====== South Ramu River ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== The South Ramu River family consists of three languages spoken along and around the middle Ramu river in the South Ramu subdistrict of Papua New Guinea's Madang province. One of the languages, Rao, is spoken also across the border in East Sepik Province as far as the upper Keram River (Z'graggen 1971: 83-85.) It is called the Annaberg Group in the works of Z'graggen after the name of a mission station in Rao . ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of South Ramu River is as follows:\\ \\ South Ramu River Rao Aram-Aren Aram (Anor) Aren (Aiome)\\ \\ Rao and Aram-Aren are very different from one another, but more similar than either is to any other Ramu River family. Z'graggen (1971: 86) gives lexicostatistical relationships between the languages of the Annaberg Group as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | | Rao | Anor | Aiome | |Rao | --- | 13 | 10 | |Anor | 13 | --- | 58 | |Aiome| 10 | 58 | --- | It's possible that Z'graggen's figures understate the degree of resemblance between Rao and Anor and Aiome respectively, as the shapes of many roots have undergone substantial transformation in Rao. Z'graggen (1971: 83-86) includes Banaro in his Annaberg group, giving 9% and 5% resemblance between Banaro and Anor and Aiome respectively and 11% with Rao. Note that the term Atemble or Atemble, the name of a village, has been used to designate both Aram and Aren as well as the Mand language of the Sogeram River subgroup of Madang immediately upriver to the east (Z'graggen 1971: 60, 1975: 141, q.v. Capell 1951-1952: 182.) ===== Sources ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Capell (1951-1952: 182) grammar sketches of and (pp. 201-203) 79 comparative terms for Anaberg of Tjigurubu village and Atemble (Aram) Z'graggen (1969, 1971) … Z'graggen (1972) 431 comparative terms forf Anor (Aram,) Aiome (Aren) and Rao Kaspruś (n.d.) vocabulary of Atemple (Aram) (unobtained) Kaspruś (1973) … Davies and Comrie (1985: 283-411) 46 comparative terms for Rao of Gokto village elicited by Lyle Scholtz Stanhope (1980) grammar of Rao including (pp. 13-17) 368-term vocabulary and 34 inflected verb stems ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Proto-South Ramu River had at least 15 consonants and perhaps 6 vowels as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | *ŋ | | *p | *t | *s | *k | | *mb | *nd | *ndz | *ŋg | | *w | *r | *j | *ɣ | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | *ʉ | *u | | *e | | *o | | | *a | | …\\ \\ …\\ \\ Initial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | S. Ramu | Rao | Aram | Aren | | *… | | | | | *… | | | | | *… | | | | Subinitial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | S. Ramu | Rao | Aram | Aren | | *… | | | | Medial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | S. Ramu | Rao | Aram | Aren | | *… | | | | Vowels correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | S. Ramu | Rao | Aram | Aren | | *… | | | | These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Rao attestations drawn from Stanhope (1980: 13-17,) Rao, Anor (Aram) and Aiome (Aren) from Z'graggen (1972) and Anaberg (Rao) and Atemple (Aram) from Capell (1951-1952: 201-203.)\\ \\ \\ … initial consonants …\\ \\ Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ … It is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |3 pl.|*me |mɛ |mɛ |mɛ |mɛ |mɛ | | One example of initial /*m/ is a regional loan: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***m-** |**m** |**m** |**** |**m** |**** |**m** | |ancestor|*mʉro |mrɔ |mró ~ m̩̀ró| |mʉro | |mʊr̃o | Initial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ is found only in the first person singular pronouns. It is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***ŋg-** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** | |1 sg.|*ŋgu |ŋgʊ |ŋgu |ŋgo |ŋgʊ |ŋgɔa |ŋgu | … subinitial consonants …\\ \\ Subinitial bilabial nasal /*m/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | || |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| ||***-m-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | || | | | | | | | Subinitial apical nasal /*n/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-n-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |taro|*ʉnam | | | |nam | |nam | When subinitial /*n/ is followed by high front vowel /*i/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | || |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| ||***-n-/#ʉ_i**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | || | | | | | | | Subinitial velar nasal /*ŋ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | || |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| ||***-ŋ-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | || | | | | | | | Subiniital bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | || |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| ||***-p-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | Subinitial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-t-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |pour |*ʉturi- | |-(u)ri- | |turi- | | | |mosquito|*ʉtʉɣam |ha |ɣʌ |ja |tɨɣam |'tɛgem | | Subinitial laminal voiceless /*s/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-s-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |vulva|*ʉso | |so | |so | |so | Subinitial velar voiceless stop /*k/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-k-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |dig |*ʉku- | | | |ku(a)- | |ku- | |pig/meat|*ʉkun |ʔrʊ ~ tʊ|r̩ʊ ~ tʊ ~ ʔu|ṛu |kʊn |gun |kun | |cold |*ʉku-ʉku |ʔʊʔʊ |uʔu | |kuku | | | |ear |*ʉkur |rʊ-m |ro-mʊ, ro-s |rɔ-mu |kʊr-pí |gulu-pɛ|kʊr ʊmʉn | Subinitial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-mb-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |spear|*ʉmbV |mbɯ |m̩bɨ́ | |mbí | |bʊ | Subinitial … /*mv/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-mv-%%//%%#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |lung(s)|*ʉmvun--ʉmvun | |mfʉmfo | | | |fʊnfʊn | Subinitial apical prenasalized voiced stop /*nd/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-nd-/#ʉ_**|**d** |**nd** |**nd** |**d** |**nd** |**** | |head |*ʉndi |dɪ |ndi |ndi |di |ndi | | |mouth/lip(s)|*ʉndo |dɔ-mɔ |doː-mo | | | |do | Subinitial laminal prenasalized voiced /*ndz/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-ndz-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |name |*ʉndzi |dʒɪ |tʃiː | |nzɨ | |nze | |armpit|*ʉndz[ʉ/u]pi | |tsʉpi | |zupi | | | Subinitial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble |Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen | | |***-ŋg-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |white |*ʉŋguar | |gro |'ugurɔ |guar-guar|'ŋgʷar-ŋgʷar|ŋgʷara-ŋgʉn| |fruit |*ʉŋgʉn |grə |krɨ | |gɨn |-gn |ŋgʉn | |testicles|*ʉŋgʉn | |ŋgrɨ-za | |kɨn (?) | |kʉn (?) | Subinitial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-w-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |vine|*ʉwʉn |brə-də |brɨ ~ bʊ-do| |bʉn | | | … subinitial /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-w-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |man/person|*ʉwʉrʉ | |vrɨ-pam | |vrʉ |vəṛa |vrᶶ | Subinitial apical non-stop /*r/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | || |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| ||***-r-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | || | | | | | | | Subinitial palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-j-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |fish |*ʉjaw |jawʊ |zʌbə | |cab | | | |dream|*ʉjarʉm | | | |zarʉm | |zrʌm | Subinitial velar non-stop /*ɣ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-ɣ-/#ʉ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |sun |*ʉɣar |gra |grá |gəˈra |gʌr |gar |ɪŋʌr | |sap |*ʉɣu | |guː | |gu | | | |wash/bathe|*ʉɣu- | |go- ~ gʷ-| |gu- | | | … medial consonants …\\ \\ Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-m-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |who? |*ami | |mɪ-ndu | |ami | |ami | |eat/drink |*am[ʉ]- |mə/m-ɪ |-m(u)- | |am(ba)- | |ʌm- | |right (side)|*am[u] | |-mʊ | |amí (?) | |mʊ | |louse |*amʉna | |mʊna | |am(ʊ)in | |amʊ-ŋgʉn | Medial apical nasal /*n/… : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-n-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |axe |*ina[ŋ] | | | | | |inag | |louse|*amʉna | |mʊna | |am(ʊ)in | |amʊ-ŋgʉn | When medial /*n/ is followed by high front vowel /*i/ … : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-n-/_i**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |1 pl.|*ani |nʲɪ |ni |ni |aɲə |anʲa |aɲɪ | |2 pl.|*[o/u]ni |nʲɔ |noː |no |ʊɲə |? |ʊɲɪ | Medial velar nasal /*ŋ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-ŋ-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |yesterday|*iŋ[o/u]n |ŋnɔ ~ ŋrɔ|ŋɔrɔ | |íŋun | |íŋun | |go down |*[e/a]riŋ-| |-ari(ŋ)- | |ɛrin(g)- (?)| | | Medial bilabial stop /*p/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-p-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |saliva|*ipan | |prɛː-mvo | | | |ípaɲ | |armpit|*ʉndz[ʉ/u]pi | |tsʉpi | |zupi | | | |liver |*apʉn | |prɨ ~ pr̃ʉ-do| |apɨ́n | | | |swell |*ap[ʉ/u]- | |pʉ- | |apʷi- | |aːpu- | |eye |*apa[r]-ʉŋgʉn| | | |apa-gɨn |a'pa-gn|apa-ŋgʉn | … /*f/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-f-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |sing |*af[ʉ]- | |-f- |-fi- | | |ʌf- | |man/male|*afar[i]-ʉndʉ|frɛ-ndə |frɛ-ndə | |vrɪ-nda | |afari-ndᵊ| Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-t-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |ashes|*itu |nf-itu |́nf-itʊ | | | |itu | |put |*ati- | |-ti- | |ati- | |ʌc- | |tooth|*atʉr |tra-gə |tr̩ʌː-gɨ | |atɨr(ə) ~ atər(ə)| |atʌr | |yam |*atum |mʊ (?) |mu (?) | |atum | | | |roast|*ut[a]- | | | |uta- | |ut- | Medial laminal voiceless /*s/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-s-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |shoot (v.)|*as[ʉ]- | |-s- | |asɨ- | |as- | |buy |*usi- | |-si- | |usi- | |c- | Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen | | |***-k-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |ground possum|*ikʉn | |gr̃ɨ-m | |ɪkɨn | |ikʉn | |two |*ikaw |kawʊ-kʊ |kaβ-kə | |ikaβ | |ikaʊ | |cold |*ʉku-ʉku |ʔʊʔʊ |uʔu | |kuku | | | |wallaby |*akʉre |krɛ |kr̃ɛ́ | |akre | | | |chop/fell |*ak[a]- | |-k- | |aka- | |ʌk- | |chin/jaw |*akam-[a]kam| | | |akam-ka | |akam-gam | |penis |*aku | |ku | |ʌkʊ | |ʌkʊ | |bite |*aku- | |-k(ʷ)- | |akʷa- | |ʌku- | |sleep |*aku- | | | | | |aku- | |blood |*akum |kʊ |kʊː |ku |akum ~ akʊm|ˈakum |akum ~ akʊm| |bird |*ukʉra |krɔ |ḳr̃ó |kuˈrɔ |ukra |ˈugra |ʊkᵊr | |nape |*ukar | |krɔ́ | |okrʌ-ta | |ukʌr-ga | Medial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-mb-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |go inside|*ambu- | | | | | |ambu- | … /*mv/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble |Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-mv-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |nose |*imvʉra |ta(-tə) |r̃ʌː-t |ra-tø |ɪmvra-ta |ivəˈra-da|ivra-sʉn | |lung(s) |*ʉmvun--ʉmvun| |mfʉmfo | | | |fʊnfʊn | |woman |*amve(-ʉndʉ) |mvɛ-ndə |vɛ-ndə |nfɛ-ntu|amvi(-nda) |avʲɛ-nda | | |fire/firewood|*amvʉ |mvɯ(-də)|mvʉ ~ nfʊ(-də)| |amvɨ ~ amfɨ| |aβu | Medial apical prenasalized voiced stop /*nd/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-nd-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |hand drum |*andu |ndʊ |ndʊ́ | |andu | |andʊ | |older sister|*undaM |ndam |ndam | |udam | |dʌm | |tree possum |*undan | |ndr̃o | | | | | |male |*undar | |ndr̃ɔ | |ʊndʌr | | | Medial laminal prenasalized voiced /*ndz/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-ndz-**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |bird sp. |*indzVrV |ndʒɛrə |n̩dʒɛːrɛ | |inzaɪraː | | | |excrement|*andzVn |tʃa |tsʌː ~ tsʌ| |adʒan ~ adʒən| |ʌdʒɪ | |breast |*undzi | |tsʊː |tʲu | | |udʒi | Medial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-ŋg-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |sore (n.) |*iŋgʉr |ŋgrɯ |ŋ̩grɨ | |ɪŋgɨr | | | |arrow sp. |*aŋgem | |ŋgeː | |aŋgɛm | |aŋgɛm | |possum sp.|*aŋgʉr[e]wu|krɛvʊ |graʔʊ | | | |aŋgr̃aβʊ | Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-w-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |possum sp.|*aŋgʉr[e]wu|krɛvʊ |graʔʊ | | | |aŋgr̃aβʊ | |hot/td> |*awi | |wíː-wí | | | |awi | |be angry |*awʉ- | |(u)vʉ- | |avʉ- | | | |tanget |*awar | |wʌːrᶶ | | | |awar | |wind |*uwiɣurim |gʊrɪ |guri |guri |vɨgrɨm | | | |coconut |*uwaŋ |vɔ |vo |vɔ | | | | Medial apical non-stop /*r/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble |Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-r-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |nose |*imvʉra |ta(-tə) |r̃ʌː-t |ra-tø |ɪmvra-ta |ivəˈra-da|ivra-sʉn | |bird sp. |*indzVrV |ndʒɛrə |n̩dʒɛːrɛ | |inzaɪraː | | | |bean |*ira[ŋ/ŋg]Vn | |r̩ɪaŋʊ | |iraŋgʉn | | | |go down |*[e/a]riŋ- | |-ari(ŋ)- | |ɛrin(g)- | | | |good |*arum | | | |aruam | |arom | |pour |*ʉturi- | |-(u)ri- | |turi- | | | |ma/person |*ʉwʉrʉ | |vrɨ-pam | |vrʉ |vəṛa |vrᶶ | |dream |*ʉjarʉm | | | |zarʉm | |zrʌm | |man/male |*afar[i]-ʉndʉ|frɛ-ndə |frɛ-ndə | |vrɪ-nda | |afari-ndᵊ| |wallaby |*akʉre |krɛ |kr̃ɛ́ | |akre | | | |possum sp. |*aŋgʉrewu |krɛvʊ |graʔʊ | | | |aŋgr̃aβʊ | |rain |*arʉm |rə |ṛɨ |ḷø | | |ar̃ʉm | |bird |*ukʉra |krɔ |ḳr̃ó |kuˈrɔ |ukra |ˈugra |ʊkᵊr | |wind |*uwiɣurim |gʊrɪ |guri |guri |vɨgrɨm | | | |day b. yest.|*urV | |ṛu | |urɛ | |urᵊ | |path |*urʉn |rɯ-dɔ |r̩ʊ-do |lu-dɔ |urɨn |ˈuːrun |uːrʉŋalə | Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-j-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |weep/cry|*aji- |dʒɪ |-zi- | |azɛ- | |adʒ- | |vomit |*ujV- | |zoa- | |uʒa- | |uʒɛ- | Medial velar non-stop /*ɣ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-ɣ-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |dog |*iɣam |ɣa |ɣʌː |ɣʌ |iɣʌm |ˈigam |igʌm | |mosquito |*ʉtʉɣam |ha |ɣʌ |ja |tɨɣam |'tɛgem | | |back/spine|*aɣʉn | |ɣr̃ʌ | |aɣən | |agan-gʉn | |bone |*aɣar |gra-tɔ |ɣra(-tə) ~ ɣr̃a-t|glaː-t | | | | |wind |*uwiɣurim |gʊrɪ |guri |guri |vɨgrɨm | | | … final consonants ….\\ \\ Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is dropped in Rao: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen | | |***-m** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |dog |*iɣam |ɣa |ɣʌː |ɣʌ |iɣʌm |ˈigam |igʌm | |taro |*ʉnam | | | |nam | |nam | |mosquito |*ʉtʉɣam |ha |ɣʌ |ja |tɨɣam |'tɛgem | | |dream |*ʉjarʉm | | | |zarʉm | |zrʌm | |yam |*atum |mʊ (?) |mu (?) | |atum | | | |chin/jaw |*akam-[a]kam| | | |akam-ka (?)| |akam-gam | |blood |*akum |kʊ |kʊː |ku |akum ~ akʊm|ˈakum |akum ~ akʊm| |arrow sp.|*aŋgem | |ŋgeː | |aŋgɛm | |aŋgɛm | |rain |*arʉm |rə |ṛɨ |ḷø | | |ar̃ʉm | |good |*arum | | | |aruam | |arom | |wind |*uwiɣurim |gʊrɪ |guri |guri |vɨgrɨm | | | One unexplained exception may be a loan into Rao gtom Anor or Aiome: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-M** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |older sister|*undaM |ndam |ndam | |udam | |dʌm | Final apical nasal /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu |Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-n** |**ø** |**ø** |**** |**n** |**** |**º** | |bean |*ira[ŋ/ŋg]Vn | |r̩ɪaŋʊ | |iraŋgʉn | | | |lung(s) |*ʉmvun--ʉmvun| |mfʉmfo | | | |fʊnfʊn | |excrement|*andzVn |tʃa |tsʌː ~ tsʌ| |adʒan ~ adʒən| |ʌdʒɪ | |crayfish |*umasen |masɛ |mase | |umasen | |ʊmasɛn | |path |*urʉn |rɯ-dɔ |r̩ʊ-do |lu-dɔ |urɨn |ˈuːrun |uːrʉŋalə | … /*n/ … : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope |Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-n** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |saliva |*ipan | |prɛː-mvo | | | |ípaɲ | |yesterday |*iŋ[o/u]n |ŋnɔ ~ ŋrɔ|ŋɔrɔ | |íŋun | |íŋun | |ground possum|*ikʉn | |gr̃ɨ-m | |ɪkɨn | |ikʉn | |pig/meat |*ʉkun |ʔrʊ ~ tʊ |r̩ʊ ~ tʊ ~ ʔu|ṛu |kʊn |gun |kun | |fruit |*ʉŋgʉn |grə |krɨ | |gɨn |-gn |ŋgʉn | |testicles |*ʉŋgʉn | |ŋgrɨ-za | |kɨn (?) | |kʉn (?) | |vine |*ʉwʉn |brə-də |brɨ ~ bʊ-do | |bʉn | | | |liver |*apʉn | |prɨ ~ pr̃ʉ-do| |apɨ́n | | | |back/spine |*aɣʉn | |ɣr̃ʌ | |aɣən | |agan-gʉn | |tree possum |*undan | |ndr̃o | | | | | Final velar nasal /*ŋ/ is supported only by outcomparison: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-ŋ** |**** |**Ø** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |coconut|*uwaŋ |vɔ |vo |vɔ | | | | Neither voiceless stops /*p *t *s *k/ nor prenasalized voiced stops /*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg/ occur finally.\\ \\ Final bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| | |***-w** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |two|*ikaw |kawʊ-kʊ |kaβ-kə | |ikaβ | |ikaʊ | Final apical non-stop /*r/… : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble |Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen | | |***-r** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |sore (n.)|*iŋgʉr |ŋgrɯ |ŋ̩grɨ | |ɪŋgɨr | | | |ear |*ʉkur |rʊ-m |ro-mʊ, ro-s |rɔ-mu |kʊr-pí |gulu-pɛ |kʊr ʊmʉn | |white |*ʉŋguar | |gro |'ugurɔ |guar-guar |'ŋgʷar-ŋgʷar|ŋgʷara-ŋgʉn| |sun |*ʉɣar |gra |grá |gəˈra |gʌr |gar |ɪŋʌr | |tooth |*atʉr |tra-gə |tr̩ʌː-gɨ | |atɨr(ə) ~ atər(ə)| |atʌr | |tanget |*awar | |wʌːrᶶ | | | |awar | |bone |*aɣar |gra-tɔ |ɣra(-tə) ~ ɣr̃a-t|glaː-t | | | | |male |*undar | |ndr̃ɔ | |ʊndʌr | | | |nape |*ukar | |krɔ́ | |okrʌ-ta | |ukʌr-ga | …:\\ \\ …:\\ \\ \\ …vowels ….\\ \\ Rao reduces the first syllable of disyllabic roots. There are two ways in which this occurs, depending upon whether the root begins with a consonant or a vowel. In disyllabic roots with initial consonants, the vowel of the first syllable is dropped and carried over to the second, leaving an initial cluster which is in some instances simplified: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | || |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| ||***…** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | …\\ \\ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen| |rib(s)|*… | |tsiː-rə | |didʒ | | | |navel |*… | |t̩rʊmbɪ | |dʒɨnʊmba | |iːnʊmbᵊ | ===== Pronouns ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ South Ramu nominative pronouns are as follows, with attestations drawn from Capell (1951-1952: 183, 186-187,) Z'graggen (1972) and Stanhope (1980: 9) as indicated: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Rao |Rao |Anaberg|Anor |Atemble|Aiome | | | |Stanhope|Z'graggen|Capell |Z'graggen |Capell |Z'graggen | |1 sg.|*ŋgu |ŋgʊ |ŋgu |ŋgo |ŋgʊ |ŋgɔa |ŋgu | |2 sg.|*ʉnʉ |nə |nə |nɛ |nɨ |nə |nə | |3 sg.|*… |mə |mə |mu |man |man |man | |1 pl.|*ani |nʲɪ |ni |ni |aɲə |anʲa |aɲɪ | |2 pl.|*[o/u]ni |nʲɔ |noː |no |ʊɲə |? |ʊɲɪ | |3 pl.|*me |mɛ |mɛ |mɛ |mɛ |mɛ |maɲi ~ mʉɲi| |1 dl.|*… |nʲɪ-makə|ni-makə |--- |nʌːk; ŋgʊmᶷnʌk|nag |aɲi mnag | |2 dl.|*… |nə-makə |nə-makə |--- |ʊɲə mᶷnʌk |nədʲa |ʊɲi mnag | |3 dl.|*… |makə |mɛ-makə |--- |mɛ mᶷnʌk |mandʲa |mani mnag | ….\\ ===== Verbal morphology ===== **[under construction]** ===== Loans from neighboring languages ===== Both Aram and Aren have borrowed basic terms from the Sogeram River subgroup of Madang, specifically from Mand and Nend immediately to the east which like South Ramu River languages drop most initial consonants (Daniels 2010.) Anor (Aram) and Aren (Aiome) attestations are drawn from Z'graggen (1972,) Paynamar (Manat,) Angaua (Nend) and Atemple (Mand) from Z'graggen (1980: 1-80) and proto-Sogeram and proto-West Sogeram from Daniels (2010: 186-192, 2015: 356-392): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Sogeram |W. Sogeram|Paynamar |Angaua |Atemple |Anor |Aiome | | |Daniels |Daniels |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| |sun |*iŋar |--- |iŋʌr |--- |--- |--- |ɩŋʌr | |ground possum|*iŋkɨn |--- |--- |--- |iŋkr̩ |ɪkɨn |ikʉn | |areca nut |*akʷasa |*akʷas |awusa |ʌwʌs |aguas |awas |agʷas | |liver |*mapɨ́n |--- |--- |--- |--- |apɨ́n |--- | |net bag |*βaŋan |*aŋan |--- |aŋʌn |aŋan |aŋan |aŋʌn | |short/piece |*tɨm |*tɨm |--- |tɨm |tim |tɨm |tʉm | |salt |*tutɨm |*utɨm |tɨm |utʉm |utɨm |ʊtʊmʊ |--- | |bamboo sp. |*kinaŋ |--- |--- |indaŋ |--- |indaŋ | | |coconut |*kuimaŋ |--- |u:ma |--- |koim |--- |koim | |arm |*kuman |*oman |--- |uman |--- |ʊman |ʊman | |forest |*kura (?)|*ura- |urʌ |--- |--- |ura |--- | A few of these etymologies deserve comment: 1) /*iŋkɨn/ "ground possum" is found also not only in Rao (above) but in Moam River /*iŋgʉan/ and Ruboni Range /*iŋgan/, an atymology which might be considered stronger than Daniels' Sogeram ,but developments wihin the latter may explain why the Aram-Aren medial is /*k/ rather than /*ŋg/ (cf. Daniels' Mend /(bor)ikɨn/, not in Z'graggen 1972,) . 2) /*akʷasa/ "areca nut" is found only in Atemple, Mand and Manat (a.k.a. Paynamar,) and is considered proto-Sogeram only because Daniels places Manat with Central Sogeram rather than with West Sogeram, as we suggest to be more accurate. 3) /*βaŋan/ "net bag" (/*paŋan/ 2010) is most likely related to Ramu River [*waɣan] (presumably really /*paɣan/) but the change /*ɣ/ to /*ŋ/ would be irregular. 4) Daniels glosses /*kinaŋ/ as "axe," which is no doubt the same root as [*ɣinaŋ] found in other subgroups of Ramu River; however the Mand reflex is given as"bamboo knife" while Z'graggen (1972. 1980: 33) gives both Atemple and Aiome words as "bamboo". 5) /*kura/ "forest" is appended with a question mark hy Daniels (2010: 188-189) himself for reasons which are not immediately obvious, but a similar and possibly related root /*uraŋ/ is found also in Ramu River; however the loss of final /*ŋ/ here would be irregular.\\ \\ Some loans may have propagated in the other direction as they have etymologies in South Ramu River but not in Sogeramn River: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |South Ramu|Paynamar |Angaua |Atemple | | | |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| |dog |*iɣam |--- |--- |egam | |arrow sp.|*aŋgem |aŋgajam |--- |aŋgɛm | |mosquito |*ʉtʉɣam |--- |təgʌm |tɨgam | |fish |*ʉjaw |--- |--- |ɟau | |sap |*ʉɣu |--- |--- |ugu | |tooth |*atʉr |--- |--- |atʌrᵊ | |big/good |*arum |arum- |--- |arom | Again, some comments are in order: 2) "dog" is found also in Emerum (Apalɨ) as [iŋam] (Z'graggen 1972) though Daniels doesn't reconstruct it for proto-Sogeram River (cf. 2015: 390 /*upri/ "dog".) 2) Daniels (2015: 363) reconstructs Sogeram River /*iau/ "fish" on the basis of the Mand (Atemple) word and outcomprison to Tauya /jau/. 3) Daniels (2015: 362) reconstructs Sogeram River /*arum/ "good" based upon Mand /arom/ "good", Manat /arum/ "big, old"; and Mum /aru/ "good"; however Ramu River /*ɣarum/ "big/old" is better-supported, the initial consonant cannot be explained as a loan from Sogeram River and the meaning "good" is a development peculiar to Aram-Aren. Z'graggen (1972) gives Paynamar (Manat) [arumandiɛ] as "big".\\ \\ Still others have no known etymologies in either family: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Anor |Aiome |Paynamar |Angaua |Atemple | | |Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen|Z'graggen| |grass skirt |--- |íkat |--- |--- |ekatᵊ | |bow |iːrəp |--- |irɨp |irəbə |irwᵊ | |bean |apr̃am |--- |--- |--- |apram | |coconut |aŋɨm |aŋʉm |--- |aŋɨm |aŋɨm | |bamboo sp. |ʌki |--- |--- |age |--- | |sago |--- |aʊʉŋ |--- |--- |awaŋ | |snake |ukri |ukri |--- |--- |ukri | |banana |--- |moːkʊr |--- |--- |mɔgrᶶ | |ripe (coconut)|tɨ |--- |--- |tə |tɨ | |betel pepper |tɨmʉn |tʉmʉn |--- |--- |tumɨn | |star |tʊmbag |--- |--- |--- |tɨmbʌg | |wooden plate |tuʌr |tuwʌr |--- |tɔr |tɔr | |mother |ŋam |ŋʌm |--- |--- |ŋam | |basket |kʉmʉmba |kʉmamp |--- |--- |gamʌmp | |arrow sp. |kʊrigʌt |--- |--- |--- |kurig | |g-string |zamən |jamʉŋ |jimun |--- |zamʉn |