, Bore and Kaian: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen | | |***-k** |**k [ʔ k]**|**k [ʔ k]**|**k** |**k [ʔ k]** |**k [ʔ k]** |**k** | |small |*inok | | |nɔg |nɔʔ |inɔk ~ inoʔ/inuk| | |sky |*irak |rʌʔ |ɽaʔ |rʌk |riaʔ ~ riʌʔ | | | |liver |*Vmbembek | | | |bebʌʔ |bɛbɛk |bɛbk | |river |*[ao]ka | |kwa |ʌuk |ɔʔ |ɔk |wɔk | |rain |*amok |mok |mok |mɔk | | | | |skin/hide |*asik |sʌk | | |tík |síːk ~ siːk |asìg | |branch |*aŋak |aŋʌʔ | |ŋak ~ aŋak |ŋʌʔ | |ŋʌk | |trunk |*arVk |rʌk | |rag- | |arík | | |wing |*awɐk |wʌk |vɐk |awʌk |wʉk |auk |ʊk- | |bad |*Vŋgoreak | | | |goreaʔ |ŋgorɛaʔ | | |stone axe |*oteak |-tɛʔ |teʔ |wotu-tɛs |oteaʔ |otɛaʔ | | |fire |*usak |suʌʔ |sʷaʔ |suʌkᵅ |tʌʔ |saːk |sʌk | |bird |*uŋgorak |ŋgoraʔ |ŋguɽaʔ |goarak |ŋgɔrʌʔ |ŋgoraʔ |ŋgorak | |areca nut |*imindzak | | | | | |mindzak | |now/today |*mandeak | | |mándes |mandɛaʔ |mandɛaʔ |mandʌ | |loincloth |*masiVk |siɛʔ |sjeʔ |siʌk ~ síɔk|tíʌʔ |mʌsík |masík | |heavy |*makuk | | | |makuk |makuk |makuk | |rattan/rope|*moneak | | | |moneaʔ ~ monʌʔ|monɛaʔ ~ monɛʔ | | |shadow |*Vpapak | | |papʌk |papaʔ |papʌʔ | | |paucal |*-pak |-waʔ |-vaʔ |-pʌk | |-paʔ ~ -pʌʔ | | |sit |*amb[i/e]rak[a]|mbɛra(ʔa)- |mbiraʔ |bɛraka- |biraʔ- |mbiraʔ- |bir(a)ka- | |areca nut |*MBok |mboʔ |mboʔ |bɔk |mbɔʔ |mboʔ | | |vine |*naŋgatik |ŋgəriʔ |ŋgɐriʔ |gətʉk |gʌtʉk |naŋtik |naŋtik ~ naŋtɪ́k| |child |*nok |nɔk | |nɔg |-nɔʔ | | | |buttocks |*Vtok |tɔʔ | |tɔk | | |tok | |sharp/bad |*indzakak | | | |jakʌk |tsʌkʌʔ |dʒakʌk | |chop down |*wak- | | | |waʔ- | |waka- | |hear |*warak- | | | |uar(a)k- |waraʔ- |waraʔ- | |eye |*arameak |ramaʔ | |ramʌk |lamniaʔ |ramɛaʔ |namʌk | |vulva |*jok | | | |lɔʔ |jɔʔ |jɔːk | |fence |*… |bʊɛ̃ʔ |bɐʔ |wuək ~ wʊək|wɔʌʔ |goaʔ |gʊʌk | |spear |*japok |poʔ |poʔ | | |ɛaʔpoʔ |japok | |push |*jakVpak- | | | |rapaʔ- |jaʔpʌʔ- |jak̩pʌḳ(ka)- | Bosngun reflects final /*k/ as /s/ when following …, an affectation found also in Aruamu (Mikarew) to the southeast: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen| | |***-k/…** |**k [k ʔ]** |**k [k ʔ]**|**s** |**k [k ʔ]**|**k [k ʔ]**|**k** | |belly/inside|*inik |nɪk ~ nik |nik |nís |inik |niːk |níːk | |woman |*ameak | | |mɛs |mɛaʔ |mɛaʔ | | |stand |*utik- |tik(ʌ)- ~ tíg-|tik ~ tiɣɐ |tís(i)- |wutʉk- |utik- |ut(i)ki- | |sago |*weak |wɛʔ |veʔ |wɛs |weaʔ |wɛʌʔ |wʌk | Prenasalized bilabial stop /*mb/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen | | |***mb-** |**mb** |**mb**|**b** |**mb** |**mb** |**mb** | |sister |*imbi | | |bí |mbí |mbí ~ mbi |mbí | |sit |*amb[i/e]rak[a] |mbɛra(ʔa)- |mbiraʔ|bɛraka- |biraʔ- |mbiraʔ- |bir(a)ka- | |liver |*Vmbembek | | | |bebʌʔ |bɛbɛk |bɛbk | |thunder (v.) |*Vmb[ʉ/u][t/r][i]-|mbʉt- ~ mbʉr-| |mbʉtʉ- | |buri- | | |old |*mbaŋgar | | | |bagaR |bagʌr\\ ~ pʌgʌr̃ (?)|bagʌr | |speak |*Vmbop- | | |bopo- |mbop- |mbop- |mbop- | |areca nut |*MBok |mboʔ |mboʔ |bɔk |mbɔʔ |mboʔ | | |flesh/thigh |*umbis | | | |búit |bis |bis | |two |*Vmbuniŋ |buni | |buniŋ |mbuniŋ |mbuniŋ |mboini | |cassowary |*Vmbunoŋ |mbʊnu |mbunu |bonoŋ |mbunoŋ |mbunoŋ | | |nape |*Vmbut | | |tʌːn-bud |mbut |-but |mbut | | |***-mb-** |**mb** |**mb**|**mb** |**mb [mb b]**|**mb [mb b]** |**b** | |liver |*Vmbembek | | | |bebʌʔ |bɛbɛk |bɛbk | |go inside |*ambuk- | | |mboa- |mbug- |ambuk- |mbuku- | | | | | | | | | | |tail |*nambuŋgen | | | |bugan |bugon |nabugɛn | |make bow |*VsambVri- | | | |tabri- |sʌbri- | | |saliva/spittle|*Vsumbe | | |sombe |tʌb |sʊːbe |subɛ | |urine |*… |gʉmbʌr̃ |gɐmbaɽ|gəm(bʌr) |kɛmbar |keːbʌr |kebʌr | |basket sp. |*ramba |mbʌː |mba | |rʌm (?) |ramp |rʌmp | |forehead |*ramba[n] | | | | |rambaŋgut | | |fingernail |*rambaum | | | |rambam |rambaum |rabom | |slit drum |*r[ʉ/u]mb[ʉ/u]ŋ |mbə |mbẽ |bʉŋ |rʉmbʊŋ |rʊmbʊŋ |rʊbʊk ~ rʊbʊg| |know/think |*j[e/a]mb- |jɛmb- |jemb- |jambʌ- ~ jam-| | | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar|Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy|Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***** |**** |****|**** |**b-** |**b-** |**b-** | |flesh/calf|*… | | | |búit ~ buít ~bʊit|bis |bis | Prenasalized apical stop …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar|Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy|Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen | | |***nd-** |**nd** |****|**nd [d]** |**nd [nd d]**|**nd** |**nd [nd d]**| |kunai grass |*Vndain | | |dʌin |ndain |ndain |ndain | |tooth |*andar |ndʌr | |dʌːr̃ |dʌr | | | | |***-nd-** |**nd** |****|**nd [nd d]**|**nd** |**nd** |**nd** | |shin |*itandaŋ | | |tiɛndaŋ |dɛndaŋ |teːndaŋ |tɛndaŋ | |nose/point |*indup |-ɪndʉp | | | |iːndup | | |house |*[i/e]ndau| | | | |ɛndau |ɪndaʊ | |spirit/soul |*andurum | | | | |adʊrʊm |dʊrʊm | |finger |*andam |ndam | |andam | | | | |spirit/soul |*undVm |ndom |ndom|dom | | | | |snake |*mindop | | |ndup ~ dup |nduop |mindop |míndop | |now/today |*mandeak | | |mándes |mandɛaʔ |mandɛaʔ |mandʌ | |male child |*ŋ[o]ndar | | | | |ŋandar̃ | | |tanget |*kindiŋ |kʉndʉ | | |kɨndɨŋ |kindiŋ |kindiŋ | |possum |*kand[o]n | | |kandon |kandon |kʌndon | | |hand drum |*rindiŋ | | |díŋ |dindiŋ (?) |rindiŋ |rindiŋ | |betel pepper|*rʉndʉm |ndʉm | |dʉm |rʉndʉm | | | Laminal voiced prenasalized /*ndz/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen | | |***ndz-** |**ndz** |**** |**ndz [nz]**|**nd [d]**|**** |**ndz [ndʒ]**| |arrow sp.|*ndzikar |dɪɣar |ndiɣar|dezɛr̃-pʌk |ndikar |ndʒikar |ndzekar | |lung |*Vndzeram |ndzɛram | |nzaram- |dɛrʌm | |ndʒɛrm | … /*ndz/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen | | |***ndz-/i_**|**ndz [ts]**|**ndz [dʒ]**|**ndz [s]**|**j** |**ndz [ts]**|**ndz [ndʒ]**| |sharp/bad|*indzakak | | | |jakʌk |tsʌkʌʔ |dʒakʌk | |sew |*indzuk- |tsʉg- |dʒuk- |ískʉ- |juːk- | | | … /*ndz/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***ndz-/i_i**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |scratch|*indzik- |nzig- |ndʒik-|dʒisi- |íːk- |íːg- |iki- | Medial laminal prenasalized voiced /*ndz/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar|Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen | | |***-ndz-**|**ndz** |****|**ʒ** |**nd** |**ndz [nz]**|**ndz [ndz nz]**| |arrow sp.|* | | |ʒaŋ- |andʌŋ |anzaŋ |anzaŋ | |areca nut|*mindzak | | | | | |mindzak | |net bag |*mendzait |nziɛt | |ʒə̆t |mɪndʌit |mɛndzai |mɛnzep | Velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen | | |***ŋg-** |**ŋg [ŋg g]**|**ŋg** |**ŋg [ŋg g]**|**ŋg [ŋg g]**|**ŋg [ŋg g]** |**ŋg [ŋg g]**| |get up |*Vŋgeap- |gə- | |gəapa- |ŋgep- |ŋgep- |ŋgepɛ- | |elbow |*ŋgʉn |ŋgíngʉn | |-gʉn |-ngɨn | | | |bad |*Vŋgoreak | | | |goreaʔ |ŋgorɛaʔ | | |bird |*uŋgorak |ŋgoraʔ |ŋguɽaʔ |goarak |ŋgɔrʌʔ |ŋgoraʔ |ŋgorak | |nose/face|*Vŋgum |ŋgum |ŋgum |gum |ŋgum |ŋgʊm |ŋgum | |tail |*Vŋgun |ŋgun |ŋgun ~ gun |gun | | | | | |***-ŋg-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |young/new|*[i]ŋgam |ŋgam ~ ŋgʌm |ŋgam |ŋgʌm ~ gam |ŋgam |ŋgam |ŋgam ~ ŋgʌm | |back |*aŋgɐr | | |ŋgʌr- ~ ŋgr- | | | | |take |*aŋgɐr- |gər- |ŋgɐɽ- |ŋgʌra-- |aŋgʉ- |m-aŋgɪr- |aŋgi- | |1 dl. |*aŋga |ŋga |ŋga |ŋgʌ |ʌŋk |aŋ- |ʌŋga | |sleep |*aŋgo[r]- |ŋgo- | |ŋgoː(r)- |ŋgor- |ŋgo- |ŋgo- | |sap |*manVŋgat | | | |manŋʌr |maŋnat |mangʌt | |old |*mbaŋgar | | | |bagaR |bagʌr ~ pʌgʌr̃|bagʌr | |tail |*nambuŋgen | | | |bugan |bugon |nabugɛn | |crocodile|*n[o/u]ŋgumai|gumí: |ŋgumi |gomɛ |mʊgmaɪ |noːmᶷɣʌɪ (?) |nʊgmʌɪ | |walk/go |*Vsaŋg- |saŋg(a)- |saŋg-/saŋga-|saŋg(a)- |taŋg- |-sʌŋg- ~ saŋ |saŋ- | |ship |*jaŋgum | | | |laŋgum |jaŋgum |jaŋgum | |laugh |*jaroŋg- |roŋg- |roŋg- |rɔŋgɔ- |laraŋg- |iaruŋ(ɣ)- | | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar|Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***…-** |**** |****|**** |**** |**** |**** | |chest|*… |ŋgəʊp | |gap- |gʌdoup |gʌdaʊp |dadup | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| |**** |***-ŋg-** |**ŋg** |**ŋg**|**ndz [nts]**|**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** | |mosquito|*naŋgit |ŋget |ŋget |ntsɛt |ŋgit |naŋgit |naŋgit | … /*ŋ/ … /*ŋg/ … Outcomparison to Ruboni Range /*gurum/ suggests velar non-stop /*ɣ/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***-ŋ-** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** | |yesterday|*u[ŋ/ŋg]Vr |gur |gur |ugur |ŋour |ŋʌur |ŋuːr | |tomorrow |*u[ŋ/ŋg]Vr-ɐp|gur̃-əp |gur-ɐp|wuər-ap |ŋor-ʌp |ŋor-ʌp |ŋʌːr-ap | Medial apical non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***-r-** |**r** |**ɽ** |**r** |**r** |**r** |**r** | |go down/fall |*irik- |rig- | |rɨs(i)- |irik- | |irik(i)- | |sky |*irak |rʌʔ |ɽaʔ |rʌk |riaʔ ~ riʌʔ| | | |tree/wood |*Vparaŋ | | | |pʌraŋ |paraŋ |padaŋ | |spirit/soul |*andurum | | | | |adʊrʊm |dʊrʊm | |make bow |*VsambVri- | | | |tabri- |sʌbri- | | |basket sp. |*akaram | |kɽɐm |karʌm | | | | |trunk |*arVk |rʌk | |rag- | |arík | | |shoot/throw |*arVŋg- |rəŋg- |rʉŋgɐ ~ rʉŋgat|raŋgʌ- |rʉŋg- |ariŋ(g)- |ariŋ- | |day before y.|*VrVr |rur |ɽuɽ |rueːr |raur |raurᵘ | | |day after t. |*VrVr-ɐp |rur-əp | |rar-əp |rar-ʌp |rar-ʌp |rʌr-ʌp | |ripe |*aru |ru |ɽu |roː |ru-ru |aru- |ʌru- | |wash/bathe |*aru- |ruɛ- | |ruʌgɣʌ- |ru- |ʌru- |aru- | |bad |*Vŋgoreak | | | |goreaʔ |ŋgorɛaʔ | | |forest |*oraŋ |ruə̃: |ɽuɛ̃ |r̩ʌŋ |raŋ |raŋ |oraŋ | |bamboo knife |*urim | | | |rim |urim | | |swim |*urir- |dui- (?) | |ri- |irir- |mʌ-riri | | |bow |*warVkam | | | |wʌrkam |warkam |warkʌm- | |fingernail |*rambaum | | | |rambam |rambaum |rabom | |leg/foot |*… |r̃uɛ |ɽʷe |ɔr ~ or |ɔr |or |ɔr | | |***-r-** |**r** |**ɽ** |**r** |**r** |**r** |**r** | |swim |*urir- |dui- (?) | |ri- |irir- |mʌ-riri | | |coconut |*uraŋ |duɛ (?) |duɛ̃ (?) |wər̃aŋ |ruaŋ |ɣʊaŋ (?) |rʊaŋ | |pig |*marakum |rãgʌm |ɽɐɣɐm |rakʌm |markɨm |markum |markʊm | |dog |*apiraŋ | | |pɛraŋ |piraŋ |piraŋ | | |sit |*amb[i/e]rak[a]|mbɛra(ʔa)-|mbiraʔ |bɛraka- |biraʔ- |mbiraʔ- |bir(a)ka-| |lung |*ndzeram |ndzɛram | |nzaram- |dɛrʌm | |ndʒɛrm | |water |*ŋarum | | | | |ŋarum |arum | |spirit sp. |*… | | |rarʌŋ |rʌːraŋ |raraŋ |ŋʌraŋ (?)| |moon |*KɐrVwei |kərí |kɐɽi |kɛrwi |karwej |kaɪre | | |bird |*uŋgorak |ŋgoraʔ |ŋguɽaʔ |goarak |ŋgɔrʌʔ |ŋgoraʔ |ŋgorak | |garden |*wariŋ |rĩ: |ɽi |reiŋ-pʌk |warʉŋ |wariŋ | | |hear |*warak- | | | |uar(a)k- |waraʔ- |waraʔ- | |fly (v.) |*raraji- | | |- |raji-- |rarei-- |rarai- | |laugh |*jaroŋg- |roŋg- |roŋg- |rɔŋgɔ- |laraŋg- |iaruŋ(ɣ)-| | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***r-** |**r** |**ɽ**|**r** |**l** |**r** |**n** | |sun|*rao |rau |ɽao |r̃ʌo |raː |ra |nʌu | |eye|*arameak |ramaʔ | |ramʌk |lamniaʔ |ramɛaʔ |namʌk | Final /*r/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen | | |***-r** |**r [r r̃]**|**ɽ** |**r [r r̃]** |**r [r r̃]** |**r [r ɛ Ø]** |**r [r Ø]**| |back |*aŋgVr | | |ŋgʌr- ~ ŋgr- | | | | |lime |*awir |wɪr-waʔ |viɽ-vaʔ|wər̃-pʌk |ʌwɪr |ai-pʌʔ |aɪ | |day before y. |*VrVr |rur |ɽuɽ |rueːr |raur |raurᵘ | | |taro |*Vk[o/u]r |kor |koɽ |kor |kur | | | |top (of tree) |*upor | | |por |upur | | | |shore |*maŋar | | | |maŋʌr |maŋar |maŋʌr | |smoke |*mutur |tur | |tur |tʌʔ-tur | | | |breast |*mur |mʉr | |mʉr |mʉr |mur |muːr | |arm/hand |*apar |pʌːr ~ pʌr |paɽ |pʌːr |pʌr |par |pʌr | |old |*mbaŋgar | | | |bagaR |bagʌr ~ pʌgʌr̃ |bagʌr | |tooth |*andar |ndʌr | |dʌːr̃ |dʌr | | | |mountain |*Vsakur | | | |takur |sakur |sʌkᶷr-íŋ | |arrow sp. |*ndzikar |dɪɣar |ndiɣar |dezɛr̃-pʌk |ndikar |ndʒikar |ndzekar | |flying fox |*ikakɐr |kíʌgar |kʲaɣɐɽ |sakʌr |kɛkɛr̃ | | | |urine |*… |gʉmbʌr̃ |gɐmbaɽ |gəm(bʌr) |kɛmbar |keːbʌr |kebʌr | |ear |*uk[o/u]ar |kur |kuɽ |kur |koʌr |koar |koʌr | |male child |*ŋ[o]ndar | | | | |ŋandar̃ | | |canoe |*k[u]or |koːr |koɽ |kɔːr |kɔr |koːr |kɔːr | |b. hair/feather|*… |wrʌːr |vɐɽaɽ |rakʌr̃ |laukʌr | | | |leaf |*rapar |pʌr |paɽ |pʌr |rapar |rapar |rapʌr | |fruit/seed/egg |*jor | | | |lɔːr |jor ~ joːr ~ joɛ|ɪor ~ iɔr | |bone |*aɣar(-ɣar)|agʌr ~ gagʌr|gaɣɐɽ |agʌːr ~gʌːr~aɣʌr̃|gagʌr ~ gagar|gaɣar ~ gagar |gagʌr | Initial palatal glide /*j/ is occluded to lateral non-stop /l/ in Bore: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen| | |***j-** |**j** |**j**|**j** |**l [l r]**|**j** |**j** | |know/think |*j[e/a]mb-|jɛmb- |jemb-|jambʌ- ~ jam-| | | | |firewood |*jajit | | | |laɪt |jait |ieɪt | |good |*jawoŋ |ja |jã |jaŋ |laŋ |jaʊŋ |ɛaʊŋ | |younger brother|*jap |jab ~ jap|jap |jʌp |lʌːp |jap |jʌp | |older brother |*… | | | | |jakai |jakʌi | |blood |*… | | | |rʌkaint |jakʌɪnt | | |excrement |*j[o/u] | | | |loː |jʊː-paʔ |ío | |vulva |*jok | | | |lɔʔ |jɔʔ |jɔːk | |fruit/seed/egg |*jor | | | |lɔːr |jor ~ joːr ~ joɛ|ɪor ~ iɔr| … glide /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen | | |***w-** |**w [w v]** |**v** |**w [w v]**|**w** |**w** |**w [w v]**| |sago |*weak |wɛʔ |veʔ |wɛs |weaʔ |wɛʌʔ |wʌk | |stone |*waut |wuət | |woʊt |waut |waut |voʊt | |see |*wase- |wʌs(ɛ)- |vas- |wasɛ- |wat- | | | |hear |*warak- | | | |uar(a)k- |waraʔ- |waraʔ- | | |***w-** |**Ø** |**Ø** |**Ø** |**w** |**w** |**w** | | | | | | | | | | |louse/flea |*wasis |sɛt |set | |watit |wasis |wasis | |chop down |*wak- | | | |waʔ- | |waka- | |garden |*wariŋ |rĩ: |ɽi |reiŋ-pʌk |warʉŋ |wariŋ | | |bow |*warVkam | | | |wʌrkam |warkam |warkʌm- | | |***w-** |**Ø** |**Ø** |**Ø** |**Ø** |**Ø** |**w** | |fat/grease |*wawait |wɛt | |wɛt ~ wet | |wer-paʔ |wawʌɪt | |clay pot |*wun | | |ɣʉn (?) |wʉn |ʊːn |ʊːn | | |***-w-** |**w** |**v** |**w Ø** |**w** |**w Ø** |**w Ø** | |blow (fire)|*iwi- |biɛ- | |wiɛ- |wiː- | | | |lime |*awir |wɪr-waʔ |viɽ-vaʔ|wər̃-pʌk |ʌwɪr |ai-pʌʔ |aɪ | |ashes |*[a]weten |wɛrɛn | |wɛtɛn | | | | |wing |*awɐk |wʌk |vɐk |awʌk |wʉk |auk |ʊk- | |many |*awut | | | |wʉt |aut |aut | |vomit |*oweak- |juʔɛ-; juːɛ-| |uaka- | |wɛʌʔ- |ojʌk- | |far | | | | |tawʌn |sawʌn |sawan | |sing/dance |*[u]we | | |wɛ- |wɛ- |wɛ- |weː- | |fat/grease |*wawait |wɛt | |wɛt ~ wet | |wer-paʔ |wawʌɪt | |good |*jawoŋ |ja |jã |jaŋ |laŋ |jaʊŋ |ɛaʊŋ | |red |*jawup- | | | |laup |jaup |iʌup | …final consonants …:\\ \\ Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen | | |***-m** |**m** |**m**|**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |bamboo |*itam |tíɛm |tʲem | | | | | |young/new |*[i]ŋgam |ŋgam ~ ŋgʌm|ŋgam |ŋgʌm ~ gam|ŋgam |ŋgam |ŋgam ~ ŋgʌm| |spirit/soul |*andurum | | | | |adʊrʊm |dʊrʊm | |speech |*akam |kam | |kam | | | | |basket sp. |*akaram | |kɽɐm |karʌm | | | | |spirit/soul |*undVm |ndom |ndom |dom | | | | |bamboo knife|*urim | | | |rim |urim | | |pig |*marakum |rãgʌm |ɽɐɣɐm|rakʌm |markɨm |markum |markʊm | |water |*ŋarum | | | | |ŋarum |arum | |lung |*ndzeram |ndzɛram | |nzaram- |dɛrʌm | |ndʒɛrm | |nose/face |*Vŋgum |ŋgum |ŋgum |gum |ŋgum |ŋgʊm |ŋgum | |point |*[w][i]n[i]m| |nɨm | | | | | |bow |*warVkam | | | |wʌrkam |warkam |warkʌm- | |fingernail |*rambaum | | | |rambam |rambaum |rabom | |betel pepper|*rʉndʉm |ndʉm | |dʉm |rʉndʉm | | | |ship |*jaŋgum | | | |laŋgum |jaŋgum |jaŋgum | Final apical naasal /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***-n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |ashes |*[a]weten |wɛrɛn | |wɛtɛn | | | | |head |*apaŋan |pʌn ~ pan|pan |paŋan |paŋʌn ~ paŋan|paŋan |paŋan | |far | | | | |tawʌn |sawʌn |sawan | |tail |*nambuŋgen| | | |bugan |bugon |nabugɛn | |kunai grass|*Vndain | | |dʌin |ndain |ndain |ndain | |possum |*kand[o]n | | |kandon |kandon |kʌndon | | |elbow |*Vŋgʉn |ŋgíngʉn | |-gʉn |-ngɨn | | | |tail |*Vŋgun |ŋgun |ŋgun ~ gun|gun | | | | |clay pot |*wun | | |ɣʉn |wʉn |ʊːn |ʊːn | |slowly |*jauŋan | | | |lɑŋʌn |iaŋonɛam |jauŋan | Final velar nasal /*ŋ/ is dropped in Awar, often with nasalization of the preceding vowel: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen | | |***-ŋ** |**Ø** |**Ø**|**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** | |shin |*itandaŋ | | |tiɛndaŋ |dɛndaŋ |teːndaŋ |tɛndaŋ | |wooden plate|*[i]tuaŋ |tũŋ | |duoŋ (?) |tuoŋ |tɔŋ | | |arrow sp. |* | | |ʒaŋ- |andʌŋ |anzaŋ |anzaŋ | |forest |*oraŋ |ruə̃: |ɽuɛ̃ |r̩ʌŋ |raŋ |raŋ |oraŋ | |coconut |*uraŋ |duɛ |duɛ̃ |wər̃aŋ |ruaŋ |ɣʊaŋ |rʊaŋ | |stump/base |*muniŋ |nʉː |nĩ |nʉŋ |mʉmʉŋ [sic]|muniŋ |mʊniŋ | |child (sg.) |*muŋ |-mu |-mu | | |-muŋ ~ -moŋ| | |dog |*apiraŋ | | |pɛraŋ |piraŋ |piraŋ | | |tree/wood |*Vparaŋ | | | |pʌraŋ |paraŋ |padaŋ | |two |*Vmbuniŋ |buni | |buniŋ |mbuniŋ |mbuniŋ |mboini | |cassowary |*Vmbunoŋ |mbʊnu |mbunu|bonoŋ |mbunoŋ |mbunoŋ | | |night |*nimoŋ |mũː |mu |muŋ |moŋ |nimoŋ |niːmaŋ | |girl |*namoŋ |mɔ |mõ |moŋ |moŋ |namoŋ |namoŋ | |tanget |*kindiŋ |kʉndʉ | | |kɨndɨŋ |kindiŋ |kindiŋ | |chin |*akam-muniŋ |kamani | |kɛmɪŋ |kabgʉn (?) |kamuniŋ |kamuniŋ | |hand drum |*rindiŋ | | |díŋ |dindiŋ (?) |rindiŋ |rindiŋ | |good |*jawoŋ |ja |jã |jaŋ |laŋ |jaʊŋ |ɛaʊŋ | |garden |*wariŋ |rĩ: |ɽi |reiŋ-pʌk |warʉŋ |wariŋ | | |slit drum |*r[ʉ/u]mb[ʉ/u]ŋ|mbə |mbẽ |bʉŋ |rʉmbʊŋ |rʊmbʊŋ |rʊbʊk ~ rʊbʊg| Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***-p** |**p** |**p**|**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** | |nose/point |*indup |-ɪndʉp | | | |iːndup | | |armpit |*isap | | | |tíʌp |siap |isap- | |path |*V[t/r]Vp | | |toʊp |taup |raup |orop | |paddle |*anu[a]p |nop | |noʌp |nup |anʊp |anʊp | |piece of wood |*[o]tʉp |tʌp | | |tʉp | | | |snake |*mindop | | |ndup ~ dup|nduop |mindop |míndop | |frog |*mɨk[i/e]p | | | |k̯ɛp |keːp | | |short |*matʉp | | | |matʉp | | | |shoulder |*nakep | | | |ŋakɛp |nakep |nʌkp | |knee |*[i]tu[p]tup|tup | | |tutup |tutup |tutup | |chest |*… |ŋgəʊp | |gap- |gʌdoup |gʌdaʊp |dadup | |younger brother|*jap |jab ~ jap|jap |jʌp |lʌːp |jap |jʌp | |red |*jawup- | | | |laup |jaup |iʌup | Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen | | |***-t** |**t** |**t**|**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |skin/bark |*in[i]t | | |ɲit ~ ɲɪt |ɪŋɪt | | | |many |*awut | | | |wʉt |aut |aut | |net bag |*mendzait |nziɛt | |ʒə̆t |mɪndʌit |mɛndzai (?)|mɛnzep (?)| |sap |*manVŋgat | | | |manŋʌr (?) |maŋnat |mangʌt | |sugarcane |*mowit |wít |vit |wɪt |moɪt | | | |nape |*Vmbut | | |tʌːn-bud |mbut |-but |mbut | |mosquito |*naŋgit |ŋget |ŋget |ntsɛt |ŋgit |naŋgit |naŋgit | |aroww sp. |*kakat | | | |kʌʔt-ʌr |kʌkʌt | | |stone |*waut |wuət | |woʊt |waut |waut |voʊt | |fat/grease |*wawait |wɛt | |wɛt ~ wet | |wer-paʔ (?)|wawʌɪt | |man/male |*ramut |mɔt |mot |mɔt ~ umɔt |ramot |namot |namot | |heart |*ruɣut |gut |gut |uguːt ~ ugutᶷ|rugut ~ ruɣut|rukut | | |neck/throat|*joɣot |wɔt |vot |ɔɣɔt |logot |jokot | | |firewood |*jajit | | | |laɪt |jait |ieɪt | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| | |***V₁CV₂**|**CV₂** |**CV₂**|**V₁V₂C**|**V₂C** |**V₂C** |**V₂C** | |yam |*eimi |mí: ~ mí-|mi |eim |im ~ iːm |im |í:m | |penis |*esi |sí |si |eɪs |it |í:s |is | |father |*ase | | | |ʌit |ʌis |ais | |call out |*ako- |ko- |ko- | |ʌʔ- |ʌoʔ- |aka- | |mouth/lips |*opu |puː |pu |oʊp |up |up |up | |testicles |*otu |tʊ | |oʊt |ʊt-niŋ |ʊːt-niŋ | | |run |*osa- |suʌ- |swa- |ɔs |ot- |ma-us- |os- | |village |*naŋu |ŋu-niʔ |ŋu-niʔ |(u)gu-nis|auŋ |noŋ |noŋ | |basket sp. |*ramba |mbʌː |mba | |rʌm |ramp |rʌmp | | |***V₁CV₂**|**CV₂** |**CV₂**|**V₁C** |**V₁C** |**V₁C** |**V₁C** | |river |*[ao]ka | |kwa |ʌuk |ɔʔ |ɔk |wɔk | |weep/cry |*aj[e/a]- |jʌ- |ja- |jɛː- |aɪ- |aɪ- |m-ai- | |top (of tree)|*os | | | | |os |ɔːs | |leg/foot |* |r̃uɛ |ɽʷe |ɔr ~ or |ɔr |or |ɔr | | |***V₁CV₂**|**** |**** |**** |**V₁V₂C**|**V₁V₂C**|**V₁V₂C**| |mother/thumb |*ame | | | |aim ~ aɪm|aim |aim | … loss of initial vowels … This reduction is nearly invariable in Awar but rarely occurs in Watam: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen |Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen | | |***¬** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |skin/bark |*in[i]t | | |ɲit ~ ɲɪt |ɪŋɪt | | | |small |*inok | | |nɔg |nɔʔ |inɔk ~ inoʔ/inuk| | |bamboo |*itam |tíɛm |tʲem | | | | | |shin |*itandaŋ | | |tiɛndaŋ |dɛndaŋ |teːndaŋ |tɛndaŋ | |knee |*[i]tu[p]tup|tup | | |tutup |tutup |tutup | |young/new |*[i]ŋgam |ŋgam ~ ŋgʌm|ŋgam |ŋgʌm ~ gam |ŋgam |ŋgam |ŋgam ~ ŋgʌm| |sky |*irak |rʌʔ |ɽaʔ |rʌk |riaʔ ~ riʌʔ| | | |rain |*amok |mok |mok |mɔk | | | | |branch |*aŋak |aŋʌʔ | |ŋak ~ aŋak |ŋʌʔ | |ŋʌk | |back |*aŋgVr | | |ŋgʌr- ~ ŋgr-| | | | |lime |*awir |wɪr-waʔ |viɽ-vaʔ|wər̃-pʌk |ʌwɪr |ai-pʌʔ |aɪ | |wing |*awɐk |wʌk |vɐk |awʌk |wʉk |auk |ʊk- | |trunk |*arVk |rʌk | |rag- | |arík | | |ripe |*aru |ru |ɽu |roː |ru-ru |aru- |ʌru- | |stone axe |*oteak |-tɛʔ |teʔ |wotu-tɛs |oteaʔ |otɛaʔ | | |piece of wood|*[o]tʉp |tʌp | | |tʉp | | | |top (of tree)|*upor | | |por |upur | | | …\\ ===== Pronouns ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Ramu Coast nominative pronouns are as follows, with all forms drawn from Z'graggen (1972) and Levy (2002: 184-190) as indicated: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Ramu Coast|Awar |Awar|Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| |1 sg.|*ŋg[o] |ŋgo |ŋgo |ŋgɔ(-t) |ʌuk |ʌʔ |jʌk | |2 sg.|*… |mo |mo |mɔ(-t) |un |go ~ gwa |uː | |3 sg.|*ma(-n) |nə |nɐ |nəna(-t) |mʌn |mʌ |mʌ | |1 pl.|*ai |aɪ |aⁱ |ei(-t) |(a)i |(a)ɛ |aɪ | |2 pl.|*ne(-n) |ní |ne |ní(-t) |nen |nɛ |neːɪ | |3 pl.|*… |me |me |mɛ(-t) |mɪn |mi |niŋga | |1 dl.|*aŋga |ŋga |ŋga |ŋgʌ(-t) |ʌŋk |aŋ- |ʌŋga | |2 dl.|*[n]oŋga |ŋgo |ŋga |goʌ(-t) |oŋk |oŋ- |noŋgo | |3 dl.|*[a]maniŋ |aman |ni |mənɪŋ |maniŋ |maniŋ |mɨŋga | ===== Loans from neighboring languages ===== Ramu Coast languages have borrowed a number of terms from Manam, or a closely related extinct language, of the Schouten Islands subgroup of Oceanic, with Manam attestations drawn from Turner (1986, 1992, Turner, Manabung, Sagem and Kapata 1986.) In some details, the Ramu Coast words are more archaic than Turner's Manam, but Manam, spoken by 6,000 people (1981) living on Manam island some ten miles off the coast to the east, is the only Oceanic language in the vicinity (Turner 1986: 10, 13.) Several of these may have already been acquired by the breakup of Ramu Coast. Two terms for colors are suffixed with /-r/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Manam |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | |Turner |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen |Z'graggen |Z'graggen|Z'graggen | |yellow |ˈaŋo-ˈaŋo | | | |ŋɔ-r-ŋɔ-r |ŋo-r-ŋo-r| | |sea/salt |makasi |mɛsi- |meⁱs |makis |makait |maɣʌɪs | | |stone |ˈpatu |pʌut |paᵒt | | | | | |stone |ˈpatu |wuət | |woʊt |waut |waut |voʊt | |stingray |… | |vaɽ | | | | | |areca nut |bua |mboʔ |mboʔ |bɔk |mbɔʔ |mboʔ | | |man/male |taˈmwata |mɔt |mot |mɔt ~ umɔt|ramot |namot |namot | |sugarcane |ˈtou | | | | |tʌʊ |taʊ | |betel pepper |dedau | | | | |deːdaʊ |dedaʊ | |far |… | | | |tawʌn |sawʌn |sawan | |wallaby |saˈwaŋ | | |seŋ |dawain (?)|sawaiŋ |sawaŋ | |tobacco |sokai ~ ˈsoʔaj|soɣaj |soɣaⁱ |sokai |tɔʔai |sokai |sokai | |dog |ˈkeu ~ ˈʔeu |kɪaw |kʲaᵘ | | | |kíau | |white ashes |… | | | |kapʉr |gʌpʊr̃ | | |older brother|… | | | |kʌkʌ | | | |moon |ʔaˈlea |kərí |kɐɽi |kɛrwi |karwej |kaɪre | | |star |goai | | | |guí |goai |gʊi | |woman/female |aˈine | | | | | |vein ~ weɪn| |feather |laˈlau | | | |rarau |rarau | | |white |waˈwawa |wuwə-r |vɐvɐ-ɽ|wuə-r̃ | | |wawʌ-r | Most words shared with Bogia Bay (q.v. Z'graggen 1972) are probably mutual loans from Manam (above) or a near-relative thereof, with Monumbo attestations drawn from Vormann and Scharfenberger (1914) : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Monumbo |Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | |Turner |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| |fog |ˈoa |ɣəu | |ugou |wau |wau |gaʊp | |SE. monsoon|ŋgamaia |gamaj | | |gamaj | |gamai | |star |ŋgoi-ˈtuku| | | |guí |goai |gʊi | |tobacco |tsoˈqae |soɣaj |soɣaⁱ|sokai |tɔʔai |sokai |sokai | |NW. monsoon|aˈwar |wʌr |vaɽ | |wʌr | |wʌr | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |…|Awar |Awar |Bosman |Gamei |Kaian |Watam | | | |Z'graggen|Levy |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| |iron knife|…|saŋgam |saŋgam| |tɛŋgʌm | | | |chicken |…|kuakrɛ |kʷakɽe| |kaʔakʊr |kakur |kʊkreŋ |