====== Arafundi River ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== The Arafundi River family, also known as Alfendio, consist of four closely-related languages, Andai, Tapei, Nanubae and Awiakay, spoken along the Arafundi and Konmei rivers, tributaries of the Karawari river which in turn feeds the Sepik, in Papua New Guinea's East Sepik Province just across the border from Enga Province to the south. According to Kassell (2005: 2-4,) a fifth language Mongolo, also known as Meakambut after the name of one of their former villages, might be distinguished, but no data was collected to verify this and Kassell, MacKenzie and Potter offer conflicting reports from speakers in Imboin and Kaiyam (Andai) villages (2017: 13.) Hoenigman (2015: 46) gathered data for the now-nomadic Meakambut and concludes their dialect to be immediately allied with Andai within the Arafundi family. ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of Arafundi River is as follows:\\ \\ Arafundi River Upper Arafundi River Andai Tapei Lower Arafundi River Awiakay Nanubae South Nanubae North Nanubae (Tuaimunda)\\ \\ These subgroups are very similar to one another and are differentiated by only a small number of mutually exclusive isoglosses. Hoenigman (2015: 46 after Hoenigman and Evans 2013) designates Nanubae as Lower Arafundi and Andai-Meakambut as Upper Arafundi, with what we guess to be Tapei labelled simply Imboin after the name of a village where Tapei (Awim) as well as Andai (Namata) and Awiakay (Karamba) are spoken (Kassell, MacKenzie and Potter 2017: 13.) However, she assigns the Tapei-speaking Awim village to the Lower Arafundi language, which contradicts our data from Haberland (1966: 62-64) and Kassell, MacKenzie and Potter (2017: 48-54.)\\ \\ These subgroups are distinguished from one another by a small number of mutually exclusive isoglosses: |< - 100px 100px 100px >| | |Upper Arafundi|Lower Arafundi| |blood |*kombet |*endi[a] | |breadfruit|*ajiŋg |*kamba | |two |*kamin |*kondamin | ===== Sources ===== Haberland (1966: 62-64) 98 comparative terms and (p. 66) number systems for Alfendio of Imbwain village (Andai,) Auvim and Angarat villages (Tapei) and Imanmeri and Wamblamas villages (Nanubae) Dye (n.d.) survey vocabularies of Avambro village (Andai,) Wamblamas village (Nanubae) and Imboin and Kansomai villages (Awiakay,) provided in spreadsheet format by Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics Davies and Comrie (1985: 283-311) 91 comparative terms for Alfendio (Nanubae) of Wamblamas village after Dye Kassell, MacKenzie and Potter (2017) 158 comparative terms for Nanubae of Imanmeri, Wambrumas and Yamandim villages, Tapei of Awim and Imboin villages and Andai of Imboin and Kaiyam villages Hoenigman (2015) grammar of Awiakay of Kanjimei village Foley (2017: 232-238) Arafundi pronouns and grammar notes for Lower Arafundi (Nanubae) of Auwim and Imanmeri villages\\ \\ Additionally, a vocabulary from the Penari (Penali) region was provided in comparative spreadsheet format by Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics, but it's undated and unattributed. According to Kassell (2005: 2,) the term Penali refers to both the region including the villages around the Arafundi and the Mongolo region as well as a tribe of which the Mongolo and others are members. As its vocabulary is most similar to Andai, it seems likely that this represents the speech of the nomadic Meakambut. ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Proto-Arafundi River had perhaps 13 consonants and 5 vowels as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | | | *p | *t | *s | *k | *kʷ | | *mb | *nd | *ndz | *ŋg | | | *w | | *j | | | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | | *u | | *e | | *o | | | *a | | …\\ \\ Apical non-stop [*ɺ] [ɺ ɾ l] appears to be an allophone of voiceless stop /*t/ as [*ɺ] is not found initally while medial and final /*t/ vary between the two values and palatal non-stop [j].\\ \\ …\\ \\ Initial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Arafundi | Andai | Tapei | S. Nanubae | N. Nanubae | Awiakay | | *m- | m | m | m | m | m | | *n- | n | n | n | n | n | | *p- | p | p | p | p | p | | *t- | t | t | t | t | t | | *s- | | | | | | | *k- | | | | | | | *k-/_i e | | | | | | | *kʷ- | k | k | w | w | k | | *w- | | | | | | | *j- | | | | | | | *j-/_N | | | | | | Medial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Arafundi | Andai | Tapei | S. Nanubae | N. Nanubae | Awiakay | | *-m- | m | m | m | m | m | | *-n- | n | n | n | n | n | | *-p- | | | | | | | *-t- | | | | | | | *-T- | | | | | | | *-s- | | | | | | | *-k- | k | k | k | k | k | | *-k-/i e_ | s | ? | k | k | ? | | *-mb- | mb | mb | mb | mb | mb | | *-nd- | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | | *-ŋg- | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | | *-w- | | | | | | | *-j- | | | | | | Final consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Arafundi | Andai | Tapei | S. Nanubae | N. Nanubae | Awiakay | | *-m | m | m | m | m | m | | *-n | n | n | n | n | n | | *-p | | | | | | | *-t | | | | | | | *-s | s | s | s | s | s | | *-k | k | k | k | k | k | | *-k/i_ | k | k | k | k | s | | *-mb | | | | | | | *-nd | | | | | | | *-ŋg | | | | | | | *-w | | | | | | | *-j | | | | | | Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Arafundi | Andai | Tapei | S. Nanubae | N. Nanubae | Awiakay | | *i | | | | | | | *u | | | | | | | *e | | | | | | | *o | | | | | | | *a | | | | | | These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with …\\ \\ \\ Any consonant besides prenasalized voiced stops /*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg *ŋgʷ/ can occur initially.\\ \\ Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |name |*membi[a] |memba |mimbia |mbia |mbia | |mimbi | |sago |*men[k]Vs |mɛnas |mɨngis |mɪnɪs |mɪnɪs | | | |heavy |*meki[a] |mɛsia | |mikiamba |mikiamba | | | |full |*mambandzit|mambandʒɛl|mambandʒi|mambandʒi |mambandʒit| | | |old |*matakat[a]|malagal | | |malakla | | | |fruit/seed|*maŋg[a] |-maŋga |-maŋga |-maŋga |-maŋga |maŋga |maŋga | |short |*maŋgumba |mambʷanda |mambandʒa|maŋkumbandʒa|maŋgumba |maŋgumba | | |catch |*moko- |moko-t |mogo-n |moko-n |moko-t | | | |egg |*mund[a] |munda |munda |mɨnda |mnda |mɛndunda | | |claw |*mundumb[a]|mundumbʷa |mundumba |-mundumba |mundumbʷa |-mundumba| | Initial apical nasal /*n/ s retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***n-** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |1 sg. |*niŋg |niŋ |niŋ |niŋ |niŋ |niŋ |ɲiŋ | |eat/drink|*nembV- |nʌmbʌbʌn |nɛmbɨbɨn |nɨmbɨn |nimbisik| | | |2 dl. |*nen |nɛn- |nɪn |nin- | |nɪn |neɲ | |woman |*nam |nam |nam |nam |nam |nam |nam | |2 sg. |*nan |nan |nan |nan |nan |nan |nan | |stone |*naŋgum |naŋgum |naŋgum |naŋgum |naŋgum | | | |yesterday|*naje |nai |nai |nai |nai | |nae | |2 pl. |*n[o/u]ŋg |noŋ |noŋ |nuŋ |nuŋ | |noŋ- ~ nuŋ-| |person |*numbam |numbam |nɪmbʷam | | | | | |man |*nuŋgum |nuŋgum |nuŋgum |nuŋgum |nuŋgum | | | |elbow |*nuŋgumuŋg|nuŋg̵umuŋ-|nig̵imɨŋ-a|nɨmɨŋ-ɨk|nuŋmun |numugunuŋ|numg-uk | Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri|Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***p-** |**p** |**p [p b]**|**p [p b]**|**p** |**p [p b]**|**p** | |long |*piŋget[a]|piŋgɛl |piŋgi- |piŋgia |pigəla | | | |star |*piŋgup |piŋgup |puŋgusɨm |puŋgusɨm |puŋgusum| | | |mountain |*penduŋg |pɛndəŋ |pɨndɨŋ |puntuŋ |pundun |bondoŋ |pondoŋ | |come |*peki- | |biki |biki | |bɛge | | |who? |*peje |pie |pɛi | | | | | |foot/leg |*panamb[a]| |panba |panba |panamba | |panba/panben| |stick (n.)|*pas[a] | | |-pasa |-pasa | |-pasa | |red |*paWut[a] |paul |papua |pauɛa |paula |bawi |pawia | |tomorrow |*ponde |pɛndɛ |pɨndɛ |pɨndi |pɨndi | |ponde | |nose |*pok | |pok-ok |pok-ok |pok-ok |bok |pok-a | |hit/kill |*poko- | |poko-pɨn |poko-ban |poko-pɨn| | | |bite |*poko[t] |pokol |-puku-pɨn |-pokwɛ |pokot | | | |fly (v.) |*puta- |pulaʔan |puan | | | | | |know |*punde- |pundʒebɪn|pundubɨn |pundi |pundɛpɨm| | | Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***t-** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |burn (intr.) |*titoko- |tloko-pel |toko-pin |tɾiogo-bɨn|tɾoko-pɨn| | | |dry |*tapokVt[a]|tabugʷa [Imb]|taupokuja [Imb]|tapukɛa |tapukut | | | |tongue |*taTumat[a]|talmala |tanmɛa |taɾamʷan |taɾmaɾ-ɨk| | | |dog |*tawa[m/mb]|taum |taum |tam |tam |tam |tam/tambaᴵ| |hair/feather(s)|*tum[a] |tuma |tuma |tuma |tuma |tʰuma ~ tuma|tuma | |skin |*tut[a] | |-dua |-tea |-tɾa |-dija |tia | Initial laminal voiceless /*s/ is uncommon. …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***s-** |**** |**s [ts t]**|**s** |**s** |**** |**** | |cloud|*su | |tsu |su |su | | | Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri|Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***k-/_a o u**|**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k [k kʰ g]**|**k** | |two |*kamin |kamin |kamin | | | | | |flesh/meat |*kamat[a] |kamla | |kamea |kamaɾa |kʰamia |kamia | |morning |*kandiŋg |kantiŋ |kandiŋin| | | | | |white |*kandoke[a] | |kandəga |kandakɛa |kandoga |gandogʷej |kandukja | |tooth |*kandz[a] |kandʒa |kandʒa |kandʒɨn |kandʒik |gandʒɪniŋ |kaɲɟa/kaɲɟin | |cassowary |*katima |kaləma |kaima |kaima |kalima |gajɪma |kaᴵma | |new |*kak | |kak |kak |kak | | | |banana |*kajik |kaik |kaik |kaik |kaik | |kas | |three |*komajin |kamain |kamaŋ |kɨmain |kumɛiŋ | | | |head |*kopa |kaba |kapa |kapa |kapɨn |kobonʌŋ |kopa/kopok/\\ kopon/koponuŋ| |blood |*kombet- |kombɛt |kɨmbɨt | | | | | |earth/ground|*kon |kon |kon | | | | | |sit |*koTo- |koɾo-bɛn |koɾo-pɨn|koɾo-pɨn |koɾo-bɨn|kʰolo-bon | | |hand/finger |*koTok |koɾok | | | | | | |two |*kondamin | | |kandamʷɨn|kundamɨn|kondamin |kondamin | |heart |*kupus[a] | |kubusa- |kubudʒik-|kupusik-| | | |skin |*kumb[a]- |kumbuk- |kumba- |kumbuk- |kumbɨk- | | | |ear |*kund[a] |kundu-bug̵ʷ-a|kund-a |kund-uk |kund-uk |gʷund-un-tija | | |tail |*kundum[a] |kunduma |kuntuma |kuɾuma |kuɾumʷa | |kunma | |rat |*kundok[aj] | | |kundukai |kuntukai|kʷʊndok | | |wallaby |*kuwijandok | | |kʷiandɨk |kʷiandʊk|kʰiandok | | When initial /*k/ is followed by front vowels /*i *e/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***k-/_i**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |fish |*kinuŋg |kɪnɪŋ |kɪnɪŋ | | |tɪɲuŋ | | |shoulder|*kik | |gig- |kik- |kik- | | | |sand |*kiŋgim | |kiŋkim |kiŋim |tʃiŋim |giɲim |kiŋim | | |***k-/_e**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |moon |*kepa |kɛba |tɨpɨ |tɨpa |tɨpa |teba |tepa | | |***k-/_e**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |bird |*kenet |kinɛl |kɛnɛ |kɛnɛ |kɛnɛt |tʰɪɲe |tiɲe | | |***kVj-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |sun |*kVjom |kjom |kiom |tum |tum |tem |tem | Initial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ is deoccluded to /w/ in Nanubae and merged with plain velar /k/ in Tapei, Andai and Akwakay: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***kʷ-** |**k** |**k** |**w** |**w** |**k** |**k** | |laugh |*kʷiŋg | |kiŋna |wiŋinimbɨn|wiŋipin | | | |leaf |*kʷaŋg[a]| | |-waŋga |waŋga |gaŋgam |kaŋga | |areca nut|*kʷumut | | |mui |mut | |kumi | |root |*kʷund[a]|kundaɾaka|-kunɾa |-unɾa | |gunda |kunda | Prenasalized voiceless stops /*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg *ŋgʷ/ do not occur intiially.\\ \\ Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***w-** |**w** |**w** |**w** |**w** |**w** |**w** | |net bag |*wat |wal |wai |waɛ |wat | |wai | |wind |*wati | |wali | |waɾi |waj |wai | |many |*wakon | | | |wagon |wagon | | |sugarcane|*w[o/u]t| |wu |wuɛ |wut | | | Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***j-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |breast |*ji[t/s] | |it-a |jɨd-ɨn |jil-a |is-ik |is-ik | |see |*jepV- |-ibɛl |jɛbɨ |jɨbɛ |jɪbɨn | | | |tree/wood|*jes |jis |ɛs |ɛs |jis |ʔiʃ |is | |bone |*jekimb[a]|ɛgɪmba |ɛgɨmba |ɛkimba ~\\ -igimba|ig̵imba ~\\ -ɛgimba| |egemba | |pig |*jat | |jaɛ |jaɛ |jat |jaj |jai | |tobacco |*jaki |jaki |jaiki |jaiki |jaiki | |jaki | |house |*jaw | |jau |jau |jau |jaw |jao/jaw-a| |stand |*jat[a]- |jala-pɨn|ja-bɨn |ja-bɨn |jaɾa-bɨn |ja-pon | | When followed by a nasal /*m *n/ or a prenasalized voiced stop /*mb *nd *ndz *ng/ in the onset of the next syllable, initial /*j/ is often nasalized and occluded to apical nasal /*n/ in Andai: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***j-/_VN VNC**|**n j**|**j** |**j** |**j** |**** |**j** | |vine |*ji[m/mb] |jɪm |jɪmbandam|jɪmbandam|jɪmbandam| | | |black |*jimbit[a] |jɪmbɪl |imbia |imbia | |jimbi |imbia | |lie down/sleep|*jem… | |-jɛmi |-jimbɨn |jɪmbin |jɪmbogolʌbun| | |arrow |*jen |ɛn |en |in |jɪn | | | |rain |*jeŋg | | |jiŋ |jɨŋ | |eŋ | |fire |*jamb |naʔam |jam |jam |jam |jam |jam/jamba | |hot |*jambaŋgV | |jambaŋɛ |jambaŋɛa |jambaŋgo | | | |ashes |*jambum |nambum |jambumbua|jambum |jambum |jambum |jambum | |wing |*jaŋgat | | | | |jaŋge | | |water |*jomb |nɛm |jɛm |jɪm |jɪm |jom |jom/jomba | |liver |*jumuŋg | |jumuŋg-um|jumuŋ-a |jɪmuŋ-a |jɛmuŋg-a |jumg-a/jumg-uk\\ /jumg-uŋ| Any consonant can occur medially.\\ \\ Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***-m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |louse |*emuŋg |omuŋ |omuŋ |jimuŋ |umwiŋ | |emuŋ | |mother |*am[a] |ama |am |amai | |ʔam | | |wallaby |*amandzok |amandʒok |amandʒik | | | | | |elbow |*nuŋgumuŋg |nuŋg̵umuŋ-|nig̵imɨŋ-a|nɨmɨŋ-ɨk |nuŋmun |numugunuŋ |numg-uk | |tongue |*taTumat[a]|talmala |tanmɛa |taɾamʷan |taɾmaɾ-ɨk| | | |hair/feather(s)|*tum[a] |tuma |tuma |tuma |tuma |tʰuma ~ tuma|tuma | |two |*kamin |kamin |kamin | | | | | |flesh/meat |*kamat[a] |kamla | |kamea |kamaɾa |kʰamia |kamia | |cassowary |*katima |kaləma |kaima |kaima |kalima |gajɪma |kaᴵma | |three |*komajin |kamain |kamaŋ |kɨmain |kumɛiŋ | | | |two |*kondamin | | |kandamʷɨn|kundamɨn |kondamin |kondamin | |tail |*kundum[a] |kunduma |kuntuma |kuɾuma |kuɾumʷa | |kunma | |areca nut |*kʷumut | | |mui |mut | |kumi | |liver |*jumuŋg | |jumuŋg-um |jumuŋ-a |jɪmuŋ-a |jɛmuŋg-a |jumg-a/jumg-uk\\ /jumg-uŋ| Medial apical nasal /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***-n-/a_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |foot/leg|*panamb[a] | |panba |panba |panamba | |panba/panben| … /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-n-/i_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |fish|*kinuŋg |kɪnɪŋ |kɪnɪŋ | | |tɪɲuŋ | | | |***-n-/e_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |wind|*enuŋg |ɛnuŋ |ɛnuŋ | | | | | |sago|*men[k]Vs |mɛnas |mɨngis |mɪnɪs |mɪnɪs | | | |bird|*kenet |kinɛl |kɛnɛ |kɛnɛ |kɛnɛt |tʰɪɲe |tiɲe | Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***-p-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |dry |*tapokVt[a]|tabugʷa [Imb]|taupokuja [Imb]|tapukɛa |tapukut | | | |head |*kopa |kaba |kapa |kapa |kapɨn |kobonʌŋ |kopa/kopok/\\ kopon/koponuŋ| |heart|*kupus[a] | |kubusa- |kubudʒik-|kupusik-| | | |moon |*kepa |kɛba |tɨpɨ |tɨpa |tɨpa |teba |tepa | |see |*jepV- |-ibɛl |jɛbɨ |jɨbɛ |jɪbɨn | | | Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/… : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***-t-** |**l** |**j [j Ø]** |**j [j Ø]**|**ɺ [l ɾ]**|**j [j Ø]** |**j [j Ø]**| |knife |*etoŋg[a] |loŋa |eŋja | | |ʔɛŋa | | |flying fox |*atuŋgaŋg |aimgʷaŋ (?) | |aiŋgʷaŋ |aluŋgaŋ |ajɪngʷaŋ |aᴵŋgʷaŋ | |old |*matakat[a]|malagal | | |malakla | | | |long |*piŋget[a] |piŋgɛl |piŋgi- |piŋgia |pigəla | | | |red |*paWut[a] |paul |papua |pauɛa |paula |bawi |pawia | |fly (v.) |*puta- |pulaʔan |puan | | | | | |burn (intr.)|*titoko- |tloko-pel |toko-pin |tɾiogo-bɨn |tɾoko-pɨn | | | |dry |*tapokVt[a]|tabugʷa [Imb]|taupokuja [Imb]|tapukɛa |tapukut | | | |tongue |*taTumat[a]|talmala |tanmɛa |taɾamʷan |taɾmaɾ-ɨk | | | |yellow |*toTet[a] | |tɨdɛa |tɨdɛa | |toriɛ |tolia | |skin |*tut[a] | |-dua |-tea |-tɾa |-dija ~ -tija|tia | |flesh/meat |*kamat[a] |kamla | |kamea |kamaɾa |kʰamia |kamia | |cassowary |*katima |kaləma |kaima |kaima |kalima |gajɪma |kaᴵma | |wind |*wati | |wali | |waɾi |waj |wai | |black |*jimbit[a] |jɪmbɪl |imbia |imbia | |jimbi |imbia | |stand |*jat[a]- |jala-pɨn |ja-bɨn |ja-bɨn |jaɾa-bɨn |ja-pon | | Three examples in which medial /*t/ is lenited but not palatalized …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-T-** |**t [ɾ]**|**t [ɾ]**|**t [ɾ]**|**t [ɾ]**|**t [l]**|**** | |tongue |*taTumat[a]|talmala |tanmɛa |taɾamʷan |taɾmaɾ-ɨk| | | |yellow |*toTet[a] | |tɨdɛa |tɨdɛa | |toriɛ |tolia | |sit |*koTo- |koɾo-bɛn |koɾo-pɨn |koɾo-pɨn |koɾo-bɨn |kʰolo-bon| | |hand/finger|*koTok |koɾok | | | | | | Medial laminal voiceless /*s/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-s-**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |father|*as[a] |asa |as | |asai | | | Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-k-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |frog sp. |*embeket | |bɛkɛ | |mbikit |ɛmbɛgɛ | | |hear |*ek[i/e]- |ɛgɛl |ɛgi |egi-gi |ike-pɨn | | | |not |*aka |aka-i |aga |-aka |aka | | | |old |*matakat[a]|malagal | | |malakla | | | |catch |*moko- |moko-t |mogo-n |moko-n |moko-t | | | |come |*peki- | |biki |biki | |bɛge | | |nose (1 sg.)|*pok-ok | |pok-ok |pok-ok |pok-ok | | | |hit/kill |*poko- | |poko-pɨn |poko-ban |poko-pɨn | | | |bite |*poko[t] |pokol |-puku-pɨn |-pokwɛ |pokot | | | |burn (intr.)|*titoko- |tloko-pel |toko-pin |tɾiogo-bɨn |tɾoko-pɨn | | | |dry |*tapokVt[a]|tabugʷa [Imb]|taupokuja [Imb]|tapukɛa |tapukut | | | |white |*kandoke[a]| |kandəga |kandakɛa |kandoga |gandogʷej|kandukja | |many |*wakon | | | |wagon |wagon | | |bone |*jekimb[a] |ɛgɪmba |ɛgɨmba |ɛkimba ~\\ -igimba|ig̵imba ~\\ -ɛgimba| |egemba | |tobacco |*jaki |jaki |jaiki |jaiki |jaiki | |jaki | … /*k/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-k-/_i**|**s** |**?** |**k** |**k** |**?** |**?** | |heavy|*meki[a] |mɛsia | |mikiamba|mikiamba| | | Medial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***-kʷ-**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | Medial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***-mb-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |frog sp. |*embeket | |bɛkɛ | |mbikit |ɛmbɛgɛ | | |walk/go |*ambo- | | |ambɨn |ambɨn |ambo-bon | | |name |*membi[a] |memba |mimbia |mbia |mbia | |mimbi | |full |*mambandzit|mambandʒɛl|mambandʒi|mambandʒi |mambandʒit | | | |short |*maŋgumba |mambʷanda |mambandʒa|maŋkumbandʒa |maŋgumba |maŋgumba | | |foot/leg |*panamb[a] | |panba |panba |panamba | |panba/panben| |claw |*mundumb[a]|mundumbʷa |mundumba |-mundumba |mundumbʷa |-mundumba| | |eat/drink|*nembV- |nʌmbʌbʌn |nɛmbɨbɨn |nɨmbɨn |nimbisik | | | |person |*numbam |numbam |nɪmbʷam | | | | | |blood |*kombet- |kombɛt |kɨmbɨt | | | | | |skin |*kumb[a]- |kumbuk- |kumba- |kumbuk- |kumbɨk- | | | |black |*jimbit[a] |jɪmbɪl |imbia |imbia | |jimbi |imbia | |bone |*jekimb[a] |ɛgɪmba |ɛgɨmba |ɛkimba ~\\ -igimba|ig̵imba ~\\ -ɛgimba| |egemba | |hot |*jambaŋgV | |jambaŋɛ |jambaŋɛa |jambaŋgo | | | Medial apical prenasalized voiced stop /*nd/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-nd-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |blood |*endi[a] | | |ndai |india |ɛndija |endia | |night |*endiniŋg |ɛndɪnɪŋ |endɨniŋ | | | | | |no |*awunda | | |aunɾa |aunda |awuda | | |egg |*mund[a] |munda |munda |mɨnda |mnda |mɛndunda | | |claw |*mundumb[a]|mundumbʷa |mundumba|-mundumba|mundumbʷa|-mundumba | | |mountain|*penduŋg |pɛndəŋ |pɨndɨŋ |puntuŋ |pundun |bondoŋ |pondoŋ | |tomorrow|*ponde |pɛndɛ |pɨndɛ |pɨndi |pɨndi | |ponde | |know |*punde- |pundʒebɪn |pundubɨn|pundi |pundɛpɨm | | | |morning |*kandiŋg |kantiŋ |kandiŋin| | | | | |white |*kandoke[a]| |kandəga |kandakɛa |kandoga |gandogʷej |kandukja | |two |*kondamin | | |kandamʷɨn|kundamɨn |kondamin |kondamin | |ear |*kund[a] |kundu-bug̵ʷ-a|kund-a |kund-uk |kund-uk |gʷund-un-tija| | |rat |*kundok[aj]| | |kundukai |kuntukai |kʷʊndok | | |tail |*kundum[a] |kunduma |kuntuma |kuɾuma |kuɾumʷa | |kunma | |wallaby |*kuwijandok| | |kʷiandɨk |kʷiandʊk |kʰiandok | | |root |*kʷund[a] |kundaɾaka |-kunɾa |-unɾa | |gunda |kunda | Medial laminal prenasalized /*ndz/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***-ndz-** |**ndʒ** |**ndʒ** |**ndʒ** |**ndʒ** |**ndʒ** |**ɲɟ** | |wallaby|*amandzok |amandʒok |amandʒik | | | | | |full |*mambandzit|mambandʒɛl|mambandʒi|mambandʒi|mambandʒit| | | |tooth |*kandz[a] |kandʒa |kandʒa |kandʒɨn |kandʒik |gandʒɪniŋ|kaɲɟa/kaɲɟin| Medial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri|Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-ŋg-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |knife |*etoŋg[a] |loŋa |eŋja | | |ʔɛŋa | | |fruit/seed|*maŋg[a] |-maŋga |-maŋga |-maŋga |-maŋga |maŋga |maŋga | |short |*maŋgumba |mambʷanda |mambandʒa |maŋkumbandʒa|maŋgumba|maŋgumba | | |long |*piŋget[a]|piŋgɛl |piŋgi- |piŋgia |pigəla | | | |star |*piŋgup |piŋgup |puŋgusɨm |puŋgusɨm |puŋgusum| | | |stone |*naŋgum |naŋgum |naŋgum |naŋgum |naŋgum | | | |man |*nuŋgum |nuŋgum |nuŋgum |nuŋgum |nuŋgum | | | |elbow |*nuŋgumuŋg|nuŋg̵umuŋ-|nig̵imɨŋ-a|nɨmɨŋ-ɨk |nuŋmun |numugunuŋ|numg-uk | |sand |*kiŋgim | |kiŋkim |kiŋim |tʃiŋim |giɲim |kiŋim | |leaf |*kʷaŋg[a] | | |-waŋga |waŋga |gaŋgam |kaŋga | |hot |*jambaŋgV | |jambaŋɛ |jambaŋɛa |jambaŋgo| | | |wing |*jaŋgat | | | | |jaŋge | | … [*ŋgʷ] …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-ŋg/u_-**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |flying fox|*atuŋgaŋg |aimgʷaŋ (?)| |aiŋgʷaŋ |aluŋgaŋ |ajɪngʷaŋ|aᴵŋgʷaŋ | Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***-w-**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | … /*p/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-W-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |red|*paWut[a]|paul |papua |pauɛa |paula |bawi |pawia | Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***-j-**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | … final consonants …\\ \\ Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants. In some instances apparent final /*m/ might really be prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |woman |*nam |nam |nam |nam |nam |nam |nam | |stone |*naŋgum |naŋgum |naŋgum |naŋgum |naŋgum | | | |person|*numbam |numbam |nɪmbʷam | | | | | |man |*nuŋgum |nuŋgum |nuŋgum |nuŋgum |nuŋgum | | | |sand |*kiŋgim | |kiŋkim |kiŋim |tʃiŋim |giɲim |kiŋim | |sun |*kVjom |kjom |kiom |tum |tum |tem |tem | |ashes |*jambum |nambum |jambumbua|jambum |jambum |jambum |jambum | Final apical nasal /*n/ is generally retained as such in all descendants, though is ocassionally heard as velar [ŋ] or palatal [ɲ]: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***-n** |**n** |**n [n ŋ]**|**n** |**n [n ŋ]**|**n** |**n p[n ɲ ]**| |2 dl. |*nen |nɛn- |nɪn |nin- | |nɪn |neɲ | |2 sg. |*nan |nan |nan |nan |nan |nan |nan | |two |*kamin |kamin |kamin | | | | | |three |*komajin |kamain |kamaŋ |kɨmain |kumɛiŋ | | | |earth/ground|*kon |kon |kon | | | | | |two |*kondamin| | |kandamʷɨn|kundamɨn |kondamin|kondamin | |many |*wakon | | | |wagon |wagon | | |arrow |*jen |ɛn |en |in |jɪn | | | Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-p** |**p** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |star|*piŋgup (?)|piŋgup |puŋgusɨm|puŋgusɨm|puŋgusum| | | Final apical voicelss stop /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri |Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-t** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |frog sp. |*embeket | |bɛkɛ | |mbikit |ɛmbɛgɛ | | |smoke |*omut |omul |omua |-muja |mulaŋ |ʔɛmwi | | |full |*mambandzit|mambandʒɛl |mambandʒi |mambandʒi|mambandʒit| | | |bite |*poko[t] |pokol |-puku-pɨn |-pokwɛ |pokot | | | |dry |*tapokVt |tabugʷa [Imb]|taupokuja [Imb]|tapukɛa |tapukut | | | |yellow |*toTet[a] | |tɨdɛa |tɨdɛa | |toriɛ |tolia | |bird |*kʲenet |kinɛl |kɛnɛ |kɛnɛ |kɛnɛt |tʰɪɲe |tiɲe | |areca nut|*kʷumut | | |mui |mut | |kumi | |net bag |*wat |wal |wai |waɛ |wat | |wai | |sugarcane|*w[o/u]t | |wu |wuɛ |wut | | | |pig |*jat | |jaɛ |jaɛ |jat |jaj |jai | |wing |*jaŋgat | | | | |jaŋge | | Final laminal voiceless /*s/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s [iʃ]**|**s** | |1 dl. |*as |as- |as | |-as | | | |sago |*men[k]Vs|mɛnas |mɨngis |mɪnɪs |mɪnɪs | | | |tree/wood|*jes |jis |ɛs |ɛs |jis |ʔiʃ |is | Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ is generally retained as such in all decendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** | |wallaby |*amandzok |amandʒok|amandʒik| | | | | |nose |*pok | |pok-ok |pok-ok |pok-ok |bok |pok-a | |nose (1 sg.)|*pok-ok | |pok-ok |pok-ok |pok-ok | | | |new |*kak | |kak |kak |kak | | | |hand/finger |*koTok |koɾok | | | | | | |wallaby |*kuwijandok| | |kʷiandɨk|kʷiandʊk|kʰiandok| | When final /*k/ is preceded by high front vowel /*i/ it is palatalized and fricated to laminal /s/ in Awiakay: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| | |***-k** |**k** |**k [k g]**|**k** |**k** |**** |**s** | |shoulder|*kik | |gig- |kik- |kik- | | | |banana |*kajik |kaik |kaik |kaik |kaik | |kas | Final bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***-mb**|**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m ~ mb(-)**| |fire |*jamb |naʔam |jam |jam |jam |jam |jam/jamba | |water|*jomb |nɛm |jɛm |jɪm |jɪm |jom |jom/jomba | Final apical prenasalized vioced stop ./*nd/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***-nd**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | Final velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim |Imanmeri|Kansomai |Kanjimai | | | |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman | | |***-ŋg** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |louse |*emuŋg |omuŋ |omuŋ |jimuŋ |umwiŋ | |emuŋ | |wind |*enuŋg |ɛnuŋ |ɛnuŋ | | | | | |night |*endiniŋg |ɛndɪnɪŋ |endɨniŋ | | | | | |flying fox|*atuŋgaŋg |aimgʷaŋ (?)| |aiŋgʷaŋ |aluŋgaŋ |ajɪngʷaŋ |aᴵŋgʷaŋ | |mountain |*penduŋg |pɛndəŋ |pɨndɨŋ |puntuŋ |pundun |bondoŋ |pondoŋ | |1 sg. |*niŋg |niŋ |niŋ |niŋ |niŋ |niŋ |ɲiŋ | |2 pl. |*n[o/u]ŋg |noŋ |noŋ |nuŋ |nuŋ | |noŋ- ~ nuŋ- | |elbow |*nuŋgumuŋg|nuŋg̵umuŋ- |nig̵imɨŋ-a|nɨmɨŋ-ɨk |nuŋmun |numugunuŋ|numg-uk | |fish |*kinuŋg |kɪnɪŋ |kɪnɪŋ | | |tɪɲuŋ | | |morning |*kandiŋg |kantiŋ |kandiŋin | | | | | |laugh |*kʷiŋg | |kiŋna |wiŋinimbɨn|wiŋipin | | | |rain |*jeŋg | | |jiŋ |jɨŋ | |eŋ | |liver |*jumuŋg | |jumuŋg-um |jumuŋ-a |jɪmuŋ-a |jɛmuŋg-a |jumg-a/jumg-uk\\ /jumg-uŋ| Final bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***-w** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | Final palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***-j** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | … vowels and diphthongs …\\ \\ High front vowel /*i/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***i** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | High back rounded vowel /*u/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***u** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | High mid front vowel /*e/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***e** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | High mid-back rounded vowel /*o/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***o** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | Low central vowel /*a/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***a** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Arafundi|Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | || |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | || |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| ||***…** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | ===== Pronouns ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Arafundi |Andai |Tapei |Nanubae |Nanubae |Awiakay |Awiakay | | | |Kayam |Awim |Yamandim|Imanmeri|Kansomai|Kanjimai | | | |Kassell|Kassell|Kassell |Kassell |Dye |Hoenigman| |1 sg.|*niŋg |niŋ |niŋ |niŋ |niŋ |niŋ |ɲiŋ | |2 sg.|*nan |nan |nan |nan |nan |nan |nan | |3 sg.|*an | |an |an |an | |an | |1 pl.|*aŋg |aŋ |aŋ |aŋ |aŋ |aŋ- |… | |2 pl.|*n[o/u]ŋg|noŋ |noŋ |nuŋ |nuŋ |? |… | |3 pl.|… | | | | | | | |1 dl.|*as |as- |as | |-as | | | |2 dl.|*nen |nɛn- |nɪn |nin- | |nɪn |neɲ | |3dl. |? | | | | | | | …\\ ===== Verbal morphology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ …\\ \\ \\