====== Grime River ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== The Grime River family, known in the comparative literature as the Nimboran family, consists of five languages spoken to either side of the Grime (Grimi) river to just inland of New Guinea's north coast west of Lake Sentani in Indonesia's Papuan province. Its nearest linguistic relatives are the Orya-Tor River and Mawes languages to the west. ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of Grime River is as follows:\\ \\ Grime River West Grime River Namblong Mlap East Grime River Moi Gresi-Kemtuik Gresi Kemtuik\\ \\ These subgroups are discernible through very salient splits in the basic termlist, with Moi forms drawn from Banundi (2002) and from Anceaux (Smits and Voorhoeve 1994): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |West Grime|Moi |Gresi-Kemtuik| |cassowary |*mam |suali |*isuali | |drink |*ɺep |dam |*dəlop | |ear |*kəni[ŋ] |kama |*kama | |earth/ground |*map |kenan |*nan | |eye |*nu |namo |*namuɔ | |fire |*kip |kei |*koi | |fish |*ʉe |dasi |*dasi | |flesh/meat |*niŋ |kendeŋ |*kədoŋ | |hand |*kit |ta |*ta | |hear |*tas[i/ɛ]ŋ|tup |*tup | |house |*jamo |jap |*jap | |leaf |*pəɺo |dep |*dop | |nail |*waɺoŋ |-on |*won | |one |*təndʉ |kapraj [JA]|*kəlaj[a] | |sago |*səmo |depet [JA] |*dəwot | |sea |*bəŋgip |baib |*bəjap | |sit |*kənɔk |sjum |*sʉŋ | |thorn |*kaɺoŋ |wafuŋ |*woŋ | |tongue |*mambəɺop |ambliŋ |*nəmbəleŋ | |weeping/crying|*im |u |*u | |woman |*ki |kambuŋ |*kabuŋ | ===== Sources ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Galis (1955) 29 comparative terms for Nimboran Anceaux (1965) grammar of Nimboran Voorhoeve (1975: 110) 40 comparative terms for Nimboran after Anceaux (n.d.) Smits and Voorhoeve eds. (1994: 18-266) comparative vocabulary of Nambrong of Besym/Besum after an unnamed constable and of an unspecified variety of Nambrong after Anceaux (n.d.) May and May (1981) phonology of Nimboran May (1981) Nimboran kin terms May (1997) grammar of Nimboran (Namblong) Steinhauer (1995) Nimboran verbal morphology (unobtained) Steinhauer (1998) Nimboran verbal morphology (unobtained) Swan et al. (2015, 2016) picture dictionary of Namblong Swan et al. (2015, 2016) Namblong reader Swan et al. (2019) dictionary of Namblong Swan et al. (2019) Namblong conjunctions Swan et al. (2019) Namblong verbal morphology after May (1997)\\ \\ Galis (1955) 28 comparative terms for Kwangsu Voorhoeve (1975: 111) 40 comparative terms for Kwansu after Anceaux (n.d.) Smits and Voorhoeve eds. (1994: 18-266) two comparative vocabularies for Kwansu of Bonggrang village after Anceaux (n.d.) Althur (1992) phonology of Kwansu (unobtained) Paidi (1999) morphology of Kwansu (unobtained) Fakhihuddin (1999) Kwansu syntax (unobtained)\\ \\ Galis (1955) 28 comparative terms for Demenggong Voorhoeve (1975: 111) 40 comparative terms for Mekwei after Anceaux (n.d.) Smits and Voorhoeve eds. (1994: 18-266) unattributed comparative vocabulary of Munggai of Kendate and two of Munggai of Waibron and one of Munggai of Sabron after Anceaux Banundi (2002) Moi number system Banundi (2002) dictionary of Moi Banundi (2003) grammar of Moi\\ \\ Galis (1955) 28 comparative terms for Kamtuk and 25 for Munggé Voorhoeve (1975: 111) 40 comparative terms for Kamtuk after Anceaux (n.d.) Smits and Voorhoeve eds. (1994: 18-266) two comparative vocabularies of Kamtuk of Sekori after unspecified teachers, one of Kamtuk of Sebayap and Aib after Toam, two of Kamtuk of Maikari after Anceaux and one of an unspecified variety after Anceaux van der Wilden and van der Wilden (1975) phonology of Kemtuk van der Wilden (1976) Kemtuk kinship terms van der Wilden (1976) Kemtuk verbs van der Wilden (1976) Kemtuk clauses (unobtained) van der Wilden, van der Wilden, Yaboysembut, Marasian, Bemey and Hartzler (2008) dictionary of Kemtuik Werner (1992) vocabulary of Kemtuik (unobtianed) Werner and Healey (1993) Kemtuik case markers (unobtianed)\\ \\ Voorhoeve (1975: 111) 40 comparative terms for Gresi after Anceaux (n.d.) Smits and Voorhoeve eds. (1994: 18-266) comparative vocabulary of Gresik of Ibub and of two unspecified varieties after Anceaux Purba, Paidi and Karoba (2002) grammar of Gresi ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Proto-Grime River had 12 or 13 consonants and 7 or 8 vowels as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | [*ŋ] | | *p | *t | *s | *k | | *mb | *nd | | *ŋg | | *w | *ɺ | *j | | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | *ʉ | *u | | | [*ə] | | | *ɛ | *ɜ | *ɔ | | | *a | | In addition to the simple vowels given above, at least three diphthongs are found as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *uɛ | | *uɔ | | | *ua | | With only two probably latter-day exceptions, velar nasal /*ŋ/ is found only finally. Thus it would be straightforward to consider in the final allophone of prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ which like /*mb *nd/ does not otherwise occur finally; this is for example the solution which has been adopted for the Ok and Mek families to the south. However final /*ŋ/ is significantly more common than are initial and medial /*ŋg/, and unlike in Ok the dispositions of erstwhile finals /*mb *nd/ is not known; additionally there are a number of instances in which [ŋ] irregularly alternates with /*m/. We use <*ŋ> then in order to avoid committing to a solution which may not be historically accurate.\\ \\ The vowel shown here as high-mid central <*ə> is better viewed as a schwa as it occurs only in destressed positions and thus cannot occur initially, finally or in monosyllables. As the only other vowel that occurs in these positions is /*a/, it is probable that [*ə] reflects the conflation of vowels other than /*a/ which have been destressed, and is thus not a real phoneme. However, it may not not possible in all instances to determine what the underlying vowel is or was and so <*ə> has been provisionally adopted.\\ \\ Any consonant besides velar nasal /*ŋ/ can occur initially or medially. Only a restricted subset of consonants occurs finally: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | *ŋ | | *p | *t | | *k | | *w | | *j | | Final /*s/ is found only in loans, where it becomes /si/ in Mekwei and Kemtuik but is droppped in Namblong\\ \\ All Grime River languages have initial clusters synchronically, the most common being those of the form /Cɺ/, but these do not contrast with /*Cəɺ/ which otherwise would not exist and hence are reconstructed as such. Similarly, apparent clusters /*sm *sn/ can be reduced to /*səm *sən/ which become bonafide clusters only in Namblong. There are a however a small number of clusters with reflexes that do contrast with those of their /*CəC/ counterparts. The following consonant clusters have been reconstructed for proto-Grime River: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | | *m | *n | *s | | *k | *km | *kn | *ks | | *ŋg | --- | *ŋgn | --- | Initial vowels are uncommon and in multisyllabic roots are often dropped. Only high vowels /*i *u/ and low central *a/ have been found initially. Generally speaking, medial and final vowels other than /*a/ occur only as the last vowel of the root and can be preceded only by initial vowels, destressed vowel [*ə] or /*a/; this is likely because all vowels besides /*a/ are neutralized to [*ə] in destressed positions. Thus four vowel position classes can be discerned: 1) stressed initial vowels /*i *u *a/, which occur only in monosyllables 2) destressed initial vowels /*i *u *a/ 3) medial vowels /*ə *a/ followed by another syllable and 4) medial and final vowels and diphthongs /*i *ʉ *u *ɛ *ɜ *ɔ *a *uɛ *uɔ *ua/ in the last syllable of the root. This situation strongly suggests that diphthongs /*uɛ *uɔ *ua/ result from the metathesis of a back rounded vowel in a preceding syllable which has been reduced to [*ə], and indeed that probably is their origin in many to most instances. Van der Wilden (CITE) considers high central rounded /ʉ/ to be underlyingly a diphthonng /ui/, the distribution of which would work well with this hnypothesis. However, each of these occurs also in monosyllables and following /*a/ in a preceding syllable. This would seem to require that some examples of /*a/ were really low-mid back rounded /*ɔ/ which added an onglide [*ᵘ] to the vowel in the following syllable before being neutralized to /*a/ just as /*u/ was neutralized to [*ə]. This would not contradict the fact that /*uV/ diphthongs occur in monosyllables as /*ɔ/ does not otherwise occur initially, perhaps because it was dropped. This system as hypothethized is outlined as follows: |< - 80px 80px >| | %%**%%iˈCV | *iCV | | %%**%%uˈCV | *uCuV | | %%**%%ɛˈCV | *CV | | %%**%%ɔˈCV | *CuV | | %%**%%aˈCV | *aCV | | %%**%%CiˈCV | *CəCV | | %%**%%CuˈCV | *CəCuV | | %%**%%CɛˈCV | *CaCV | | %%**%%CɔˈCV | *CaCuV | | %%**%%CaˈCV | *CaCV | Roots have one to three syllables. Stress is contrastive in roots with two or three syllables and is among the most obvious features of Grtme River phonology.\\ \\ Initial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Grime R. | Namblong | Mlap | Moi | Kemtuik | Gresi | | *m- | m | m | m | m | m | | *m/_əɺ | ø | ? | m | m | m | | *n- | n | n | n | n | n | | [*ŋ]- | ŋg | ? | ? | ŋ | ? | | *p- | p | p | p | p | p | | *t- | t | t | t | t | t | | *s- | s | s | s | s | s | | *s-/_iŋg | ø | s | s | s | s | | *s-/_əN | h | s | s | s | s | | *s-/_əɺ | h | s | s | s | s | | *s-/_aCV | h | s | s | s | s | | *k- | k | k | k | k | k | | *mb- | b | b | b | b | b | | *nd- | d | d | d | d | d | | *ŋg- | ŋg | ŋg | k | g | g | | *w- | w | w | w | w | w | | *ɺ- | ɺ | ɺ | n | l | l | | *j- | j | j | j | j | j | Initial consonant clusters correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Grime R. | Namblong | Mlap | Moi | Kemtuik | Gresi | | *km- | ? | ? | kəm | m | h | | *kn- | ŋ | ŋ | kən | n | h | | *ŋgn- | ŋ | ŋ | k | gən | gən | | *ks- | s | s | kəs | s | s | Medial consonants corespond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Grime R. | Namblong | Mlap | Moi | Kemtuik | Gresi | | *-m- | m | m | m | m | m | | *-n- | n | n | n | n | n | | -[*ŋ]- | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋ | ŋ | | *-p- | p | w ø | p | w ø | w ø | | *-p-/ə_i | p | ø | p | ø | ø | | *-p-/NV_ | mb | mb | p | mb | mb | | *-p-/kə _ | w | w | p | w | w | | *-t- | t | t | t | t | t | | *-s- | s | s | s | s | s | | *-k-/i a_ | k | k | k | k | k | | *-k-/ə_ | k | g | k | g | g | | *-k-/Na_ | k | ? | ŋg | k | ? | | *-mb-/#V_ | b | b | mb | b | b | | *-mb-/NV_ | mb | mb | mb | b | b | | *-mb-/CV_ | b | b | mb | b | b | | *-mb-/wV jV_ | mb | mb | mb | b | b | | *-nd-/#V_ | nd | nd | nd | d | d | | *-nd-/NV_ | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | | *-nd-/CV_ | d | ? | nd | d | d | | *-nd-/wV jV_ | nd | nd | nd | d | d | | *-ŋg-/#V_ | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | | *-ŋg-/NV_ | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | | *-ŋg-/CV_ | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | g | g | | *-ŋg-/si_ | nd | ɺ | ŋg | l | l | | *-ŋg-/sə_ | k | g | ŋg | g | g | | *-ŋg-/wV jV_ | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | g | g | | *-w- | w | | w | w | | | *-w- | w | | w | gʷ | | | *-w-/i_i | ø | ø | ø | ø | ø | | *-w-/a_i | ø | ? | ? | w | w | | *-ɺ- | ɺ | ɺ | ɺ | ɺ | ɺ | | *-j- | | | | | | Final consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Grime R. | Namblong | Mlap | Moi | Kemtuik | Gresi | | *-m | m | m | m | m | m | | *-n | ŋ | ŋ | n | n | n | | *-ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | | *-p | p | p | p | p | p | | *-t | ᵌ | t | t | t | t | | *-k | ː | k | k | k | k | | *-w | | | | | | | *-j | | | | | | Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Grime R. | Namblong | Mlap | Moi | Kemtuik | Gresi | | *i | i | | i | i | | | *i/w_ | ʉ | ʉ | i | i | i | | *ʉ | ʉ | ʉ | u | ʉ | u | | *ʉ/s_ | ʉ | ʉ | ju | ʉ | u | | *u | u | u | u | u | u | | *u/#_CV | u | u | a | u | u | | *ɛ | e | e | e | e | e | | *ɜ | o | o | e | o | o | | *ɔ | | | | | | | *ɔ/_# | ɔ | a | a | a | a | | *a | a | a | a | a | a | | *… | | | | | | | *uɛ | | | | | | | *uɔ | uo | | o | uo | | | *ua | | | | | | There correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Namblong attestations drawn from Swan et al. (2019,) Kunagsu (Mlap) from Smits and Voorhoeve (1994 following Anceaux n.d.,) Moi from Banundi (2002,) Kemtuik from van der Wilden, van der Wilden, Yaboysembut, Marasian, Bemey and Hartzler (2008) and Gresi from Purba, Paidi and Karoba (2002) unless otherwise indicated. A minority of Namblong (Nimboran,) Moi (Mekwei,) Kemtuik (Kemtuk) and Gresi (Gresik) forms are drawn from Smits and Voorhoeve (1994 following Anceaux n.d.,) and are indicated by the notation [JA].\\ \\ \\ Any consonant excepting velar nasal /*ŋ/ can occur initially.\\ \\ Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |breast/milk |*min |miŋ |miŋ [JA] |min |min | | |sugarcane |*min |miŋ | |min |min |min [JA]| |still/yet |*misɜ |msjo | |mese | | | |mother |*mija |me | | |miˈa | | |tree kangaroo |*məmbɛŋ |membeŋ | | |membeŋ | | |ketapang |*məndu |mendu | | |mendu\\ ~ mundu| | |mountain |*məndʉ[m/ŋ] | |mɛnduŋ\\ ~ mənduŋ |munduŋ\\ ~ mənduŋ [JA]|meˈndʉm |mndim | |navel |*məsʉ |mesʉ | |musju |mesʉ | | |brother-in-law |*mɛs[ɛ/a] |mese | | |mesa | | |give |*ma |ma | |ma |ma | | |cassowary |*mam |mam |mam | | | | |earth/ground |*map |map |map ~ mab | | | | |tongue |*mambəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p|mambɺop |mambrɔp\\ ~ mambrɔb| | | | |still/yet |*maniŋ |maniŋ | | |maniŋ |maniŋ | |foot/leg |*masi |mesi |mɛsi |masi |masi |masi | |evil spirit sp.|*masɜ | | |mase |maso |maso | |foam |*maŋg[ɜ/ɔ]n |maŋgoŋ | | |maŋgon | | |deaf/mute |*mawɔ | | |mao |mawo | | |weak/gentle |*maɺɜ |maɺo | |male |malo | | |will/must |*m[a]j[a] |mai | | |meja | | |pus |*mɔk | | |mok |mok | | |bird sp. |*muɔŋ | | |moŋ |muoŋ | | When initial /*m/ is followed by a destressed vowel [*ə] and then an apical non-stop /ɺ/ it is dropped in Namblong: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***m/_əɺ** |**ø** |**?** |**m** |**m** |**m**| |old garden|*məɺəmbʉ |ɺebʉ | | |mlebʉ- | | |itch/itchy|*məɺɛ- | | |mle- |mle- | | |catch |*məɺak | | |mlak |mlak |mlak | |oil |*məɺaj | | |mlai ~ melai|mlaj | | … /*m/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***m-/_ənd**|**m** |**m** |**m** |**m ø** |**ø** | |grasshopper|*mənduap |mendwap |mɛndɔp |mundop |meˈndop\\ ~ ndop|ndɔp [JA]| One apparently irregular initial nasal is ambiguous between bilabial /*m/ and apical /*n/ (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***[m/n]-**|**?** |**?** |**n** |**n** |**?**| |fly (n.)|*[m/n]ambʉn| | |mambun |nambʉn | | Initial apical nasal /*n/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***n-** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |cold/cool |*nim |nim | | |nim | | |flesh/meat |*nin |niŋ |niŋ | | | | |3 sg./pl. |*nəmɔt | | |nemot |nemot |nemot | |wind |*nəpit |nembie |nəmbit |nivit |neˈmbit |nɛmbit~nɛmbid\\ nəmbit [JA]| |voice/speech |*nəmbut |nembuo\\ ~ nembwo|nəmbut |numbut |neˈmbut |nembut | |eel/crocodile |*nəŋgum |neŋgum | |nuŋgum [JA]|neŋgum\\ ~ neŋgom|nəgum [JA] | |sound/echo |*namʉŋ |namʉŋ | | |namʉŋ | | |two |*namuan |namwan | |naman |ˈnamon |namon | |eye |*namuɔ | | |namo |nemu |nam | |wait/later |*nambɔj | | |namboi |namboj | | |day after tom.|*naPu | | |napu |napu | | |who? |*nan |nam ~nan ~naŋ |naŋga | | | | |yam/sw. potato|*naniŋ |naniŋ | |naniŋ |naniŋ | | |marsupial sp. |*nanu |nanu | | |nanu | | |who? |*nandV |nande | |nande |nando |nando | |back/behind |*nasɜŋ | | |naseŋ |nasoŋ |nasoŋ | |egg(s)/roe |*nakɔm |nakom | |naŋgom |nakom | | |marrow |*naku |naku | | |naku | | |three |*naŋgəɺik |naŋgɺii |naŋgrik|naŋklik |naŋglik |naŋglik | |center post |*naŋguɔn |naŋguoŋ | | |neŋguon | | |spirit sp. |*naɺi |naɺi | |nali |nali | | |eye/see |*nu |nu |nu- | |nu | | … initial /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***n-/_əŋg**|**n** |**?** |**ø** |**ø** |**?**| |swallow |*nəŋgut |neŋguo | |kut |gut | | | |***n-/_əŋg**|**ø** |**?** |**n** |**n** |**?**| |drum sp.|*nəŋgʉ |ŋgʉ | |nuŋgu |neŋgʉ | | There is only one known example of apparent initial velar nasal /*ŋ/, which is probably a loan from Kwansu (where final /*k/ is not dropped) into Kemtuik. It is reflected as prenasalized voiced stop /ŋg/ in Namblong and as /ŋ/ in Kemtuik: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***[ŋ]-** |**ŋg** |**?** |**?** |**ŋ** |**?**| |pick|*[ŋ]uɔk |ŋguou | | |ŋuok | | Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***p-** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p**| |gall/bile |*pəti |peti | | |peti | | |broken/wound |*pəku | | |peku |pegu | | |fly/run |*pəɺiŋ |pɺiŋ | |pliŋ |pliŋ |pliŋ | |palm sp./bow |*pəɺ[ɜ] |pɺo | | |ple | | |shell sp. |*pəɺɜ | | |ple-ple|plo | | |cut/split |*pəɺɜ | | |ple |plo | | |magic spell |*pəɺasi |pɺasi | |plasi | | | |leaf |*pəɺɔ |pɺo |pra | | | | |pour/spill |*p[ɛi] |pei | |pi |pi | | |peel (v.) |*pɛp |pep | | |pep | | |watch/look after|*p[ɜ/ɔ]ŋ |poŋ |pɔŋ | |poŋ | | |palm sp. |*pam |pam | | |pam | | |dry |*paŋ |paŋ |paŋ |paŋ |paŋ |paŋ | |hatch |*paŋ |paŋ | |paŋ |paŋ | | |bird sp. |*paɺu | | |palu |palu | | |speak/tell |*pu | | |pu |pu |pu | |hole |*put |puo ~ pwa| |put |put |put | |come/arrive |*puŋ |puŋ |puŋ |puŋ |puŋ |puŋ | |cook/burn |*pʉt |pʉe | | |pʉt | | Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***t-** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |shoot/sprout |*tip | | |tip |tip |tip | |noise |*tiŋ | | |tiŋ-tiŋ|tiŋ | | |big |*təm[iɛ]n |temien | | | |temin | |lizard sp. |*təmbap |tebap | | |tebap | | |short/blunt |*təmbɔt |tebwa | |tumbot |tebot |tebot | |cut short/trim|*təmbəwu |tebuu | |tumbu |tebu | | |quiet/silent |*təmbuŋ |tebuŋ | | |tebuŋ | | |left |*təkaɺi[k] |tekaɺi | | |ta kali (?)|ta-(t)kalik| |leader |*təkaj |tekai | | |tegaj | | |meet/find |*təku |teku | | |tegu | | |cough |*təkuɛk |tekuei | |tukok |tegue | | |lean on |*təkʉ |tekʉ | | |tegʉ | | |eject/remove |*təkʉk |tekʉʉ | | |tegʉk | | |break/smash |*təkuɔk |tekuo | | |teguok | | |stomach |*təŋg[uɛ/ua]n |teŋgueŋ |tɛŋgwɛŋ| |teˈguan |tgwen | |hit/strike |*təŋg[uɛ/uɔ]ŋ |teŋguoŋ | |tuŋgoŋ |tegueŋ | | |one |*təndʉ |tendʉ |tɛndu | | | | |put/give birth|*təwʉ |tʉʉ | | |tʉ |tu | |hunt/chase |*təɺ[ɛu]k |treʉ | | |trʉk | | |shoot/sprout |*təɺɜn |troŋ | |tren | | | |fill/be full |*təɺam | | |tram |tram | | |call |*təɺa[ŋ] |tɺaŋ | | |tra | | |firstborn/heir|*təɺaŋ |traŋ | | |traŋ |traŋ | |song sp. |*təɺ[ɔu] |trou | | |trow | | |open/unplug |*təɺuk |truu | |truk |truk | | |native law |*təɺʉ |trʉ | | |-trʉ | | |sweet |*tɜm |tom | |tem |tom |tom | |stay |*ta |ta | | |ta | | |arm/hand |*ta | | |ta |ta |ta | |new plant |*tamaŋ |tamaŋ | |tamaŋ |tamaŋ | | |path |*tap |tap |tap |tap |tap |tap | |wing |*tambaŋ | |tabaŋ |tambaŋ |tabaŋ | | |back |*tatɛ |tate doŋ| | |tat-on | | |hear |*tas[i/ɛ][n/ŋ] |tasiŋ |taseŋ | | | | |sorcery |*tasəmu | | |tasumu |tasemu | | |origin/clan |*taŋ |taŋ | |taŋ |taŋ | | |centipede |*tak | | |tak |tak |taq [JA] | |vine/rope |*taŋgan |taŋgaŋ |taŋgaŋ |taŋgan |tegan |tgan | |gather |*taŋg[ɜ/ɔ][m/ŋ]|taŋgoŋ | | |tagom | | |bead sp. |*tawɔ |tawo | |tao |teguo | | |spoon/ladle |*tawɔj |tawai | | |taguoi |tawoi | |point/show |*taɺiŋ | | |taliŋ |taliŋ |taliŋ | |crooked/crip. |*taɺɛŋ | | |taleŋ |taleŋ | | |line/row |*taɺɔ |taɺo | | |tala | | |stalk (n.) |*tajaŋ |tajaŋ | |tajaŋ |tajaŋ | | |hear |*tup | | |tup |tup |tup | Initial laminal voiceless /*s/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***s-** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** | |place (n.) |*sip |sip | | |sip |sip | |each |*siŋ |-siŋ | | |siŋ |siŋ | |squeeze out |*sik |sii | | |sik | | |draw/take out |*səp[ɔ/u]k |spuu | | |sok | | |go away |*səp[ɔ/u]k |spuu | | |sok | | |sew |*səmbut |sebuo | | |sebut | | |strike/chop (?)|*səmbuk |sebuu | | |sebuk | | |neck |*səsu |sesu |səsu |susu [JA]|susu | | |shake/swing |*səkəɺuɛk |skɺʉʉ | |siklek |segluep| | |bamboo |*səŋgəɺu | |səgru |suŋglu |seglu |sugru [JA] | |breadfruit sp. |*səŋgɜm |skom |səgɔm |siŋgem |segom |sgom [JA] | |cockroach |*səŋguan |skwaŋ [JA]|səgwɔn | |seguon |səgwan- [JA]| |egg |*səwip[i] |sʉp |sup |sifi |si |si- | |spread/lay out |*sɛj |sei | | |sej | | |lip(s) |*sɛj | | |sei |sej | | |to/at (?) |*sɜ |so ~ ho | |se |so | | |mosquito |*sɜn |soŋ |sɔŋ |sen |son | | |dry/dry leaves |*s[ɜ/ɔ]p |sop | | |sop |sɔp [JA] | |carving |*sam |sam | |sam |sam |sam | |tail/last |*sat |sa |sat |sat [JA] |sat |sat | |border |*saŋ |saŋ | | |saŋ | | |suck/suckle |*sup |sup | | |sup | | |shame/shy |*sut |-suo | | |-sut | | |turn over |*suk | | |suk |suk | | |cook/boil |*s[u/ʉ]k |suu | | |sʉk |suk | |name |*sʉ |sʉ |sʉ |sju |sʉ |su | |sit |*sʉ[m/ŋ] | | |sjum |sʉŋ |suŋ | |swim |*suɛ |sʉe | | |sue | | |leaf sp. |*sua |swa | | |suˈa | | |afraid |*suaɺi |swaɺi | | |suali |suali | When intiial /*s/ is followed by a destressed vowel [ə] and then a nasal /*m *n/ or an apical non-stop /*ɺ/, it is deoccluded to [h] in alternation with zero [ø] in Namblong. As the segment /*səɺ/ is unexpectedly common and there are no segments of the form /*sət *sənd/, it seems probable that /*t *nd/ have merged with /*ɺ/ in this environment: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***s-/_əm**|**h [h ø]**|**s** |**?** |**?** |**?**| |sago |*səmɔ |mo |səma | | | | | |***s-/_ən**|**h [h ø]**|**s** |**s** |**s** |**s**| |body/contents |*səni |heni |sɛnj- |sini |seni |seni | |louse |*səna[ŋ] |hnaŋ ~ naŋ |səna |sna ~ səna [JA]|sena |sena | |old/always |*sənaŋ |naŋ | |snaŋ [JA] |senaŋ | | |know |*sən[ɔ/u]ŋ | | |sənuŋ [JA] |senoŋ |senoŋ| | |***s-/_əɺ**|**h [h ø]**|**s** |**s** |**s** |**s**| |tooth |*səɺiŋ |ɺiŋ | | |sriŋ ~ sediŋ|sriŋ | |lie down/sleep|*səɺ[i/ɛ]k |ɺei |srik |srik |srek |srek | |old |*səɺəjiŋ |hɺiiŋ | |sliŋ ~ sriŋ |sediŋ |sriŋ | |back/spine |*səɺ[ɜ/ɔ]ŋ |ɺoŋ | | |sroŋ | | |lazy/rest |*səɺ[ɜ/ɔ]k |ɺo | | |srok |srok | |man/male |*səɺu |hɺu |sru |-sru |sru |sru | |husk/peel |*səɺuk | | |sluk ~ sruk |sruk | | |wooden fork |*səɺuɔm |ɺum ~ hɺum | |srom ~ slom |sruˈom | | When intiial /*s/ is followed by low central vowel /*a/ in a multisyllabic root it is deoccluded to [h] in alternation with zero [ø] in Namblong (q.v. also Smits and Voorhoeve 1994: 135-136 Nimboran [haŋguo ~ haŋggu] "fly"): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***s-/_aCV** |**h [h ø]** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**?** | |bracelet sp. |*sam[ɔ/u]n |amuŋ | | |samon | | |sp. |*samuɔ |amuo | |samo |semu | | |earthen bowl |*sapəɺɔ |hapɺɔ | |sapla |saula | | |people/tribe |*sapəɺɔ |hapɺɔ | |sapla |saula | | |fish sp. |*sambu[ŋ] |hambuŋ\\ ~ ambuŋ| | |sabu | | |crab claw(s) |*sambu[m/ŋ] |abum | | |sabuŋ | | |tusk |*sambuŋ |hambuŋ\\ ~ ambuŋ| | |sabuŋ | | |uterus/womb |*sani[ŋ] |haniŋ | |sani |sani | | |sick/ill |*sandʉ | | |sandu |sadʉ |sadu | |fibrous |*sasɔp |asop | | |sasop | | |torch |*sak[ɛ/ɔ]j |ake | | |sagoj | | |disappear |*sakʉp |hakʉp ~ akʉp | | |sagʉp | | |palm sp. |*saŋgəɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ| | |saŋglaŋ|sagloŋ | | |request/desire|*saŋg[ɜ/ɔ]n |haŋgoŋ\\ ~ aŋgoŋ| | |sagon | | |bee |*saŋgup |aŋgup | | | |səgup [JA]| |fight/quarrel |*saŋgʉ | | |saŋgu |sagʉ | | |fly (n.) |*saŋguɔ |aŋguo |səŋgɔ ~ səŋgo| | | | |song sp. |*sawɔ |hawo ~ awo | |sao |seguo | | |men's house |*saɺi | | |sali |sali- | | |pig bone blade|*saɺu | | |salu |salu | | When initial /*s/ is followed by destressed high front vowel /*i/ then prenasalized voiced velar stop /*ŋg/, /*ŋg/ becomes apical /*nd/ in languages other than Moi, forming a cluster with initial /*s/. In Namblong, /*s/ is then dropped, presumably after having been deoccluded to [h] (above,): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***siŋg-** |**nd** |**sd [sr]**|**siŋg**|**sd [səd sr]**|**sd [sd səd sr]** | |dream|*siŋgi |ndi | |siŋgi |ssdi |sdi | |root |*siŋgaŋ |ndaŋ |sraŋ |siŋgaŋ |sraŋ |sɛdaŋ\\ ~ -sᵊraŋ [JA]| Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***k-** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** | |woman |*ki |ki |ki | | | | |raw/green |*ki | | |ki |ki | | |fire |*kip |kip |kip | | | | |blood/red |*kin |kiŋ |kiŋ |kin |kin |kin | |arm/hand |*kit |kie |kit | | | | |send |*kiŋ |kiŋ | | |-kiŋ | | |raw/green |*kiki |keki |kiki- |kiiki |kiki |kiki | |fist |*kəmuk | | |kumuk |kemuk | | |pit/hole |*kəmuɔ |kemuo | |kumo |kemuo | | |termite |*kəpi | | |kivi |ki | | |rack sp. |*kəmbəɺɛŋ | | |kembleŋ |kebleŋ | | |work |*kəmbaɺi |kebaɺi | |kembali |keˈbali |kebali | |net bag |*kəmbɔ |kebo |kəba |kemba |keba |keba | |die |*kəmbɔŋ | | |kumboŋ |keˈboŋ |keboŋ | |thigh |*kəmbum | | |kumbum |kebum | | |ear |*kəni[n/ŋ] |keni |keniŋ ~ kɛniŋ-| | | | |spleen |*kən[ɜ] |kene | | |keno | | |button (?) |*kən[ɜ/ɔ]p |kenop | | |kenop | | |sit/stay |*kən[ɜ/ɔ]k |kenou |kənɔk | | | | |penis |*kənuɔn |kenuoŋ |kənɔŋ |kunun | | | |close/narrow |*kəndik |kedii | | |kedik | | |flesh/meat |*kəndɜŋ | | |kendeŋ |kedoŋ | | |vomit |*kəsʉ | | |kusju |kusʉ | | |coconut |*kəwim |kʉm |kum |kim |kim |kim | |go away |*kəɺi |kɺi | |kli |kli | | |frog |*kəɺiŋ |kɺiŋ | |kliŋ |kliŋ |kliŋ | |touch/approach |*kəɺiŋ |kɺiŋ | | |kliŋ | | |make/build |*kəɺik |kɺii | |klik |klik |klik | |armpit |*kəɺəmuɛ[ŋ] |kɺemʉŋ |krɛmi | |kleme | | |cover |*kəɺəmbuɛt |kɺbʉa | | |klebet | | |mushroom |*kəɺaput | | |klaput |kˈlaut | | |white |*kəɺaput | | |klaput\\ ~ kraɸut [JA] |kˈlaut | | |wild pig |*kəɺat | | |klat |klat | | |tree sp. |*kəɺaŋ |kɺaŋ | | |klaŋ | | |bribe |*kəɺaj |kɺai | |klai |klai | | |love/sympathy |*kəɺ[ɔ/u]m |kɺom | | |klum | | |weep/cry |*kəɺuk |kɺuu | | | |kluk ~ kruk | |voice/thunder |*kəɺʉm |kɺʉm |-krʉm |-krum [JA] |klum |-klim [TP]\\ ~ krʉm [JA]| |liver |*kəɺʉt |kɺʉa | |klut |klʉt | | |tree sp. |*kəɺʉt |kɺʉa | | |klʉt | | |beat drum |*kəɺʉŋ |kɺʉŋ | | |klʉŋ | | |cut/slice |*kəɺʉk |kɺʉʉ | | |klʉk | | |wound/boil |*kəɺuɔ |kɺuo | |klo |kluo | | |dry/famine |*kəɺuɔŋ |kɺouŋ | | |kluoŋ | | |fill/compensate|*kəjiŋ |kiiŋ | |kiŋ |kiŋ | | |increase |*kəjɛ |kee | | |ke | | |obey |*kɛŋ |keŋ | | |keŋ | | |dirt |*kɜn | | |ken |kon | | |lime |*kɜt | | |ket |kot | | |fire |*kɜj | | |kei |koj |koi | |put/stand |*k[ɜ/ɔ]ŋ |koŋ | | |koŋ | | |put in/hide |*k[ɜ/ɔ]k |kou | | |kok | | |almost |*kam |kam | | |kam | | |ear |*kam[a/ɔ] | | |kama |ˈkama |kəma\\ ~ koma [JA] | |one |*kapəɺaj[a] | | |kapraj- ~ kafrai\\ kabraj [JA]|kˈlaja ~ klaj- |kelai | |cooking pot |*kamb[i/ʉ] |kebii | | |kebʉ | | |butterfly |*kambɜt | |kabɔt |kambet |kabot |kabɔt [JA] | |goura pigeon |*kamb[ɔ/ʉ]t |kebʉe |kəbut |kambot |kabot |kabɔt [JA] | |woman |*kambuŋ | | |kambuŋ |ˈkabuŋ |kabuŋ | |down/below |*kati |kati | | |kati | | |fireplace |*katuk | | |katuk |katuk | | |sand |*kasaŋgɜt | |kasəŋgɔt |kasaŋget | | | |forbidden |*kaŋg[ɜ/ɔ]t |kaŋgwa | | |kagot | | |girl |*kaŋgʉt | | |kaŋgut |kagʉt | | |sky |*kawut |kawuo |kawt |keut ~ keud [JA] | | | |branch |*kaɺi |kaɺi |kari |kali [JA] |kali |kari [JA] | |sharp |*kaɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ |kaɺoŋ |karɔŋ |kaɺaŋ |kaloŋ |kaloŋ | |lenggua |*kaɺuk | | |kaluk |kaluk | | |mud/swamp |*kaɺʉ |kaɺʉ | | |kalʉ | | |scream |*kajaŋ |kajaŋ | | |kajaŋ | | |day |*ku |ku | |ku |ku |ku | |ground/place |*ku |ku | |ku |ku | | |down/below |*ku |ku | | |ku |ku | |grey hair |*kut |kuo | |kut |kut | | |dig/spoon |*kuk |kuu | | |kuk | | |excrement |*kʉ |kʉ | | |kʉ | | |singe/blacken |*kʉm |kʉm | | |kʉm | | |bite |*kʉp | | |kup ~ qup |kʉp | | |sting |*kʉjat |kja | | |kʉat | | |eclectus |*kuɛŋ |kʉeŋ | | |kuem | | |clay |*kuɛnsi |kinsi | | |kuensi | | |wound/sore |*kua[i] |kwai | |ko |kuo |ku | |frog sp. |*kuat kuat | | |kot-kot |kuˈat-kuˈat | | |spirit/soul |*kuasɛp |kesep | | |kuasep | | |grass sp. |*kuaɺap\\ -takuɛm|kwaɺ-\\ -takwem| | |kwalap\\ -takuem| | |grub sp, |*kuɔn |kuoŋ | |kon |kuon | | |kiss |*kuɔŋ |kuoŋ | | |kuoŋ | | |chewed quid |*kuɔk |kuou | | |kuok | | |wilt/wither |*kuɔk |kuou | | |kuok | | Initial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ is realized as plain voiced [b] in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***mb-** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** | |fat/grease |*mbən[ai] |benai |bənaj |bena ~ bəna\\ ~ bna [JA]|bena |bena\\ ~ bɛna [JA]| |hair of head |*mbətɜ | | |bete |beto |beto | |river/valley |*mbətuɔ | |bətɔ |boto [JA] |betuo |betu | |unwilling |*mbəsam |besam | | |besam | | |sweet potato |*mbəkɔj | | |bukoi |begoi |-bəgɔj [JA] | |sea |*mbəŋgip |beŋgip |bɛŋgip | | | | |wild |*mbəɺi[m/ŋ]|bɺiŋ | | |blim | | |yellow/bright |*mbəɺɜŋ | | |bleŋ |bloŋ | | |hunt |*mbəɺaŋ |bɺaŋ | | |blaŋ |blaŋ | |up/above |*mbəɺuɔ[ŋ] |bɺoŋ | |blo |blo |blu | |base/origin |*mbəɺuŋ |bɺuŋ | | |bluŋ |bluŋ | |sago stem |*mbəɺʉm |bɺʉm | |blum | | | |sprinkle/sow |*mbəɺʉ[m/ŋ]|bɺʉŋ | | |blʉm |blum | |magic |*mbəɺuɛ |bɺʉ | |blu |blue | | |go up |*mbɛ |be | | |be | | |above |*mba |ba | | |ba |ba | |old/dry |*mba[m/ŋ] |baŋ | | |bam | | |ironwood sp. |*mbap[u]t | | |bafut |bat | | |grandparent |*mbambu |babu | | |babu |babu | |come up |*mban |baN | | |ban | | |alone/apart |*mban[ɜ/ɔ]m|banom | | |ˈbanom | | |moon |*mbanu |banu |banu |banu |banu |banu | |spread out/wide|*mbatɔ |bato | | |bata |beta ~ bta | |sugar glider |*mbas[ɜ] |base | | |baso | | |light (v.) |*mbaŋ |baŋ | | |baŋ | | |cut/break |*mbaŋ |baŋ | | |baŋ | | |hit/beat |*mbaŋ |baŋ | | |baŋ | | |deny |*mbakɜt |bakwa | |baket | | | |fruit sp. |*mbawin |baʉŋ | | |bawin | | |hut |*mbaɺɔ |baɺo | |bala |bala | | |beloved |*mbaɺu |baɺu | | |balu | | |vegetable(s) |*mbaɺʉ |baɺʉ | | |balʉ | | |canoe |*mbaji | |baj | |baji |bai | |sea |*mbajap | | |baib |beˈap |bep ~ beb | |betrothed |*mbajnaŋ |banjaŋ | | |bajnaŋ | | |red |*mbɔm | | |bom |bom | | |water/river |*mbu |bu |bu |bu |bu |bu | |wait |*mbuŋ |buŋ | |buŋ |buŋ | | |cut off/break |*mbuŋ |buŋ | | |buŋ | | |chest |*mbʉt |bʉe | |but [JA] | | | |joint |*mbuɛm | |-bem |-bum |buem |-bem [JA] | |pick |*mbuɔ |buu | | |buo | | Initial apical prenasalized voiced stop /*nd/ is realized as plain voiced [d] in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***nd-** |**d** |**d** |**d** |**d** |**d** | |tree/wood |*ndi |di |di |di |di |di | |tree sp. |*ndəmɛ |deme | | |deme | | |spirit sp. |*ndəmat |dema | | |demat | | |bundle |*ndəmun |demuŋ | | |demun | | |stone |*ndəmuɔ |demuo |dəmu |demo |deˈmu |dum | |hair/feather(s)|*ndəpəwit |depʉe |dʉt |difit |dit |dit | |forest |*ndəpəjɛn |depeeŋ |dweŋ | |duˈen |duen ~ d(u)wen | |hornbill |*ndəpaɺi | |dwari |defali ~ devali | |dwari [JA] | |sago/sago tree |*ndəpɜt | | |depet\\ ~ dɛɸɛt [JA]|duot |duot | |wet/saturated |*ndəmbʉ |debʉ | |dembu |debʉ | | |banana flower |*ndəndɔ |dedo | | |deda | | |black |*ndəkit |dekie |degit | |degit | | |coral |*ndəkəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]ŋ|dekoŋ | | |degloŋ | | |enter/occupy |*ndəkut |dekuo | | |degut | | |Mt. Cyclops |*ndəwu[m/n] |duum | | |dun | | |advice |*ndəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]m |drom | | |drom | | |drink |*ndəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p | | | |drop |drop | |wipe/scratch |*ndəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]k |drou | | |drok | | |bride price |*ndəɺaŋ | | |draŋ |draŋ | | |wing |*ndəjɛŋ |deeŋ | | | |dɛŋ [JA] | |leaf/head hair |*ndɜp | | |dep |dop |dop | |seed/bone |*ndɜn |doŋ |dɔŋ |den |don |don | |eat |*ndam |dam |dam |dam |dam |dam | |heart |*ndambʉ |debʉ |dɛbu |dambu |ˈdabʉ |dabi | |fish |*ndasi | | |dasi |dasi |dasi | |cooked |*ndasiŋ |dasiŋ | | |dasiŋ | | |bird's nest (?)|*ndaŋ |daŋ | |daŋ |daŋ | | |prop(s)/frame |*ndaŋ |daŋ | | |daŋ | | |smoked/dried |*ndak[ɜ/ɔ]n |dakoŋ | | |dagon | | |near |*ndaŋgu |daŋgu | | |dagu |dagu | |hard |*ndawin |dauŋ | | |dawin |dawin [JA] | |news/message |*ndaw[ɜ/ɔ] |dawo | | |deguo | | |areca nut |*ndawʉt | | |dawut ~ daut |dagʉt |dakuit ~ dakut\\ ~dakt| |equal |*ndaɺi | | |dali |dali |dali | |cold |*ndaɺip |deɺip ~ daɺip|dɛrip |darip\\ ~ dalip [JA]|dalip |dalip | |arrow |*ndaj |dai |-day |dai |daj |dai | |follow/obey |*nduk |duu | | |duk | | |think |*ndʉŋ |dʉŋ | |duŋ |dʉŋ |duŋ | |burn/cook |*ndʉk |dʉʉ | |duk |dʉk |duk | |child |*nduɔ |du | |do |duo |du | Initial velar prenasailzed voiced stop /*ŋg/ is merged with voiceless /k/ in Moi and realized as plain voiced [g] in Kemtuik and Gresi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***ŋg-** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**k** |**g** |**g**| |sap/resin |*ŋgit |ŋgie | |kit |git | | |grass sp. |*ŋgənɜŋ | | |kneŋ |genoŋ | | |be patient |*ŋgəɺiŋ |ŋgɺiŋ | | |gliŋ | | |fold |*ŋgəɺəmʉk |ŋgɺʉmʉʉ | | |kumuk | | |flower sp. |*ŋgəɺɜ | | |klei |glo | | |guest/visitor|*ŋgəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p|ŋgɺop | | |glop | | |digit |*ŋgəɺaŋ | |-graŋ | |glaŋ |graŋ | |joint/corner |*ŋgəɺun |ŋgɺuŋ | | | | | |hang |*ŋgəɺuŋ |ŋgɺuŋ | |kluŋ |gluŋ | | |seize/control|*ŋgəɺʉk |ŋgɺʉʉ | | |glʉk | | |peel (v.) |*ŋgəɺuɛt |ŋgɺʉa | | |gluet | | |stay |*ŋgɜt |ŋgo | |ket |got | | |pandanus sp. |*ŋgambu | | |kambu |gabu | | |close/block |*ŋgaŋ |ŋgaŋ | | |gaŋ | | |build |*ŋgaŋ | | |kaŋ |gaŋ | | |husk |*ŋg[au/ɔu] |ŋgou | | |gaw | | |cloud/fog |*ŋgum |ŋgum |ŋgum | |gum |gum | |take off/peel|*ŋguk |ŋguu | | |guk | | |split |*ŋgʉk |ŋgʉʉ | | |gʉk | | Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***w-** |**w** |**w** |**w** |**w** |**w** | |taro |*w[i/ɛ]p |wip |wip | |wep |-wib [JA] | |crocodile |*wəmit |umiə [JA]|wəmit | |wəmit [JA]| | |clay |*wəj[ɛ/ɔ]ŋ | | |wjoŋ |weŋ |weŋ | |sugar palm sp.|*wɜŋ |woŋ | | |woŋ | | |thorn |*wapuŋ | | |wafuŋ |woŋ |woŋ | |spirit sp. |*wambu |wambu | |wambu |wabu | | |send message |*wambʉ |wabʉ | | |wabʉ | | |leaf umbrella |*watim | | |watim |watim | | |song sp. |*wan[ɜ] |wane | | |wano | | |sleep (n.) |*wasi |wasi | |wasi | | | |beetle sp. |*wasiŋ | | |wasiŋ |wasiŋ | | |tooth |*wasəɺa[ŋ] | | |wasəra [JA]|waslaŋ | | |divide |*was[ɛi][ŋ] | | |waseŋ |wasej | | |grass seed(\s)|*wasɜ | | |wase |waso | | |greens sp. |*wasut | | |wasut |wasut | | |weak/soft |*wakɜt | | |waket |wakot |wakot | |fat (a.) |*wakʉ | | |waku |wakʉ | | |flower sp. |*waŋgi | | |waŋgi |wagi | | |kidney |*wawit |waʉ | | |wawit | | |digging stick |*waɺi |waɺi | |wali |wali | | |life/peace |*waɺi |waɺi | |wali |wali |wali | |feast sp. |*waɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p |waɺop | | |ˈwalop | | |nail |*waɺ[ɜ/ɔ][n/ŋ]|waɺoŋ |warɔŋ | | | | |statue |*waɺam | | |walam |walam | | |pandanus sp. |*waɺ[a/ɔ] | | |wala |wala | | |lizard |*waɺu |waɺu |waru | |walu |waru- [JA]| |cut grass |*wuŋ |wuŋ |wuŋ | |wuŋ ~ uŋ |wuŋ | When initial segment /*wa/ is followed by low-mid back rounded vowel /*ɔ/ in the next syllable, it is reduced to /u/ in Namblong: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***wa-/_Cɔ**|**u** |**wa** |**wa** |**wa** |**wa u**| |stone axe|*wandɔ |undo |wanda |wanda |wada |uda [JA]| |frog sp. |*wasɔ |uso | |wasa |wasa | | |long |*waɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ |uɺaŋ |waraŋ |walaŋ |ˈwaloŋ |waloŋ | When intiial /*w/ is immediately followed by /*ɔ/ it is typically though not invariably dropped in Moi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***w-/_ɔ** |**w** |**w** |**ø w** |**w** |**w**| |sun |*wɔj |wai |wɔj |oi |woj |woi | |theft |*wɔm | | |wom ~ om|wom |wom | |shrimp/prawn|*wɔp |wap |uɔp |wop ~ op|wop |wop | |nail |*wɔn | | |-on |won | | |cut up |*wɔk |wou | |wok ~ ok|wok | | |scrape/grate|*wɔk |wou | | |wok |wok | |grass sp. |*wɔjɔ | | |ojo |wojo | | Initial apical non-stop /*ɺ/ is uncommon. It is merged with apical nasal /n/ in Moi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***ɺ-** |**ɺ** |**ɺ [r hr]**|**n** |**l** |**l**| |go down |*ɺi |ɺi | | |li |li | |dirty |*ɺim |ɺim | | |lim | | |metal |*ɺəPɛ |ɺepe | | |lepe | | |break/smash |*ɺəPuk |ɺepuu | | |lepuk | | |roll/roll over|*ɺəŋgi[p/ŋ]|ɺəŋgip | | |legiŋ | | |show |*ɺəŋgʉt |ɺeŋgʉe | | |legʉt | | |wash |*ɺəwu |ɺuu | | |lu | | |drink |*ɺɛp |ɺep |rɛp | | | | |lip(s)/mouth |*ɺ[ɜ/ɔ]m |ɺom |rɔm ~ hrɔm | |lom |lom | |draw line |*ɺ[ɜ/ɔ]t |ɺou | | |lot | | |soul/shadow |*ɺap |ɺap | |nap |lap | | |flood |*ɺataŋ |ɺataŋ | | |lataŋ | | |hot |*ɺak[ɛi/ai]|ɺeke | | |lakaj | | |break |*ɺuŋ |ɺuŋ | | |luŋ | | Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ in monosyllabic roots is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***j-/_V(C)#**|**j** |**j** |**j** |**j** |**j**| |idle |*jɛm |jem | | |jem |jem | |measure |*jam |jam | |jam |jam |jam | |house |*jap | | |jap |jap |jap | |agree |*jaŋ |jaŋ | | |jaŋ | | |flying fox |*j[ɔu] |jou | | |jow | | |old/dried up|*j[ɔu] |jou | | |jow | | |greens sp. |*ju | | |ju |ju |ju | |stir |*juŋ |juŋ | | |juŋ | | In roots with more than one syllable, the initial sequence /*jV/ is usually though not invariably reduced to high front vowel /i/ in Gresi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***jV-/_CV**|**jV** |**jV** |**jV** |**jV** |**jV [i jV]** | |house |*jamɔ |jemo |jama | | | | |spirit sp. |*jamʉk |jamʉʉ | | |jamʉk | | |paralysis |*japəɺa |japɺa | |japla | | | |beads sp. |*jap[a/ɔ]ŋ |jawoŋ | |jafaŋ |jawaŋ | | |weak/paralyzed |*jambi | | |jambi |jambi | | |thatch |*jambəɺɔ |jambɺo |jambra |jambla |jabla |ibla | |tip/end |*jambu |jambu | |jambu | | | |insane |*janɛ |jane | | |jane | | |butcherbird |*jasu |jasu | | |jasu | | |happy |*jakɔ[i] |jako | |jakai |jakaj |ikai | |turmeric/yellow|*ja[ŋ]u |jaŋgu |jaŋgu |jaŋgu [JA]|ˈjaŋu |jaŋu ~ jaŋo [JA]| |pigeon sp. |*jaŋgʉ |jaŋgʉ | |jaŋgu |jagʉ | | |year/season |*jaŋgʉ | | |jaŋgu |jagʉ |jaŋgju | |frog sp. |*jawut |jawo | | |jaut | | |shoulder |*jaɺ[u/ʉ] |jaɺʉ | |jalu |jalu |jalu | |collect/gather |*jaɺʉm |jaɺʉm | | |jalʉm |jalum | One example in which initial sequence /*ja/ is retained as such in Gresi is probably mandatorily a compound as evidenced by medial sequence [ŋk], though Anceaux also gives Gresik initial [i] (Smits and Voorhoeve 1994: 18-19): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***j-** |**j** |**j** |**j** |**j** |**j** | |head|*jaŋkaMBʉ |iŋgjambʉ|jakambu ~\\ jaŋkambu|ikembu\\ ~ jekambu [JA]|jakambu\\ ~ jaŋkambu [JA]|jaŋkabu| Only one example of initial /*j/ followed by high central rounded vowel /*ʉ/ has been found, with idiosyncratic variations in several descendants. The originality of /*jʉ/ is supported by outcomparison to Tor River /*dzu/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***jʉ#** |**jʉ** |**jʉ** |**wu** |**wi** |**ju** | |bird|*jʉ |jʉ |iʉ |wu |wi |ju ~ iju| … initial consonant clusters …\\ \\ Initial cluster /*km/ is reduced to /m/ in Kemtuik and to /h/ in Gresi, presumably via [hm] (cf. /*kn/ below;) the expected reflexes in Namblong and Kwansu are not known: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***km-** |**?** |**?** |**km [km kəm]**|**m** |**h**| |vagina/vulva |*km[a/ɔ] | | |kema |ma | | |2 sg./pl. |*kmɔt | | |kumot ~ kmot |mot |hot | |sago/sago flour|*kmuk | | |kumuk |muk |huk | Initial cluster /*kn/ is reduced to /ŋ/ in Namblong and probably also in Kwansu (cf. /*ŋgn/ below,) to /n/ in Kemtuik and to /h/ in Gresi, presumably via [hn] (cf. /*km/ above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***kn-** |**ŋ** |**?** |**kn [kn kən]**|**n** |**h**| |earth/ground|*knan | | |kenan |nan | | |paradise sp.|*knaɺi |ŋaɺi | |knali |nali |hali | Initial cluster /*ŋgn/ has been found only in the first person singular pronoun: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***ŋgn-** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**k** |**gn [gən]**|**gn [k(ə)n gən]** | |1 sg.|*ŋgna(-m) |ŋam |ŋam |ka |genam |kenam ~ knam\\ ~ genam| \Initial cluster /*ks/ is reduced to /s/ in all languages save Moi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***ks-** |**s** |**s** |**kəs**|**s** |**s** | |rain |*ks[ai] |sai |sai |kusa |sa |sa [JA] | |ashes|*ksuŋ |suŋ |suŋ |kusuŋ |suŋ |suŋ [JA]| Any consonant besides velar nasal /*ŋ/ can occur medially.\\ \\ Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |new/young |*imaniŋ |imaniŋ | | |imeniŋ |iminiŋ ~ emeniŋ | |snake |*aɺəmɔ |ɺemo ~ɺmo|rəma |arma ~ alma|lema |lema | |3 sg./pl. |*nəmɔt | | |nemot |nemot |nemot | |two |*namuan |namwan | |naman |ˈnamon |namon | |eye |*namuɔ | | |namo |nemu |nam | |sound/echo |*namʉŋ |namʉŋ | | |namʉŋ | | |big |*təm[iɛ]n |temien | | | |temin | |new plant |*tamaŋ |tamaŋ | |tamaŋ |tamaŋ | | |sorcery |*tasəmu | | |tasumu |tasemu | | |tree sp. |*ndəmɛ |deme | | |deme | | |spirit sp. |*ndəmat |dema | | |demat | | |bundle |*ndəmun |demuŋ | | |demun | | |stone |*ndəmuɔ |demuo |dəmu |demo |deˈmu |dum | |sago |*səmɔ |mo |səma | | | | |bracelet sp.|*sam[ɔ/u]n |amuŋ | | |samon | | |matoa |*samuɔ |amuo | |samo |semu | | |fist |*kəmuk | | |kumuk |kemuk | | |pit/hole |*kəmuɔ |kemuo | |kumo |kemuo | | |armpit |*kəɺəmuɛ[ŋ]|kɺemʉŋ |krɛmi | |kleme | | |ear |*kam[a/ɔ] | | |kama |ˈkama |kəma\\ ~ koma [JA]| |fold |*ŋgəɺəmʉk |ŋgɺʉmʉʉ | | |kumuk | | |crocodile |*wəmit |umiə [JA]|wəmit | |wəmit [JA]| | |house |*jamɔ |jemo |jama | | | | |spirit sp. |*jamʉk |jamʉʉ | | |jamʉk | | Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-n-** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |new/young |*imaniŋ |imaniŋ | | |imeniŋ |iminiŋ ~ emeniŋ | |new/fresh |*inim |injim | |nim |inim | | |belly |*unu | | |anu | | | |still/yet |*maniŋ |maniŋ | | |maniŋ |maniŋ | |yam/sw. potato|*naniŋ |naniŋ | |naniŋ |naniŋ | | |fat/grease |*mbən[ai] |benai |bənaj |bena ~ bəna\\ ~ bna [JA]|bena |bena\\ ~ bɛna [JA]| |alone/apart |*mban[ɜ/ɔ]m|banom | | |ˈbanom | | |moon |*mbanu |banu |banu |banu |banu |banu | |betrothed |*mbajnaŋ |banjaŋ | | |bajnaŋ | | |marsupial sp. |*nanu |nanu | | |nanu | | |body/contents |*səni |heni |sɛnj- |sini |seni |seni | |know |*sən[ɔ/u]ŋ | | |sənuŋ [JA] |senoŋ |senoŋ | |uterus/womb |*sani[ŋ] |haniŋ | |sani |sani | | |ear |*kəni[n/ŋ] |keni |keniŋ ~ kɛniŋ-| | | | |spleen |*kən[ɜ] |kene | | |keno | | |button (?) |*kən[ɜ/ɔ]p |kenop | | |kenop | | |sit/stay |*kən[ɜ/ɔ]k |kenou |kənɔk | | | | |penis |*kənuɔn |kenuoŋ |kənɔŋ |kunun | | | |clay |*kuɛnsi |kinsi | | |kuensi | | |grass sp. |*ŋgənɜŋ | | |kneŋ |genoŋ | | |song sp. |*wan[ɜ] |wane | | |wano | | |insane |*janɛ |jane | | |jane | | …/*n/…: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-n-/_əmb** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |pig |*inəmbuɔ |ibuo |ibɔ |mbo |neˈmbo |nembu | |tongue |*anəmbəɺ[i/ɛ]ŋ| | |ambliŋ |neˈmbleŋ|nəbreŋ [JA]| | |***-n-/_əŋg** |**ø** |**** |**n** |**ø** |**** | |scabies|*inəŋgɜn |iŋgoŋ | |niŋgen |igon | | There is only one known example of apparent medial velar nasal /*ŋ/, evidently a regional loan as may be seen in Anceaux (Smits and Voorhoeve 1994: 196-197) from Oceanic /*jaŋo/ (Ross CITE): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-[ŋ]-** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** | |turmeric/yellow|*ja[ŋ]u |jaŋgu |jaŋgu |jaŋgu [JA]|ˈjaŋu |jaŋu ~ jaŋo [JA]| Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ … With only one known exeption (below,) medial /*p/ is not found following nasalized segments /*mV *nV/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-p-** |**p** |**w** |**p [p ɸ f v]** |**w** |**w** | |pitpit sp. |*ipu[m/ŋ] |ipuŋ | |ifum | | | |ironwood sp. |*mbap[u]t | | |bafut |bat | | |forest |*ndəpəjɛn |depeeŋ |dweŋ | |duˈen |duen ~ d(u)wen| |hornbill |*ndəpaɺi | |dwari |defali ~ devali | |dwari [JA] | |sago/sago tree|*ndəpɜt | | |depet\\ ~ dɛɸɛt [JA] |duot |duot | |draw/take out |*səp[ɔ/u]k |spuu | | |sok | | |go away |*səp[ɔ/u]k |spuu | | |sok | | |earthen bowl |*sapəɺɔ |hapɺɔ | |sapla |saula | | |people/tribe |*sapəɺɔ |hapɺɔ | |sapla |saula | | |mushroom |*kəɺaput | | |klaput |kˈlaut | | |white |*kəɺaput | | |klaput\\ ~ kraɸut [JA]|kˈlaut | | |thorn |*wapuŋ | | |wafuŋ |woŋ |woŋ | |paralysis |*japəɺa |japɺa | |japla | | | … /*p/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***-p-/b>**|**?** |**?** |**p [f]** |**ø** |**ø**| |one|*kapəɺaj[a]| | |kapraj- ~ kafrai\\ kabraj [JA]|kˈlaja ~ klaj-|kelai| When preceded by initial segment /*kə/, medial /*p/ becomes /w/ in Namblong as well as in Kwansu, Kentuik and Gresi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***-p-/kə-**|**w** |**w** |**p [p f]**|**w** |**w**| |not/no|*kəpɔ |kwo |kwa- |kfa |kua |kw | Another example in which medial /*p/ becomes /w/ in Namblong is probably a loan from Kemtuik or Gresi into Namblong: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***-p-/b>**|**w** |**** |**p [f]**|**w** |**** | |beads sp.|*jap[a/ɔ]ŋ |jawoŋ | |jafaŋ |jawaŋ | | …/*p/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***-p-/ə_i**|**p** |**ø** |**p [p ɸ f v]**|**ø** |**ø**| |hair/feather(s)|*ndəpəwit |depʉe |dʉt |difit |dit |dit | |egg |*səwip[i] |sʉp |sup |sifi |si |si- | |termite |*kəpi | | |kivi |ki | | Three apparently irregular examples in which the Kemtuik medial is not lenited may be compounds or loans from Namblong and Moi into Kemtuik, or in the case of "metal" from some third source: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-P-** |**p** |**?** |**p** |**p** |**?**| |day after tom.|*naPu | | |napu |napu | | |metal |*ɺəPɛ |ɺepe | | |lepe | | |break/smash |*ɺəPuk |ɺepuu | | |lepuk | | Besides the defective "day after tomorrow" (above,) there is only one known example in which medial /*p/ follows a nasalized segment, in this instance /*nə/. Here medial /*p/ becomes prenasalized voiced /mb/ in all descendants save Moi under the influence of initial /*n/, while Anceaux (Smits and Voorhoeve 1994: 154) gives Mekwei [nembit] alongside several variants with unvoiced [p]: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-p-/nə_**|**mb** |**mb** |**p [v]**|**mb** |**mb** | |wind|*nəpit |nembie |nəmbit |nivit |neˈmbit|nɛmbit~nɛmbid\\ nəmbit [JA]| Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants. It has not been found following nasalized segments /*mV nV/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-t-** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |scorpion |*ituk |itju | | |tuk | | |star/firefly |*utɔp |utop |utɔp ~ tɔp|tup- |top |top | |gall/bile |*pəti |peti | | |peti | | |hair of head |*mbətɜ | | |bete |beto |beto | |river/valley |*mbətuɔ | |bətɔ |boto [JA]|betuo |betu | |spread out/wide|*mbatɔ |bato | | |bata |beta ~ bta| |back |*tat[ɛ] |tate doŋ| | |tat-on | | |down/below |*kati |kati | | |kati | | |fireplace |*katuk | | |katuk |katuk | | |leaf umbrella |*watim | | |watim |watim | | |flood |*ɺataŋ |ɺataŋ | | |lataŋ | | Medial laminal voiceless /*s/ is generally retained as such in all decsendants.. Unlike voiceless stops /*p *t *k/, it appears following nasalized segments /*mV *nV/ unchanged: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-s-** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** | |yam/sw. potato |*isɔ |isjo |isa |sja |isa |isa | |cassowary |*isuaɺi | | |suali ~ suari [JA]|isuˈali|iswari [JA]| |rock/shake |*isu |isju | | |isu | | |garden |*usu |usu |usu |asu |usu |usu | |mouse/rat |*usum | |usum |asum |usum |usum | |navel |*məsʉ |mesʉ | |musju |mesʉ | | |brother-in-law |*mɛs[ɛ/a] |mese | | |mesa | | |foot/leg |*masi |mesi |mɛsi |masi |masi |masi | |evil spirit sp.|*masɜ | | |mase |maso |maso | |magic spell |*pəɺasi |pɺasi | |plasi | | | |unwilling |*mbəsam |besam | | |besam | | |sugar glider |*mbas[ɜ] |base | | |baso | | |back/behind |*nasɜŋ | | |naseŋ |nasoŋ |nasoŋ | |hear |*tas[i/ɛ][n/ŋ]|tasiŋ |taseŋ | | | | |sorcery |*tasəmu | | |tasumu |tasemu | | |fish |*ndasi | | |dasi |dasi |dasi | |cooked |*ndasiŋ |dasiŋ | | |dasiŋ | | |neck |*səsu |sesu |səsu |susu [JA] |susu | | |fibrous |*sasɔp |asop | | |sasop | | |vomit |*kəsʉ | | |kusju |kusʉ | | |sand |*kasaŋgɜt | |kasəŋgɔt|kasaŋget | | | |clay |*kuɛnsi |kinsi | | |kuensi | | |spirit/soul |*kuasɛp |kesep | | |kuasep | | |sleep (n.) |*wasi |wasi | |wasi | | | |beetle sp. |*wasiŋ | | |wasiŋ |wasiŋ | | |tooth |*wasəɺa[ŋ] | | |wasəra [JA] |waslaŋ | | |divide |*was[ɛi][ŋ] | | |waseŋ |wasej | | |grass seed(\s) |*wasɜ | | |wase |waso | | |frog sp. |*wasɔ |uso | |wasa |wasa | | |greens sp. |*wasut | | |wasut |wasut | | |butcherbird |*jasu |jasu | | |jasu | | … /*s/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-s-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |wallaby|*asəjɔ |hajo | |asjo | |sia [JA]| Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ when preceded by a strssed vowel is generally retained as such in all descendants, though sporadic lenitiion to [g] occurs in Kemtuik and probably also in .Gresi. With few exceptions (below,) medial /*k/ is not found following nasalized segments /*mV *nV/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-k-/i_** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k**| |pith |*iku |iku | | |iku | | |raw/green |*kiki |keki |kiki- |kiiki |kiki |kiki | | |***-k-/a_** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k [k g]** |**k**| |deny |*mbakɜt |bakwa | |baket | | | |torch |*sak[ɛ/ɔ]j |ake | | |sagoj | | |disappear |*sakʉp |hakʉp ~ akʉp | | |sagʉp | | |smoked/dried|*ndak[ɜ/ɔ]n |dakoŋ | | |dagon | | |grass sp. |*kuaɺap\\ -takuɛm|kwaɺ-\\ -takwem| | |kwalap\\ -takuem| | |weak/soft |*wakɜt | | |waket |wakot |wakot| |fat (a.) |*wakʉ | | |waku |wakʉ | | |hot |*ɺak[ɛi/ai] |ɺeke | | |lakaj | | |happy |*jakɔ[i] |jako | |jakai |jakaj |ikai | When preceded by a destressed vowel [*ə], medial /*k/ is lenited to [g] in Kwansu and in Kemtuik and Gresi, whezre it merges with the denasalized reflexes of /*ŋg/ (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-k-/ə_** |**k** |**g** |**k** |**g** |**g** | |broken/wound|*pəku | | |peku |pegu | | |sweet potato|*mbəkɔj | | |bukoi |begoi |-bəgɔj [JA]| |leader |*təkaj |tekai | | |tegaj | | |meet/find |*təku |teku | | |tegu | | |lean on |*təkʉ |tekʉ | | |tegʉ | | |eject/remove|*təkʉk |tekʉʉ | | |tegʉk | | |cough |*təkuɛk |tekuei | |tukok |tegue | | |break/smash |*təkuɔk |tekuo | | |teguok | | |black |*ndəkit |dekie |degit | |degit | | |coral |*ndəkəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]ŋ|dekoŋ | | |degloŋ | | |enter/occupy|*ndəkut |dekuo | | |degut | | |shake/swing |*səkəɺuɛk |skɺʉʉ | |siklek |segluep| | One exception seems to arise because Gresi-Kemtuik /*k/ has formed a cluster with preceding apical voiceless /t/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-k-** |**k** |**** |**** |**k** |**k** | |left|*təkaɺi[k] |tekaɺi | | |ta kali|ta-(t)kalik| There are only two known examples of /*k/ following a nasalized segment which in both examples is /*na/. Here the Kemtuik reflex is unlenited as expected, while the Moi medial becomes prenasalized /ŋg/ under the influence of initial /*n/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-k-/na_**|**k** |**?** |**ŋg** |**k** |**?**| |egg(s)/roe|*nakɔm |nakom | |naŋgom |nakom | | |marrow |*naku |naku | | |naku | | Medial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ when preceded by a nasalized segment /*mV *nV/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-mb-/NV_** |**mb** |**mb** |**mb** |**mb** |**mb** | |tongue |*anəmbəɺ[i/ɛ]ŋ| | |ambliŋ |neˈmbleŋ|nəbreŋ (?) [JA]| |tree kangaroo|*məmbɛŋ |membeŋ | | |membeŋ | | |tongue |*mambəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p |mambɺop |mambrɔp\\ ~ mambrɔb| | | | |fly (n.) |*[m/n]ambʉn | | |mambun |nambʉn | | |voice/speech |*nəmbut |nembuo\\ ~ nembwo|nəmbut |numbut |neˈmbut |nembut | |wait/later |*nambɔj | | |namboi |namboj | | When medial /*mb/ follows a stop or fricative /*p *t *s *k *mb *nd *ŋg/ in the preceding syllable, it is realized as plain voiced /b/ in all descendants save Moi where it remains prenasalized: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-mb-/CV_**|**b** |**b** |**mb** |**b** |**b** | |old garden |*məɺəmbʉ- |ɺebʉ | | |mlebʉ- | | |grandparent |*mbambu |babu | | |babu |babu | |cut short/trim |*təmbəwu |tebuu | |tumbu |tebu | | |lizard sp. |*təmbap |tebap | | |tebap | | |short/blunt |*təmbɔt |tebwa | |tumbot |tebot |tebot | |quiet/silent |*təmbuŋ |tebuŋ | | |tebuŋ | | |wing |*tambaŋ | |tabaŋ |tambaŋ |tabaŋ | | |wet/saturated |*ndəmbʉ |debʉ | |dembu |debʉ | | |heart |*ndambʉ |debʉ |dɛbu |dambu |ˈdabʉ |dabi | |sew |*səmbut |sebuo | | |sebut | | |strike/chop (?)|*səmbuk |sebuu | | |sebuk | | |crab claw(s) |*sambu[m/ŋ] |abum | | |sabuŋ | | |rack sp. |*kəmbəɺɛŋ | | |kembleŋ|kebleŋ | | |work |*kəmbaɺi |kebaɺi | |kembali|keˈbali|kebali | |net bag |*kəmbɔ |kebo |kəba |kemba |keba |keba | |die |*kəmbɔŋ | | |kumboŋ |keˈboŋ |keboŋ | |thigh |*kəmbum | | |kumbum |kebum | | |cover |*kəɺəmbuɛt |kɺbʉa | | |klebet | | |cooking pot |*kamb[i/u] |kebii | | |kebʉ | | |butterfly |*kambɜt | |kabɔt |kambet |kabot |kabɔt [JA]| |goura pigeon |*kamb[ɔ/u]t |kebʉe |kəbut |kambot |kabot |kabɔt [JA]| |woman |*kambuŋ | | |kambuŋ |ˈkabuŋ |kabuŋ | |pandanus sp. |*ŋgambu | | |kambu |gabu | | Two seeming exceptions in which Namblong retains /*mb/ as such are perhaps expicable by to the loss of initial /*s/, although "claw(s) of crab" (above) is not affected. Alternately, they are loans into Namblong from Moi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-mb-/sa_**|**mb** |**?** |**?** |**b** |**?**| |fish sp.|*sambu[ŋ] |hambuŋ\\ ~ ambuŋ| | |sabu | | |tusk |*sambuŋ |hambuŋ\\ ~ ambuŋ| | |sabuŋ | | When following a non-stop /*w *j/ in the preceding syllable, the reflexes of /*mb/ are inconsistent. Based upon comparison with the reflexes of /*nd/ in the same environment (below,) the most likely rule is that prenasalization is retained in Namblong and lost in Kemtuik and Gresi and the two exceptions, Namblong /wabʉ/ and Kemtuik /jambi/, are loans from Kemtuik and Moi respectively: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-mb-/wV jV_**|**mb b (?)**|**?** |**mb** |**b mb (?)**|**?**| |spirit sp. |*wambu |wambu | |wambu |wabu | | |send message |*wambʉ |wabʉ (?) | | |wabʉ | | |weak/paralyzed|*jambi | | |jambi |jambi (?) | | |tip/end |*jambu |jambu | |jambu | | | |thatch |*jambəɺɔ |jambɺo |jambra |jambla |jabla |ibla | In one example, medial /*mb/ becomes [b] in Moi because initial /*i/ was lost, though Anceaux gives Mekwei [mbiam] for the same root (Smits and Voorhoeve 1994: 264.) It's not cl;ear why prenasaliztion is lost also in Namblong and Kwansu: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-mb-/#V_**|**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** | |cockatoo|*imbam |ibam |ibam |biam |ibam |ibam [JA]| In one puzzling example the reflexes of /*mb/ look to be inexplicably irregular …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-MB-** |**mb** |**mb** |**mb** |**mb** |**b** | |head|*jaŋkaMBʉ |iŋgjambʉ|jakambu ~\\ jaŋkambu|ikembu\\ ~ jekambu [JA]|jakambu\\ ~ jaŋkambu [JA]|jaŋkabu| Medial apical prenasalized voiced stop /*nd/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-nd-/NV_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |ketapang |*məndu |mendu | | |mendu\\ ~ mundu | | |mountain |*məndʉ[m/ŋ] | |mɛnduŋ\\ ~ mənduŋ|munduŋ\\ ~ mənduŋ [JA]|meˈndʉm |mndim | |grasshopper|*mənduap |mendwap |mɛndɔp |mundop |meˈndop\\ ~ ndop|ndɔp [JA]| |who? |*nandV |nande | |nande |nando |nando | … /*nd/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-nd-/CV_**|**d** |**?** |**nd** |**d** |**d**| |banana flower|*ndəndɔ |dedo | | |deda | | |sick/ill |*sandʉ | | |sandu |sadʉ |sadu | |close/narrow |*kəndik |kedii | | |kedik | | |flesh/meat |*kəndɜŋ | | |kendeŋ |kedoŋ | | One exception in which /*nd/ preceded by /*tV/ is retained as /*nd/ in Namblong and Kwansu is probably a compound or a loan: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-nd-/tV_**|**nd** |**nd** |**?** |**?** |**?**| |one|*təndʉ |tendʉ |tɛndu | | | | When preceded by an initial vowel or a syllable beginning with initial non-stop /*w *j/, medial /*nd/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-nd-/#V wV jV_**|**nd** |**nd** |**nd** |**d** |**d** | |banana |*undʉ |undʉ |undu |andu |uˈdʉ |wudu~wdu~udu| |dog |*unduɔ |unduo |undo |ando |uduo |udu | |stone axe|*wandɔ |undo |wanda |wanda |wada |uda [JA] | One exception may be a loan into Kemtuik and Gresi from Moi or Namblong: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-nd-/#V_**|**nd** |**** |**nd** |**nd** |**nd**| |friend|*andua |andwa | |andua |andua |andua | Medial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-ŋg-/NV_**|**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** | |foam |*maŋg[ɜ/ɔ]n |maŋgoŋ | | |maŋgon | | |three |*naŋgəɺik |naŋgɺii |naŋgrik|naŋklik |naŋglik |naŋglik | |eel/crocodile|*nəŋgum |neŋgum | |nuŋgum [JA]|neŋgum\\ ~ neŋgom|nəgum [JA]| |drum sp. |*nəŋgʉ |ŋgʉ | |nuŋgu |neŋgʉ | | |center post |*naŋguɔn |naŋguoŋ | | |neŋguon | | … /*ŋg/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***ŋg-/nə_**|**ŋg** |**?** |**k** |**g** |**?**| |swallow|*nəŋgut |neŋguo | |kut |gut | | … /*ŋg/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-ŋg-/CV_** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**ŋg** |**g** |**g** | |sea |*mbəŋgip |beŋgip |bɛŋgip | | | | |stomach |*təŋg[uɛ/ua]n |teŋgueŋ |tɛŋgwɛŋ | |teˈguan|tgwen | |hit/strike |*təŋg[uɛ/uɔ]ŋ |teŋguoŋ | |tuŋgoŋ |tegueŋ | | |vine/rope |*taŋgan |taŋgaŋ |taŋgaŋ |taŋgan |tegan |tgan | |gather |*taŋg[ɜ/ɔ][m/ŋ]|taŋgoŋ | | |tagom | | |near |*ndaŋgu |daŋgu | | |dagu |dagu | |palm sp. |*saŋgəɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ | | |saŋglaŋ |sagloŋ | | |request/desire|*saŋg[ɜ/ɔ]n |haŋgoŋ\\ ~ aŋgoŋ| | |sagon | | |bee |*saŋgup |aŋgup | | | |səgup [JA]| |fly (n.) |*saŋguɔ |aŋguo |səŋgɔ ~ səŋgo| | | | |fight/quarrel |*saŋgʉ | | |saŋgu |sagʉ | | |sand |*kasaŋgɜt | |kasəŋgɔt |kasaŋget| | | |forbidden |*kaŋg[ɜ/ɔ]t |kaŋgwa | | |kagot | | |girl |*kaŋgʉt | | |kaŋgut |kagʉt | | |flower sp. |*waŋgi | | |waŋgi |wagi | | |roll/roll over|*ɺəŋgi[p/ŋ] |ɺəŋgip | | |legiŋ | | |show |*ɺəŋgʉt |ɺeŋgʉe | | |legʉt | | |pigeon sp. |*jaŋgʉ |jaŋgʉ | |jaŋgu |jagʉ | | One exception is probably a loan into Gresi from Moi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-ŋg-/jV_**|**?** |**?** |**ŋg** |**g** |**ŋg**| |year/season|*jaŋgʉu | | |jaŋgu |jagʉ |jaŋgju| … /*ŋg/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-ŋg-/sə_**|**k** |**g** |**ŋg** |**g** |**g** | |breadfruit sp.|*səŋgɜm |skom |səgɔm |siŋgem |segom |sgom [JA] | |bamboo |*səŋgəɺu | |səgru |suŋglu |seglu |sugru [JA] | |cockroach |*səŋguan |skwaŋ [JA]|səgwɔn | |seguon |səgwan- [JA]| …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-ŋg-** |**nd** |**ɺ [r]**|**ŋg** |**l [d r]**|**l [d r]** | |dream|*siŋgi |ndi | |siŋgi |ssdi |sdi | |root |*siŋgaŋ |ndaŋ |sraŋ |siŋgaŋ |sraŋ |sɛdaŋ\\ ~ -sᵊraŋ [JA]| … /*ŋg/ … Anceaux gives both [ndʒe] and [iŋgjɛ] for Mekwei "this" (Smits and Voorhoeve 1994: 233-234): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-ŋg-** |**ndj** |**nd** |**ndʒ**|**ŋg** |**ŋg**| |this |*iŋgɛ |ndie |-ndɛ |ndʒe |ŋge |ŋgi | |mother|*iŋgɔ |indjo | |ndʒa | | | … /*ŋg/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-ŋg-/…**|**ŋg** |**** |**ŋg** |**g** |**** | |scabies|*inəŋgɜn |iŋgoŋ | |niŋgen |igon | | Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***-w-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |deaf/mute|*mawɔ | | |mao |mawo | | |sky |*kawut |kawuo |kawt |keut ~ keud [JA]| | | |frog sp. |*jawut |jawo | | |jaut | | … /*w/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-w-** |**w** |**** |**w** |**gʷ** |**** | |bead sp. |*tawɔ |tawo | |tao |teguo | | |spoon/ladle |*tawɔj |tawai | | |taguoi |tawoi | |news/message|*ndaw[ɜ/ɔ] |dawo | | |deguo | | |song sp. |*sawɔ |hawo ~ awo| |sao |seguo | | |areca nut |*ndawʉt | | |dawut ~ daut|dagʉt |dakuit ~ dakut\\ ~dakt| … /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-w-/a_i**|**ø** |**?** |**?** |**w** |**w** | |fruit sp.|*mbawin |baʉŋ | | |bawin | | |hard |*ndawin |dauŋ | | |dawin |dawin [JA]| |kidney |*wawit |waʉ | | |wawit | | In the sequence /*əwi/, medial /*w/ is dropped but affects the quality of the following vowel in Namblong and in Kwansu: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-w-** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø**| |coconut |*kəwim |kʉm |kum |kim |kim |kim | |hair/feather(s)|*ndəpəwit |depʉe |dʉt |difit |dit |dit | |egg |*səwip[i] |sʉp |sup |sifi |si |si- | Between destressed [*ə] and high rounded vowels /*u *ʉ/, medial /*w/ is not discernible at all and is posited only to explain Namblong vowel length: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-w-/ə_ʉ**|**ø** |**?** |**?** |**ø** |**ø**| |put/give birth|*təwʉ |tʉʉ | | |tʉ |tu | | |***-w-/ə_u**|**ø** |**?** |**ø** |**ø** |**?**| |cut short/trim|*təmbəwu |tebuu | |tumbu |tebu | | |Mt. Cyclops |*ndəwu[m/n] |duum | | |dun | | |wash |*ɺəwu |ɺuu | | |lu | | Medial apical non-stop /*ɺ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-ɺ-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |cassowary |*isuaɺi | | |suali ~ suari [JA] |isuˈali |iswari [JA]| |snake |*aɺəmɔ |ɺemo ~ɺmo |rəma |arma ~ alma |lema |lema | |breadfruit sp.|*uɺu |ulu |uru |alu |ulu |uru [JA] | |itch/itchy |*məɺɛ- | | |mle- |mle- | | |bird sp. |*paɺu | | |palu |palu | | |hut |*mbaɺɔ |baɺo | |bala |bala | | |beloved |*mbaɺu |baɺu | | |balu | | |vegetable(s) |*mbaɺʉ |baɺʉ | | |balʉ | | |spirit sp. |*naɺi |naɺi | |nali |nali | | |left |*təkaɺi[k] |tekaɺi | | |ta kali (?) |ta-(t)kalik| |point/show |*taɺiŋ | | |taliŋ |taliŋ |taliŋ | |crooked/crip. |*taɺɛŋ | | |taleŋ |taleŋ | | |line/row |*taɺɔ |taɺo | | |tala | | |hornbill |*ndəpaɺi | |dwari |defali ~ devali | |dwari [JA] | |equal |*ndaɺi | | |dali |dali |dali | |cold |*ndaɺip |deɺip ~ daɺip |dɛrip |darip\\ ~ dalip [JA]|dalip |dalip | |men's house |*saɺi | | |sali |sali- | | |pig bone blade|*saɺu | | |salu |salu | | |afraid |*suaɺi |swaɺi | | |suali |suali | |branch |*kaɺi |kaɺi |kari |kali [JA] |kali |kari [JA] | |sharp |*kaɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ |kaɺoŋ |karɔŋ |kaɺaŋ |kaloŋ |kaloŋ | |lenggua |*kaɺuk | | |kaluk |kaluk | | |mud/swamp |*kaɺʉ |kaɺʉ | | |kalʉ | | |grass sp. |*kuaɺap\\ -takuɛm|kwaɺ-\\ -takwem| | |kwalap\\ -takuem| | |digging stick |*waɺi |waɺi | |wali |wali | | |life/peace |*waɺi |waɺi | |wali |wali |wali | |feast sp. |*waɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p |waɺop | | |ˈwalop | | |nail |*waɺ[ɜ/ɔ][n/ŋ] |waɺoŋ |warɔŋ | | | | |statue |*waɺam | | |walam |walam | | |pandanus sp. |*waɺ[a/ɔ] | | |wala |wala | | |long |*waɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ |uɺaŋ |waraŋ |walaŋ |ˈwaloŋ |waloŋ | |lizard |*waɺu |waɺu |waru | |walu |waru- [JA] | |shoulder |*jaɺ[u/ʉ] |jaɺʉ | |jalu |jalu |jalu | |collect/gather|*jaɺ ʉ m |jaɺʉm | | |jalʉm |jalum | When medial /*ɺ/ is preceded by destressed vowel [*ə], [*ə] is elided and :/*ɺ/ forms a cluster with the preceding consonant. When this consonant is … [r d]: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-ɺ-/mə_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |itch/itchy |*məɺɛ- | | |mle- |mle- | | |catch |*məɺak | | |mlak |mlak |mlak | |oil |*məɺaj | | |mlai ~ melai |mlaj | | | |***-ɺ-/pə_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |fly/run |*pəɺiŋ |pɺiŋ | |pliŋ |pliŋ |pliŋ | |palm sp./bow |*pəɺ[ɜ] |pɺo | | |ple | | |shell sp. |*pəɺɜ | | |ple-ple |plo | | |cut/split |*pəɺɜ | | |ple |plo | | |magic spell |*pəɺasi |pɺasi | |plasi | | | |one |*kapəɺaj[a] | | |kapraj- ~ kafrai\\ kabraj [JA]|kˈlaja ~ klaj-|kelai | |paralysis |*japəɺa |japɺa | |japla | | | | |***-ɺ-/mbə_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |wild |*mbəɺi[m/ŋ] |bɺiŋ | | |blim | | |yellow/bright |*mbəɺɜŋ | | |bleŋ |bloŋ | | |hunt |*mbəɺaŋ |bɺaŋ | | |blaŋ |blaŋ | |base/origin |*mbəɺuŋ |bɺuŋ | | |bluŋ |bluŋ | |sago stem |*mbəɺʉm |bɺʉm | |blum | | | |sprinkle/sow |*mbəɺʉ[m/ŋ] |bɺʉŋ | | |blʉm |blum | |magic |*mbəɺuɛ |bɺʉ | |blu |blue | | |up/above |*mbəɺuɔ[ŋ] |bɺoŋ | |blo |blo |blu | |tongue |*anəmbəɺ[i/ɛ]ŋ| | |ambliŋ |neˈmbleŋ |nəbreŋ [JA] | |tongue |*mambəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p |mambɺop |mambrɔp\\ ~ mambrɔb| | | | |rack sp. |*kəmbəɺɛŋ | | |kembleŋ |kebleŋ | | |thatch |*jambəɺɔ |jambɺo |jambra |jambla |jabla |ibla | | |***-ɺ-/tə_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |hunt/chase |*təɺ[ɛu]k |treʉ | | |trʉk | | |shoot/sprout |*təɺɜn |troŋ | |tren | | | |fill/be full |*təɺam | | |tram |tram | | |call |*təɺa[ŋ] |tɺaŋ | | |tra | | |firstborn/heir|*təɺaŋ |traŋ | | |traŋ |traŋ | |song sp. |*təɺ[ɔu] |trou | | |trow | | |open/unplug |*təɺuk |truu | |truk |truk | | |native law |*təɺʉ |trʉ | | |-trʉ | | | |***-ɺ-/ndə_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |advice |*ndəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]m |drom | | |drom | | |drink |*ndəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p | | | |drop |drop | |wipe/scratch |*ndəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]k |drou | | |drok | | |bride price |*ndəɺaŋ | | |draŋ |draŋ | | | |***-ɺ-/sə_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |tooth |*səɺiŋ |ɺiŋ | | |sriŋ ~ sediŋ |sriŋ | |lie down/sleep|*səɺ[i/ɛ]k |ɺei |srik |srik |srek |srek | |old |*səɺəjiŋ |hɺiiŋ | |sliŋ ~ sriŋ |sediŋ |sriŋ | |back/spine |*səɺ[ɜ/ɔ]ŋ |ɺoŋ | | |sroŋ | | |lazy/rest |*səɺ[ɜ/ɔ]k |ɺo | | |srok |srok | |man/male |*səɺu |hɺu |sru |-sru |sru |sru | |husk/peel |*səɺuk | | |sluk ~ sruk |sruk | | |wooden fork |*səɺuɔm |ɺum ~ hɺum| |srom ~ slom |sruˈom | | |tooth |*wasəɺa[ŋ] | | |wasəra [JA] |waslaŋ | | | |***-ɺ-/kə_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |go away |*kəɺi |kɺi | |kli |kli | | |frog |*kəɺiŋ |kɺiŋ | |kliŋ |kliŋ |kliŋ | |touch/approach|*kəɺiŋ |kɺiŋ | | |kliŋ | | |make/build |*kəɺik |kɺii | |klik |klik |klik | |armpit |*kəɺəmuɛ[ŋ] |kɺemʉŋ |krɛmi | |kleme | | |cover |*kəɺəmbuɛt |kɺbʉa | | |klebet | | |mushroom |*kəɺaput | | |klaput |kˈlaut | | |white |*kəɺaput | | |klaput\\ ~ kraɸut [JA] |kˈlaut | | |wild pig |*kəɺat | | |klat |klat | | |tree sp. |*kəɺaŋ |kɺaŋ | | |klaŋ | | |bribe |*kəɺaj |kɺai | |klai |klai | | |love/sympathy |*kəɺ[ɔ/u]m |kɺom | | |klum | | |weep/cry |*kəɺuk |kɺuu | | | |kluk ~ kruk | |voice/thunder |*kəɺʉm |kɺʉm |-krʉm |-krum [JA] |klum |-klim [TP]\\ ~ krʉm [JA]| |liver |*kəɺʉt |kɺʉa | |klut |klʉt | | |tree sp. |*kəɺʉt |kɺʉa | | |klʉt | | |beat drum |*kəɺʉŋ |kɺʉŋ | | |klʉŋ | | |cut/slice |*kəɺʉk |kɺʉʉ | | |klʉk | | |wound/boil |*kəɺuɔ |kɺuo | |klo |kluo | | |dry/famine |*kəɺuɔŋ |kɺouŋ | | |kluoŋ | | |coral |*ndəkəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]ŋ |dekoŋ (?) | | |degloŋ | | |shake/swing |*səkəɺəuɛk |skɺʉʉ | |siklek |segluep | | | |***-ɺ-/ŋgə_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |be patient |*ŋgəɺiŋ |ŋgɺiŋ | | |gliŋ | | |fold |*ŋgəɺəmʉk |ŋgɺʉmʉʉ | | |kumuk (?) | | |flower sp. |*ŋgəɺɜ | | |klei |glo | | |guest/visitor |*ŋgəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p |ŋgɺop | | |glop | | |digit |*ŋgəɺaŋ | |-graŋ | |glaŋ |graŋ | |joint/corner |*ŋgəɺun |ŋgɺuŋ | | | | | |hang |*ŋgəɺuŋ |ŋgɺuŋ | |kluŋ |gluŋ | | |seize/control |*ŋgəɺʉk |ŋgɺʉʉ | | |glʉk | | |peel (v.) |*ŋgəɺuɛt |ŋgɺʉa | | |gluet | | |three |*naŋgəɺik |naŋgɺii |naŋgrik |naŋklik |naŋglik |naŋglik | |bamboo |*səŋgəɺu | |səgru |suŋglu |seglu |sugru [JA] | |palm sp. |*saŋgəɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ | | |saŋglaŋ |sagloŋ | | When medial /*ɺ/ follows initial high front vowel /*i/ it is realized as [r] in Moi and as [d r] in Kemtuik: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-ɺ-** |**ɺ** |**l [r]**|**l [r]**|**l [d r]** |**l [r]** | |lightning|*iɺɜp |-iɺop |-jrɔp |-riep |\idop ~ -irop|-jrɔp [JA]| |big man |*iɺam |iɺam | |iram |iram | | |frog sp. |*iɺu[p/k] |iɺup | |iruk |iduk | | Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-j-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |mother |*mija |me | | |miˈa | | |will/must |*m[a]j[a] |mai | | |meja | | |stalk (n.)|*tajaŋ |tajaŋ | |tajaŋ |tajaŋ | | |scream |*kajaŋ |kajaŋ | | |kajaŋ | | |sting |*kʉjat |kja | | |kʉat | | |canoe |*mbaji | |baj | |baji |bai | |sea |*mbajap | | |baib |beˈap |bep ~ beb| |betrothed |*mbajnaŋ |banjaŋ | | |bajnaŋ | | |clay |*wəj[ɛ/ɔ]ŋ | | |wjoŋ |weŋ |weŋ | |grass sp. |*wɔjɔ | | |ojo |wojo | | … /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-əj-** |**ː** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø** | |ancestor(s) |*asəji |asii | | |asi | | |old |*səɺəjiŋ |hɺiiŋ | |sliŋ ~ sriŋ|sediŋ |sriŋ | |fill/compensate|*kəjiŋ |kiiŋ | |kiŋ |kiŋ | | |forest |*ndəpəjɛn |depeeŋ |dweŋ | |duˈen |duen ~ d(u)wen| |wing |*ndəjɛŋ |deeŋ | | | |dɛŋ [JA] | |increase |*kəjɛ |kee | | |ke | | … /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-j-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |parrot sp.|*ujaŋ |ujaŋ |iwaŋ |jaŋ |iwaŋ ~ juaŋ|wjaŋ [JA]| Only a restricted subset of consonants occurs finally.\\ \\ Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |weeping/crying|*im |im |im | | | | |pitpit sp. |*ipu[m/ŋ] |ipuŋ | |ifum | | | |cockatoo |*imbam |ibam |ibam |biam |ibam |ibam [JA] | |new/fresh |*inim |injim | |nim |inim | | |big man |*iɺam |iɺam | |iram |iram | | |cassowary |*mam |mam |mam | | | | |palm sp. |*pam |pam | | |pam | | |unwilling |*mbəsam |besam | | |besam | | |sago stem |*mbəɺʉm |bɺʉm | |blum | | | |alone/apart |*mban[ɜ/ɔ]m |banom | | |ˈbanom | | |red |*mbɔm | | |bom |bom | | |joint |*mbuɛm | |-bem |-bum |buem |-bem [JA] | |cold/cool |*nim |nim | | |nim | | |eel/crocodile |*nəŋgum |neŋgum | |nuŋgum [JA]|neŋgum\\ ~ neŋgom|nəgum [JA] | |egg(s)/roe |*nakɔm |nakom | |naŋgom |nakom | | |fill/be full |*təɺam | | |tram |tram | | |sweet |*tɜm |tom | |tem |tom |tom | |advice |*ndəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]m |drom | | |drom | | |eat |*ndam |dam |dam |dam |dam |dam | |breadfruit sp.|*səŋgɜm |skom |səgɔm |siŋgem |segom |sgom [JA] | |wooden fork |*səɺuɔm |ɺum ~ hɺum | |srom ~ slom|sruˈom | | |carving |*sam |sam | |sam |sam |sam | |thigh |*kəmbum | | |kumbum |kebum | | |coconut |*kəwim |kʉm |kum |kim |kim |kim | |love/sympathy |*kəɺ[ɔ/u]m |kɺom | | |klum | | |voice/thunder |*kəɺʉm |kɺʉm |-krʉm |-krum [JA] |klum |-klim [TP]\\ ~ krʉm [JA]| |almost |*kam |kam | | |kam | | |singe/blacken |*kʉm |kʉm | | |kʉm | | |grass sp. |*kuaɺap\\ -takuɛm|kwaɺ-\\ -takwem| | |kwalap\\ -takuem | | |cloud/fog |*ŋgum |ŋgum |ŋgum | |gum |gum | |1 sg. |*ŋgna-m |ŋam |ŋam | |genam |kenam ~ knam\\ ~ genam | |leaf umbrella |*watim | | |watim |watim | | |statue |*waɺam | | |walam |walam | | |theft |*wɔm | | |wom ~ OP |wom |wom | |dirty |*ɺim |ɺim | | |lim | | |lip(s)/mouth |*ɺ[ɜ/ɔ]m |ɺom |rɔm ~ hrɔm| |lom |lom | |idle |*jɛm |jem | | |jem |jem | |measure |*jam |jam | |jam |jam |jam | |collect/gather|*jaɺʉm |jaɺʉm | | |jalʉm |jalum | … /*m/… /ŋ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***-[m/ŋ]** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**m** |**m** |**m**| |pitpit sp. |*ipu[m/ŋ] |ipuŋ | |ifum | | | |mountain |*məndʉ[m/ŋ] | |mɛnduŋ\\ ~ mənduŋ|munduŋ\\ ~ mənduŋ [JA]|meˈndʉm|mndim| |wild |*mbəɺi[m/ŋ] |bɺiŋ | | |blim | | |sprinkle/sow|*mbəɺʉ[m/ŋ] |bɺʉŋ | | |blʉm |blum | |old/dry |*mba[m/ŋ] |baŋ | | |bam | | |gather |*taŋg[ɜ/ɔ][m/ŋ]|taŋgoŋ | | |tagom | | |crab claw(s)|*sambu[m/ŋ] |abum | | |sabuŋ | | |sit |*sʉ[m/ŋ] | | |sjum |sʉŋ |suŋ | Final apical nasal /*n/ is merged with velar /ŋ/ in Namblong and Kwansu: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***-n** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |scabies |*inəŋgɜn |iŋgoŋ | |niŋgen |igon | | |breast/milk |*min |miŋ |miŋ [JA] |min |min | | |sugarcane |*min |miŋ | |min |min |min [JA] | |foam |*maŋg[ɜ/ɔ]n |maŋgoŋ | | |maŋgon | | |fly (n.) |*[m/n]ambʉn | | |mambun |nambʉn | | |come up |*mban |baN | | |ban | | |fruit sp. |*mbawin |baʉŋ | | |bawin | | |flesh/meat |*nin |niŋ |niŋ | | | | |two |*namuan |namwan | |naman |ˈnamon |namon | |center post |*naŋguɔn |naŋguoŋ | | |neŋguon| | |stomach |*təŋg[uɛ/ua]n|teŋgueŋ |tɛŋgwɛŋ | |teˈguan|tgwen | |shoot/sprout |*təɺɜn |troŋ | |tren | | | |vine/rope |*taŋgan |taŋgaŋ |taŋgaŋ |taŋgan |tegan |tgan | |bundle |*ndəmun |demuŋ | | |demun | | |forest |*ndəpəjɛn |depeeŋ |dweŋ | |duˈen |duen ~ d(u)wen| |seed/bone |*ndɜn |doŋ |dɔŋ |den |don |don | |smoked/dried |*ndak[ɜ/ɔ]n |dakoŋ | | |dagon | | |hard |*ndawin |dauŋ | | |dawin |dawin [JA] | |cockroach |*səŋguan |skwaŋ [JA] |səgwɔn (?)| |seguon |səgwan- [JA] | |mosquito |*sɜn |soŋ |sɔŋ |sen |son | | |bracelet sp. |*sam[ɔ/u]n |amuŋ | | |samon | | |request/desire|*saŋg[ɜ/ɔ]n |haŋgoŋ\\ ~ aŋgoŋ| | |sagon | | |blood/red |*kin |kiŋ |kiŋ |kin |kin |kin | |penis |*kənuɔn |kenuoŋ |kənɔŋ |kunun | | | |dirt |*kɜn | | |ken |kon | | |grub sp, |*kuɔn |kuoŋ | |kon |kuon | | |earth/ground |*knan | | |kenan |nan | | |joint/corner |*ŋgəɺun |ŋgɺuŋ | | | | | |nail |*wɔn | | |-on |won | | One seeming exeeptions is probably a loan into Namblong from Gresi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-n** |**n** |**?** |**?** |**?** |**n**| |big|*təm[iɛ]n |temien | | | |temin| Another seeming exception arises from Swan's notation of a root which is usually followed by various suffixes, the counterpart of which in Tor River is /*nan/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***-n** |**m n ŋ** |**ŋ** |**** |**** |**** | |who?|*nan |nam ~nan ~naŋ|naŋga | | | | Final velar nasal /*ŋ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** |**ŋ** | |new/young |*imaniŋ |imaniŋ | | |imeniŋ |iminiŋ ~ emeniŋ | |tongue |*anəmbəɺ[i/ɛ]ŋ| | |ambliŋ |neˈmbleŋ |nəbreŋ [JA] | |parrot sp. |*ujaŋ |ujaŋ |iwaŋ |jaŋ |iwaŋ ~ juaŋ |wjaŋ [JA] | |tree kangaroo |*məmbɛŋ |membeŋ | | |membeŋ | | |still/yet |*maniŋ |maniŋ | | |maniŋ |maniŋ | |bird sp. |*muɔŋ | | |moŋ |muoŋ | | |sound/echo |*namʉŋ |namʉŋ | | |namʉŋ | | |yam/sw. potato |*naniŋ |naniŋ | |naniŋ |naniŋ | | |back/behind |*nasɜŋ | | |naseŋ |nasoŋ |nasoŋ | |fly/run |*pəɺiŋ |pɺiŋ | |pliŋ |pliŋ |pliŋ | |watch/look after|*p[ɜ/ɔ]ŋ |poŋ |pɔŋ | |poŋ | | |dry |*paŋ |paŋ |paŋ |paŋ |paŋ |paŋ | |hatch |*paŋ |paŋ | |paŋ |paŋ | | |come/arrive |*puŋ |puŋ |puŋ |puŋ |puŋ |puŋ | |yellow/bright |*mbəɺɜŋ | | |bleŋ |bloŋ | | |hunt |*mbəɺaŋ |bɺaŋ | | |blaŋ |blaŋ | |base/origin |*mbəɺuŋ |bɺuŋ | | |bluŋ |bluŋ | |light (v.) |*mbaŋ |baŋ | | |baŋ | | |cut/break |*mbaŋ |baŋ | | |baŋ | | |hit/beat |*mbaŋ |baŋ | | |baŋ | | |betrothed |*mbajnaŋ |banjaŋ | | |bajnaŋ | | |wait |*mbuŋ |buŋ | |buŋ |buŋ | | |cut off/break |*mbuŋ |buŋ | | |buŋ | | |noise |*tiŋ | | |tiŋ-tiŋ |tiŋ | | |quiet/silent |*təmbuŋ |tebuŋ | | |tebuŋ | | |hit/strike |*təŋg[uɛ/uɔ]ŋ |teŋguoŋ | |tuŋgoŋ |tegueŋ | | |firstborn/heir |*təɺaŋ |traŋ | | |traŋ |traŋ | |new plant |*tamaŋ |tamaŋ | |tamaŋ |tamaŋ | | |wing |*tambaŋ | |tabaŋ |tambaŋ |tabaŋ | | |origin/clan |*taŋ |taŋ | |taŋ |taŋ | | |point/show |*taɺiŋ | | |taliŋ |taliŋ |taliŋ | |crooked/crip. |*taɺɛŋ | | |taleŋ |taleŋ | | |stalk (n.) |*tajaŋ |tajaŋ | |tajaŋ |tajaŋ | | |coral |*ndəkəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]ŋ |dekoŋ | | |degloŋ | | |bride price |*ndəɺaŋ | | |draŋ |draŋ | | |wing |*ndəjɛŋ |deeŋ | | | |dɛŋ [JA] | |bird's nest (?) |*ndaŋ |daŋ | |daŋ |daŋ | | |prop(s)/frame |*ndaŋ |daŋ | | |daŋ | | |think |*ndʉŋ |dʉŋ | |duŋ |dʉŋ |duŋ | |each |*siŋ |-siŋ | | |siŋ |siŋ | |root |*siŋgaŋ |ndaŋ |sraŋ |siŋgaŋ |sraŋ |sɛdaŋ\\ ~ -sᵊraŋ [JA]| |louse |*səna[ŋ] |hnaŋ ~ naŋ |səna |sna ~ səna [JA]|sena |sena | |old/always |*sənaŋ |naŋ | |snaŋ [JA] |senaŋ | | |know |*sən[ɔ/u]ŋ | | |sənuŋ [JA] |senoŋ |senoŋ | |tooth |*səɺiŋ |ɺiŋ | | |sriŋ ~ sediŋ|sriŋ | |old |*səɺəjiŋ |hɺiiŋ | |sliŋ ~ sriŋ |sediŋ |sriŋ | |tusk |*sambuŋ |hambuŋ\\ ~ ambuŋ| | |sabuŋ | | |border |*saŋ |saŋ | | |saŋ | | |palm sp. |*saŋgəɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ | | |saŋglaŋ |sagloŋ | | |back/spine |*səɺ[ɜ/ɔ]ŋ |ɺoŋ | | |sroŋ | | |send |*kiŋ |kiŋ | | |-kiŋ | | |rack sp. |*kəmbəɺɛŋ | | |kembleŋ |kebleŋ | | |die |*kəmbɔŋ | | |kumboŋ |keˈboŋ |keboŋ | |flesh/meat |*kəndɜŋ | | |kendeŋ |kedoŋ | | |frog |*kəɺiŋ |kɺiŋ | |kliŋ |kliŋ |kliŋ | |touch/approach |*kəɺiŋ |kɺiŋ | | |kliŋ | | |tree sp. |*kəɺaŋ |kɺaŋ | | |klaŋ | | |dry/famine |*kəɺuɔŋ |kɺouŋ | | |kluoŋ | | |beat drum |*kəɺʉŋ |kɺʉŋ | | |klʉŋ | | |fill/compensate |*kəjiŋ |kiiŋ | |kiŋ |kiŋ | | |obey |*kɛŋ |keŋ | | |keŋ | | |put/stand |*k[ɜ/ɔ]ŋ |koŋ | | |koŋ | | |woman |*kambuŋ | | |kambuŋ |ˈkabuŋ |kabuŋ | |sharp |*kaɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ |kaɺoŋ |karɔŋ |kaɺaŋ |kaloŋ |kaloŋ | |scream |*kajaŋ |kajaŋ | | |kajaŋ | | |eclectus |*kuɛŋ |kʉeŋ | | |kuem | | |kiss |*kuɔŋ |kuoŋ | | |kuoŋ | | |ashes |*ksuŋ |suŋ |suŋ |kusuŋ |suŋ |suŋ [JA] | |grass sp. |*ŋgənɜŋ | | |kneŋ |genoŋ | | |be patient |*ŋgəɺiŋ |ŋgɺiŋ | | |gliŋ | | |digit |*ŋgəɺaŋ | |-graŋ | |glaŋ |graŋ | |hang |*ŋgəɺuŋ |ŋgɺuŋ | |kluŋ |gluŋ | | |close/block |*ŋgaŋ |ŋgaŋ | | |gaŋ | | |build |*ŋgaŋ | | |kaŋ |gaŋ | | |clay |*wəj[ɛ/ɔ]ŋ | | |wjoŋ |weŋ |weŋ | |sugar palm sp. |*wɜŋ |woŋ | | |woŋ | | |thorn |*wapuŋ | | |wafuŋ |woŋ |woŋ | |beetle sp. |*wasiŋ | | |wasiŋ |wasiŋ | | |long |*waɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ |uɺaŋ |waraŋ |walaŋ |ˈwaloŋ |waloŋ | |cut grass |*wuŋ |wuŋ |wuŋ | |wuŋ ~ uŋ |wuŋ | |flood |*ɺataŋ |ɺataŋ | | |lataŋ | | |break |*ɺuŋ |ɺuŋ | | |luŋ | | |beads sp. |*jap[a/ɔ]ŋ |jawoŋ | |jafaŋ |jawaŋ | | |agree |*jaŋ |jaŋ | | |jaŋ | | |stir |*juŋ |juŋ | | |juŋ | | A small number of words have a final /ŋ/ in Namblong which is not present in the other languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***-[ŋ]** |**ŋ** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø**| |up/above |*mbəɺuɔ[ŋ] |bɺoŋ | |blo |blo |blu | |call |*təɺa[ŋ] |tɺaŋ | | |tra | | |louse |*səna[ŋ] |hnaŋ ~ naŋ |səna |sna ~ səna [JA]|sena |sena | |fish sp. |*sambu[ŋ] |hambuŋ\\ ~ ambuŋ| | |sabu | | |uterus/womb|*sani[ŋ] |haniŋ | |sani |sani | | |armpit |*kəɺəmuɛ[ŋ]|kɺemʉŋ |krɛmi | |kleme | | Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants. It is sometimes realized as voiced [b]: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-p** |**p** |**p** |**p [p b]** |**p** |**p [p b]**| |coconut milk |*ip |jip | |-ib [JA] |ip | | |lightning |*iɺɜp |-iɺop |-jrɔp |-riep |idop ~ -irop |-jrɔp [JA] | |star/firefly |*utɔp |utop |utɔp ~ tɔp |tup- |top |top | |grasshopper |*mənduap |mendwap |mɛndɔp |mundop |meˈndop\\ ~ ndop|ndɔp [JA] | |earth/ground |*map |map |map ~ mab | | | | |tongue |*mambəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p|mambɺop |mambrɔp\\ ~ mambrɔb| | | | |peel (v.) |*pɛp |pep | | |pep | | |sea |*mbəŋgip |beŋgip |bɛŋgip | | | | |sea |*mbajap | | |baib |beˈap |bep ~ beb | |shoot/sprout |*tip | | |tip |tip |tip | |lizard sp. |*təmbap |tebap | | |tebap | | |path |*tap |tap |tap |tap |tap |tap | |hear |*tup | | |tup |tup |tup | |drink |*ndəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p | | | |drop |drop | |leaf/head hair|*ndɜp | | |dep |dop |dop | |cold |*ndaɺip |deɺip ~ daɺip|dɛrip |darip\\ ~ dalip [JA]|dalip |dalip | |place (n.) |*sip |sip | | |sip |sip | |dry/dry leaves|*s[ɜ/ɔ]p |sop | | |sop |sɔp [JA] | |fibrous |*sasɔp |asop | | |sasop | | |disappear |*sakʉp |hakʉp ~ akʉp | | |sagʉp | | |bee |*saŋgup |aŋgup | | | |səgup [JA] | |suck/suckle |*sup |sup | | |sup | | |fire |*kip |kip |kip | | | | |button (?) |*kən[ɜ/ɔ]p |kenop | | |kenop | | |bite |*kʉp | | |kup ~ qup |kʉp | | |spirit/soul |*kuasɛp |kesep | | |kuasep | | |guest/visitor |*ŋgəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p |ŋgɺop | | |glop | | |taro |*w[i/ɛ]p |wip |wip | |wep |-wib [JA] | |feast sp. |*waɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p |waɺop | | |ˈwalop | | |shrimp/prawn |*wɔp |wap |uɔp |op ~ wop |wop |wop | |drink |*ɺɛp |ɺep |rɛp | | | | |soul/shadow |*ɺap |ɺap | |nap |lap | | |house |*jap | | |jap |jap |jap | Final apical voicless stop /*t/ is replaced in Namblong by a centralizing offglide [ᵌ] which might be viewed as the final allophone of /t/. The precise quality of this offglide as it is represented in Swan's dictionary is determined by the quality of the preceding vowel or diphthong: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-t/i_** |**ᵌ [e]** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |wind |*nəpit |nembie |nəmbit |nivit |neˈmbit |nɛmbit~nɛmbid\\ nəmbit [JA]| |hair/feather(s)|*ndəpəwit |depʉe |dʉt |difit |dit |dit | |black |*ndəkit |dekie |degit | |degit | | |arm/hand |*kit |kie |kit | | | | |sap/resin |*ŋgit |ŋgie | |kit |git | | |crocodile |*wəmit |umiə [JA] |wəmit | |wəmit [JA] | | |kidney |*wawit |waʉ (?) | | |wawit | | | |***-t/ou_**|**ᵌ [o]** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |nest |*ut |uo ~ wo |wut |ut |ut |wut [JA] | |pigeon sp. |*imut |imuo | |imut |imut | | |hole |*put |puo ~ pwa | |put |put |put | |ironwood sp. |*mbap[u]t | | |bafut |bat | | |voice/speech |*nəmbut |nembuo\\ ~ nembwo|nəmbut |numbut |neˈmbut |nembut | |swallow |*nəŋgut |neŋguo | |kut |gut | | |enter/occupy |*ndəkut |dekuo | | |degut | | |sew |*səmbut |sebuo | | |sebut | | |shame/shy |*sut |-suo | | |-sut | | |mushroom |*kəɺaput | | |klaput |kˈlaut | | |white |*kəɺaput | | |klaput\\ ~ kraɸut [JA]|kˈlaut | | |sky |*kawut |kawuo |kawt |keut ~ keud [JA] | | | |grey hair |*kut |kuo | |kut |kut | | |greens sp. |*wasut | | |wasut |wasut | | | |***-t/ʉ_** |**ᵌ [e]** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |cook/burn |*pʉt |pʉe | | |pʉt | | |chest |*mbʉt |bʉe | |but [JA] | | | |areca nut |*ndawʉt | | |dawut ~ daut |dagʉt |dakuit ~ dakut\\ ~dakt | |liver |*kəɺʉt |kɺʉa | |klut |klʉt | | |tree sp. |*kəɺʉt |kɺʉa | | |klʉt | | |goura pigeon |*kamb[ɔ/ʉ]t|kebʉe |kəbut |kambot |kabot |kabɔt [JA] | |girl |*kaŋgʉt | | |kaŋgut |kagʉt | | |show |*ɺəŋgʉt |ɺeŋgʉe | | |legʉt | | | |***-t/uɛ_**|**ᵌ [a]** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |cover |*kəɺəmbuɛt |kɺbʉa | | |klebet | | |peel (v.) |*ŋgəɺuɛt |ŋgɺʉa | | |gluet | | | |***-t/ɜ_** |**ᵌ [a]** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |deny |*mbakɜt |bakwa | |baket | | | |sago/sago tree |*ndəpɜt | | |depet\\ ~ dɛɸɛt [JA] |duot |duot | |lime |*kɜt | | |ket |kot | | |butterfly |*kambɜt | |kabɔt |kambet |kabot |kabɔt [JA] | |sand |*kasaŋgɜt | |kasəŋgɔt|kasaŋget | | | |stay |*ŋgɜt |ŋgo (?) | |ket |got | | |weak/soft |*wakɜt | | |waket |wakot |wakot | | |***-t/ɔ_** |**ᵌ [a]** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |3 sg./pl. |*nəmɔt | | |nemot |nemot |nemot | |short/blunt |*təmbɔt |tebwa | |tumbot |tebot |tebot | |forbidden |*kaŋg[ɜ/ɔ]t|kaŋgwa | | |kagot | | |2 sg./pl. |*kmɔt | | |kumot ~ kmot |mot |hot | |draw line |*ɺ[ɜ/ɔ]t |ɺou (?) | | |lot | | | |***-t/a_** |**ᵌ [ø]** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |spirit sp. |*ndəmat |dema | | |demat | | |tail/last |*sat |sa |sat |sat [JA] |sat |sat | |wild pig |*kəɺat | | |klat |klat | | |frog sp. |*kuat kuat | | |kot-kot |kuˈat-kuˈat| | |sting |*kujat |kja | | |kʉat | | Voiceless laminal /*s/ does not occur finally.\\ \\ Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ is dropped in Namblong and the vowel which precedes it is lengthened: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***-k** |**ː** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** | |scorpion |*ituk |itju | | |tuk | | |catch |*məɺak | | |mlak |mlak |mlak | |pus |*mɔk | | |mok |mok | | |three |*naŋgəɺik |naŋgɺii |naŋgrik|naŋklik |naŋglik |naŋglik | |eject/remove |*təkʉk |tekʉʉ | | |tegʉk | | |cough |*təkuɛk |tekuei | |tukok |tegue (?) | | |break/smash |*təkuɔk |tekuo (?)| | |teguok | | |hunt/chase |*təɺ[ɛu]k |treʉ | | |trʉk | | |open/unplug |*təɺuk |truu | |truk |truk | | |centipede |*tak | | |tak |tak |taq [JA] | |wipe/scratch |*ndəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]k|drou | | |drok | | |follow/obey |*nduk |duu | | |duk | | |burn/cook |*ndʉk |dʉʉ | |duk |dʉk |duk | |squeeze out |*sik |sii | | |sik | | |draw/take out |*səp[ɔ/u]k |spuu | | |sok | | |go away |*səp[ɔ/u]k |spuu | | |sok | | |strike/chop (?)|*səmbuk |sebuu | | |sebuk | | |shake/swing |*səkəɺuɛk |skɺʉʉ | |siklek |segluep (?)| | |lie down/sleep |*səɺ[i/ɛ]k |ɺei |srik |srik |srek |srek | |lazy/rest |*səɺ[ɜ/ɔ]k |ɺo | | |srok |srok | |husk/peel |*səɺuk | | |sluk ~ sruk|sruk | | |turn over |*suk | | |suk |suk | | |cook/boil |*s[u/ʉ]k |suu | | |sʉk |suk | |pick |*[ŋ]uɔk |ŋguou | | |ŋuok | | |fist |*kəmuk | | |kumuk |kemuk | | |sit/stay |*kən[ɜ/ɔ]k |kenou |kənɔk | | | | |close/narrow |*kəndik |kedii | | |kedik | | |make/build |*kəɺik |kɺii | |klik |klik |klik | |weep/cry |*kəɺuk |kɺuu | | | |kluk ~ kruk| |cut/slice |*kəɺʉk |kɺʉʉ | | |klʉk | | |put in/hide |*k[ɜ/ɔ]k |kou | | |kok | | |fireplace |*katuk | | |katuk |katuk | | |lenggua |*kaɺuk | | |kaluk |kaluk | | |dig/spoon |*kuk |kuu | | |kuk | | |chewed quid |*kuɔk |kuou | | |kuok | | |wilt/wither |*kuɔk |kuou | | |kuok | | |sago/sago flour|*kmuk | | |kumuk |muk |huk | |fold |*ŋgəɺəmʉk |ŋgɺʉmʉʉ | | |kumuk | | |seize/control |*ŋgəɺʉk |ŋgɺʉʉ | | |glʉk | | |take off/peel |*ŋguk |ŋguu | | |guk | | |split |*ŋgʉk |ŋgʉʉ | | |gʉk | | |cut up |*wɔk |wou | |wok ~ ok |wok | | |scrape/grate |*wɔk |wou | | |wok |wok | |break/smash |*ɺəPuk |ɺepuu | | |lepuk | | |spirit sp. |*jamʉk |jamʉʉ | | |jamʉk | | Prenasalized voiced stops /*mb *nd/ do not occur finally.\\ \\ Final bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| || |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| ||***-w** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | Final palatal non-stop /*j/ … : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| || |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| ||***-j** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | … vowels and diphthongs … Only high vowels /*i *u/ and low central /*a/ have been found initially. As these develop rather differently from their medial and final equivalents, they are presenteed first as a class.\\ \\ Initial high front vowel /*i/ in monosyllables is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***i/#_C#**|**i** |**i** |**i** |**i** |**?**| |weeping/crying|*im |im |im | | | | |coconut milk |*ip |jip | |-ib [JA]|ip | | Initial high front vowel /*i/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***i/#_CV**|**i** |**i** |**i ø** |**i ø** |**i ø** | |new/fresh |*inim |injim | |nim |inim | | |cassowary |*isuaɺi | | |suali ~ suari [JA]|isuˈali |iswari [JA] | |pig |*inəmbuɔ |ibuo |ibɔ |mbo |neˈmbo |nembu | |scabies |*inəŋgɜn |iŋgoŋ | | niŋgen |igon | | |rock/shake |*isu |isju | | |isu | | |pith |*iku |iku | | |iku | | |pigeon sp. |*imut |imuo | |imut |imut | | |pitpit sp. |*ipu[m/ŋ] |ipuŋ | |ifum | | | |scorpion |*ituk |itju | | |tuk | | |frog sp. |*iɺu[p/k] |iɺup | |iruk |iduk | | |lightning |*iɺɜp |-iɺop |-jrɔp |-riep |\idop ~ -irop|-jrɔp [JA] | |yam/sw. potato|*isɔ |isjo |isa |sja |isa |isa | |mother |*iŋgɔ |indjo | |ndʒa | | | |cockatoo |*imbam |ibam |ibam |biam |ibam |ibam [JA] | |big man |*iɺam |iɺam | |iram |iram | | |new/young |*imaniŋ |imaniŋ | | |imeniŋ |iminiŋ ~ emeniŋ| In one example, initial /*i/ has been dropped in all descendants and is discernable only through its effect upon following velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/, though Anceaux gives Mekwei [iŋgjɛ] and Kemtuk [iŋge iŋgiɛ] in addition to forms without initial [i] (Smits and Voorhoeve 1994: 233-234): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***i/#_ŋgV**|**ø** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø**| |this|*iŋgɛ |ndie |-ndɛ |ndʒe |ŋge |ŋgi | Initial high back rounded vowel /*u/ in monosyllables is retinaed as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***u/#_C()**|**u** |**u** |**u** |**u** |**u** | |weeping/song|*u | | |u |u |wu | |nest |*ut |uo ~ wo |wut |ut |ut |wut [JA]| Initial /*u/ in disyllables is lowered to merge with low central /a/ in Moi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***u/#_CV**|**u** |**u** |**a** |**u** |**u [u wu]**| |belly |*unu | | |anu | | | |garden |*usu |usu |usu |asu |usu |usu | |breadfruit sp.|*uɺu |ulu |uru |alu |ulu |uru [JA] | |mouse/rat |*usum | |usum |asum |usum |usum | |banana |*undʉ |undʉ |undu |andu |uˈdʉ |wudu~wdu~udu| |dog |*unduɔ |unduo |undo |ando |uduo |udu | |star/firefly |*utɔp |utop |utɔp ~ tɔp|tup- |top |top | In one example, initial /*u/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***u/…** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |parrot sp.|*ujaŋ |ujaŋ |iwaŋ |jaŋ |iwaŋ ~ juaŋ|wjaŋ [JA]| Initial low central vowel /*a/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***a/#_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |father |*aj[a] | | |ai |aja ~ aj ~ ai|aja | |skin/bark |*asu[p/k] |sop |sup |asuk |suk |suk | |friend |*andua |andwa | |andua |andua |andua | |ancestor(s)|*asəji |asii | | |asi | | |tongue |*anəmbəɺ[i/ɛ]ŋ| | |ambliŋ |neˈmbleŋ |nəbreŋ [JA]| |snake |*aɺəmɔ |ɺemo ~ɺmo|rəma |arma ~ alma|lema |lema | |wallaby |*asəjɔ |hajo | |asjo | |sia [JA] | Any vowel can occur medially or finally.\\ \\ Medial and final high front vowel /*i/ in stressed positions is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***i** |**i** |**i** |**i** |**i** |**i** | |tree/wood |*ndi |di |di |di |di |di | |woman |*ki |ki |ki | | | | |raw/green |*ki | | |ki |ki | | |go down |*ɺi |ɺi | | |li |li | |breast/milk |*min |miŋ |miŋ [JA] |min |min | | |sugarcane |*min |miŋ | |min |min |min [JA] | |cold/cool |*nim |nim | | |nim | | |flesh/meat |*nin |niŋ |niŋ | | | | |shoot/sprout |*tip | | |tip |tip |tip | |noise |*tiŋ | | |tiŋ-tiŋ |tiŋ | | |place (n.) |*sip |sip | | |sip |sip | |each |*siŋ |-siŋ | | |siŋ |siŋ | |squeeze out |*sik |sii | | |sik | | |fire |*kip |kip |kip | | | | |blood/red |*kin |kiŋ |kiŋ |kin |kin |kin | |arm/hand |*kit |kie |kit | | | | |send |*kiŋ |kiŋ | | |-kiŋ | | |sap/resin |*ŋgit |ŋgie | |kit |git | | |dirty |*ɺim |ɺim | | |lim | | |dream |*siŋgi |ndi | |siŋgi |ssdi |sdi | |raw/green |*kiki |keki |kiki- |kiiki |kiki |kiki | |new/fresh |*inim |injim | |nim |inim | | |mother |*mija |me | | |miˈa | | |gall/bile |*pəti |peti | | |peti | | |body/contents |*səni |heni |sɛnj- |sini |seni |seni | |termite |*kəpi | | |kivi |ki | | |ear |*kəni[n/ŋ] |keni |keniŋ ~ kɛniŋ-| | | | |go away |*kəɺi |kɺi | |kli |kli | | |fly/run |*pəɺiŋ |pɺiŋ | |pliŋ |pliŋ |pliŋ | |sea |*mbəŋgip |beŋgip |bɛŋgip | | | | |wild |*mbəɺi[m/ŋ] |bɺiŋ | | |blim | | |wind |*nəpit |nembie |nəmbit |nivit |neˈmbit |nɛmbit~nɛmbid\\ nəmbit [JA]| |black |*ndəkit |dekie |degit | |degit | | |tooth |*səɺiŋ |ɺiŋ | | |sriŋ ~ sediŋ|sriŋ | |frog |*kəɺiŋ |kɺiŋ | |kliŋ |kliŋ |kliŋ | |touch/approach|*kəɺiŋ |kɺiŋ | | |kliŋ | | |make/build |*kəɺik |kɺii | |klik |klik |klik | |be patient |*ŋgəɺiŋ |ŋgɺiŋ | | |gliŋ | | |crocodile |*wəmit |umiə [JA] |wəmit | |wəmit [JA] | | |three |*naŋgəɺik |naŋgɺii |naŋgrik |naŋklik |naŋglik |naŋglik | |clay |*kuɛnsi |kinsi | | |kuensi | | |foot/leg |*masi |mesi |mɛsi |masi |masi |masi | |canoe |*mbaji | |baj | |baji |bai | |spirit sp. |*naɺi |naɺi | |nali |nali | | |fish |*ndasi | | |dasi |dasi |dasi | |equal |*ndaɺi | | |dali |dali |dali | |uterus/womb |*sani[ŋ] |haniŋ | |sani |sani | | |men's house |*saɺi | | |sali |sali- | | |down/below |*kati |kati | | |kati | | |branch |*kaɺi |kaɺi |kari |kali [JA] |kali |kari [JA] | |sleep (n.) |*wasi |wasi | |wasi | | | |flower sp. |*waŋgi | | |waŋgi |wagi | | |digging stick |*waɺi |waɺi | |wali |wali | | |life/peace |*waɺi |waɺi | |wali |wali |wali | |weak/paralyzed|*jambi | | |jambi |jambi | | |paradise sp. |*knaɺi |ŋaɺi | |knali |nali |hali | |still/yet |*maniŋ |maniŋ | | |maniŋ |maniŋ | |fruit sp. |*mbawin |baʉŋ | | |bawin | | |yam/sw. potato|*naniŋ |naniŋ | |naniŋ |naniŋ | | |hear |*tas[i/ɛ][n/ŋ]|tasiŋ |taseŋ | | | | |point/show |*taɺiŋ | | |taliŋ |taliŋ |taliŋ | |cooked |*ndasiŋ |dasiŋ | | |dasiŋ | | |hard |*ndawin |dauŋ | | |dawin |dawin [JA] | |cold |*ndaɺip |deɺip ~ daɺip|dɛrip |darip\\ ~ dalip [JA]|dalip |dalip | |leaf umbrella |*watim | | |watim |watim | | |beetle sp. |*wasiŋ | | |wasiŋ |wasiŋ | | |kidney |*wawit |waʉ | | |wawit | | |magic spell |*pəɺasi |pɺasi | |plasi | | | |left |*təkaɺi[k] |tekaɺi | | |ta kali |ta-(t)kalik | |hornbill |*ndəpaɺi | |dwari |defali ~ devali | |dwari [JA] | |work |*kəmbaɺi |kebaɺi | |kembali |keˈbali |kebali | |afraid |*suaɺi |swaɺi | | |suali |suali | |new/young |*imaniŋ |imaniŋ | | |imeniŋ |iminiŋ ~ emeniŋ | The sequence /*əwi/ becomes /ʉ/ in Namblong and probably in Kwansu (though Anceaux's trnascriptions are inconsistent in this respect) and is reduced to /i/ in Moi, Kemtuik and Gresi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***əwi** |**ʉ** |**ʉ [u ʉ]**|**i** |**i** |**i**| |coconut |*kəwim |kʉm |kum |kim |kim |kim | |egg |*səwip[i] |sʉp |sup |sifi |si |si- | |hair/feather(s)|*ndəpəwit |depʉe |dʉt |difit |dit |dit | The seqence /*awi/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***awi** |**aʉ** |**?** |**?** |**awi**|**awi** | |fruit sp.|*mbawin |baʉŋ | | |bawin | | |hard |*ndawin |dauŋ (?)| | |dawin |dawin [JA]| |kidney |*wawit |waʉ | | |wawit | | The sequence /*əji/ is realized as long /ii/ in Namblong and is reduced to /i/ in Moi, Kemtuik and Gresi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***əji** |**ii** |**** |**i** |**i** |**i**| |fill/compensate|*kəjiŋ |kiiŋ | |kiŋ |kiŋ | | |old |*səɺəjiŋ |hɺiiŋ | |sliŋ ~ sriŋ|sediŋ |sriŋ | |ancestor(s) |*asəji |asii | | |asi | | Generally speaking, high front /*i/ is not not found in destressed positions, where it like high back rounded /*u/ (below) has been neutralized to [ə]. There are however a few situations in which its underlying presence is discernible through its effects upon following segments. …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***is** |**sj** |**?** |**əs** |**?** |**?**| |still/yet|*misɜ |msjo | |mese | | | … /*i/ … This correspondence is strikingly different from that in which /*ŋg/ is preceded by [*ə]: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***i** |**i** |**** |**i** |**i** |**** | |dream|*siŋgi |ndi | |siŋgi |ssdi |sdi | |root |*siŋgaŋ |ndaŋ |sraŋ |siŋgaŋ |sraŋ |sɛdaŋ\\ ~ -sᵊraŋ [JA]| … /*i/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***[i/ɛ]** |**i** |**i** |**?** |**e** |**i** | |taro|*w[i/ɛ]p |wip |wip | |wep |-wib [JA]| Medial and final high central rounded vowel /*ʉ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***u** |**ʉ** |**ʉ [ʉ u]** |**u** |**ʉ** |**u** | |excrement |*kʉ |kʉ | | |kʉ | | |cook/burn |*pʉt |pʉe | | |pʉt | | |chest |*mbʉt |bʉe | |but [JA] | | | |think |*ndʉŋ |dʉŋ | |duŋ |dʉŋ |duŋ | |burn/cook |*ndʉk |dʉʉ | |duk |dʉk |duk | |sit |*sʉ[m/ŋ] | | |sjum |sʉŋ |suŋ | |singe/blacken |*kʉm |kʉm | | |kʉm | | |bite |*kʉp | | |kup ~ qup |kʉp | | |split |*ŋgʉk |ŋgʉʉ | | |gʉk | | |banana |*undʉ |undʉ |undu |andu |uˈdʉ |wudu~wdu~udu | |drum sp. |*nəŋgʉ |ŋgʉ | |nuŋgu |neŋgʉ | | |put/give birth|*təwʉ |tʉʉ | | |tʉ |tu | |native law |*təɺʉ |trʉ | | |-trʉ | | |wet/saturated |*ndəmbʉ |debʉ | |dembu |debʉ | | |mountain |*məndʉ[m/ŋ]| |mɛnduŋ\\ ~ mənduŋ |munduŋ\\ ~ mənduŋ [JA] |meˈndʉm |mndim | |sago stem |*mbəɺʉm |bɺʉm | |blum | | | |sprinkle/sow |*mbəɺʉ[m/ŋ]|bɺʉŋ | | |blʉm |blum | |eject/remove |*təkʉk |tekʉʉ | | |tegʉk | | |voice/thunder |*kəɺʉm |kɺʉm |-krʉm |-krum [JA] |klum |-klim [TP]\\ ~ krʉm [JA]| |liver |*kəɺʉt |kɺʉa | |klut |klʉt | | |tree sp. |*kəɺʉt |kɺʉa | | |klʉt | | |beat drum |*kəɺʉŋ |kɺʉŋ | | |klʉŋ | | |cut/slice |*kəɺʉk |kɺʉʉ | | |klʉk | | |seize/control |*ŋgəɺʉk |ŋgɺʉʉ | | |glʉk | | |show |*ɺəŋgʉt |ɺeŋgʉe | | |legʉt | | |fold |*ŋgəɺəmʉk |ŋgɺʉmʉʉ | | |kumuk | | |vegetable(s) |*mbaɺʉ |baɺʉ | | |balʉ | | |heart |*ndambʉ |debʉ |dɛbu |dambu |ˈdabʉ |dabi | |sick/ill |*sandʉ | | |sandu |sadʉ |sadu | |fight/quarrel |*saŋgʉ | | |saŋgu |sagʉ | | |mud/swamp |*kaɺʉ |kaɺʉ | | |kalʉ | | |send message |*wambʉ |wabʉ | | |wabʉ | | |fat (a.) |*wakʉ | | |waku |wakʉ | | |pigeon sp. |*jaŋgʉ |jaŋgʉ | |jaŋgu |jagʉ | | |year/season |*jaŋgʉ | | |jaŋgu |jagʉ |jaŋgju | |fly (n.) |*[m/n]ambʉn| | |mambun |nambʉn | | |sound/echo |*namʉŋ |namʉŋ | | |namʉŋ | | |areca nut |*ndawʉt | | |dawut ~ daut |dagʉt |dakuit ~ dakut\\ ~dakt | |disappear |*sakʉp |hakʉp ~ akʉp| | |sagʉp | | |girl |*kaŋgʉt | | |kaŋgut |kagʉt | | |spirit sp. |*jamʉk |jamʉʉ | | |jamʉk | | |collect/gather|*jaɺʉm |jaɺʉm | | |jalʉm |jalum | |head |*jaŋkaMBʉ |iŋgjambʉ |jakambu ~\\ jaŋkambu|ikembu\\ ~ jekambu [JA]|jakambu\\ ~ jaŋkambu [JA]|jaŋkabu | While Banundi's Moi reflex of /*ʉ/ is generally indistinguishable from that of /*u/, a trace of the difference is found when /*ʉ/ follows laminal voiceless /*s/ and is realized as palatalized [ju]: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***ʉ/s_** |**ʉ** |**ʉ** |**ju** |**ʉ** |**u**| |name |*sʉ |sʉ |sʉ |sju |sʉ |su | |sit |*sʉ[m/ŋ] | | |sjum |sʉŋ |suŋ | |navel|*məsʉ |mesʉ | |musju |mesʉ | | |vomit|*kəsʉ | | |kusju |kusʉ | | Only one example is known of /*ʉ/ following palatal non-stop /*j/; here Kemtuik has metathesized /*jʉ/ to /wi/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***ʉ/j_** |**ʉ** |** jʉ**|**u** |**?** |**u** | |bird|*jʉ |jʉ |iʉ |wu |wi |ju ~ iju| …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***u/_ja** |**ø** |**** |**** |**ʉ** |**** | |sting|*kʉjat |kja | | |kʉat | | Medial and final high back rounded /*u/ is found in only four contexts: in monosyllabes /*Cu(C)/, as the last vowel in a root with an initial vowel in the previous syllable, as the last vowel in a root with destressed vowel [*ə] in the previous syllable and as the last vowel in a root with low central /*a/ in the previous syllable: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***u** |**u** |**u** |**u** |**u** |**u** | |speak/tell |*pu | | |pu |pu |pu | |water/river |*mbu |bu |bu |bu |bu |bu | |eye/see |*nu |nu |nu- | |nu | | |day |*ku |ku | |ku |ku |ku | |ground/place |*ku |ku | |ku |ku | | |down/below |*ku |ku | | |ku |ku | |greens sp. |*ju | | |ju |ju |ju | |hole |*put |puo ~ pwa | |put |put |put | |come/arrive |*puŋ |puŋ |puŋ |puŋ |puŋ |puŋ | |wait |*mbuŋ |buŋ | |buŋ |buŋ | | |cut off/break |*mbuŋ |buŋ | | |buŋ | | |hear |*tup | | |tup |tup |tup | |follow/obey |*nduk |duu | | |duk | | |suck/suckle |*sup |sup | | |sup | | |shame/shy |*sut |-suo | | |-sut | | |turn over |*suk | | |suk |suk | | |grey hair |*kut |kuo | |kut |kut | | |dig/spoon |*kuk |kuu | | |kuk | | |cloud/fog |*ŋgum |ŋgum |ŋgum | |gum |gum | |take off/peel |*ŋguk |ŋguu | | |guk | | |cut grass |*wuŋ |wuŋ |wuŋ | |wuŋ ~ uŋ |wuŋ | |break |*ɺuŋ |ɺuŋ | | |luŋ | | |stir |*juŋ |juŋ | | |juŋ | | |sago/sago flour|*kmuk | | |kumuk |muk |huk | |ashes |*ksuŋ |suŋ |suŋ |kusuŋ |suŋ |suŋ [JA] | |rock/shake |*isu |isju | | |isu | | |pith |*iku |iku | | |iku | | |pigeon sp. |*imut |imuo | |imut |imut | | |pitpit sp. |*ipu[m/ŋ] |ipuŋ | |ifum | | | |scorpion |*ituk |itju | | |tuk | | |frog sp. |*iɺu[p/k] |iɺup | |iruk |iduk | | |garden |*usu |usu |usu |asu |usu |usu | |breadfruit sp. |*uɺu |ulu |uru |alu |ulu |uru [JA] | |mouse/rat |*usum | |usum |asum |usum |usum | |skin/bark |*asu[p/k] |sop (?) |sup |asuk |suk |suk | |ketapang |*məndu |mendu | | |mendu\\ ~ mundu | | |broken/wound |*pəku | | |peku |pegu | | |meet/find |*təku |teku | | |tegu | | |neck |*səsu |sesu |səsu |susu [JA] |susu | | |wash |*ɺəwu |ɺuu | | |lu | | |man/male |*səɺu |hɺu |sru |-sru |sru |sru | |base/origin |*mbəɺuŋ |bɺuŋ | | |bluŋ |bluŋ | |voice/speech |*nəmbut |nembuo\\ ~ nembwo|nəmbut |numbut |neˈmbut |nembut | |eel/crocodile |*nəŋgum |neŋgum | |nuŋgum [JA] |neŋgum\\ ~ neŋgom|nəgum [JA] | |swallow |*nəŋgut |neŋguo | |kut |gut | | |quiet/silent |*təmbuŋ |tebuŋ | | |tebuŋ | | |open/unplug |*təɺuk |truu | |truk |truk | | |bundle |*ndəmun |demuŋ | | |demun | | |enter/occupy |*ndəkut |dekuo | | |degut | | |Mt. Cyclops |*ndəwu[m/n]|duum | | |dun | | |sew |*səmbut |sebuo | | |sebut | | |strike/chop (?)|*səmbuk |sebuu | | |sebuk | | |husk/peel |*səɺuk | | |sluk ~ sruk |sruk | | |fist |*kəmuk | | |kumuk |kemuk | | |thigh |*kəmbum | | |kumbum |kebum | | |weep/cry |*kəɺuk |kɺuu | | | |kluk ~ kruk | |joint/corner |*ŋgəɺun |ŋgɺuŋ | | | | | |hang |*ŋgəɺuŋ |ŋgɺuŋ | |kluŋ |gluŋ | | |break/smash |*ɺəPuk |ɺepuu | | |lepuk | | |cut short/trim |*təmbəwu |tebuu | |tumbu |tebu | | |bamboo |*səŋgəɺu | |səgru |suŋglu |seglu |sugru [JA] | |sorcery |*tasəmu | | |tasumu |tasemu | | |bird sp. |*paɺu | | |palu |palu | | |grandparent |*mbambu |babu | | |babu |babu | |moon |*mbanu |banu |banu |banu |banu |banu | |beloved |*mbaɺu |baɺu | | |balu | | |day after tom. |*naPu | | |napu |napu | | |day after tom. |*naPu | | |napu |napu | | |marrow |*naku |naku | | |naku | | |near |*ndaŋgu |daŋgu | | |dagu |dagu | |pig bone blade |*saɺu | | |salu |salu | | |pandanus sp. |*ŋgambu | | |kambu |gabu | | |spirit sp. |*wambu |wambu | |wambu |wabu | | |lizard |*waɺu |waɺu |waru | |walu |waru- [JA] | |tip/end |*jambu |jambu | |jambu | | | |butcherbird |*jasu |jasu | | |jasu | | |turmeric/yellow|*ja[ŋ]u |jaŋgu |jaŋgu |jaŋgu [JA] |ˈjaŋu |jaŋu ~ jaŋo [JA]| |fish sp. |*sambu[ŋ] |hambuŋ\\ ~ ambuŋ | | |sabu | | |crab claw(s) |*sambu[m/ŋ]|abum | | |sabuŋ | | |tusk |*sambuŋ |hambuŋ\\ ~ ambuŋ | | |sabuŋ | | |bee |*saŋgup |aŋgup | | | |səgup [JA] | |woman |*kambuŋ | | |kambuŋ |ˈkabuŋ |kabuŋ | |fireplace |*katuk | | |katuk |katuk | | |sky |*kawut |kawuo |kawt |keut ~ keud [JA]| | | |lenggua |*kaɺuk | | |kaluk |kaluk | | |greens sp. |*wasut | | |wasut |wasut | | |frog sp. |*jawut |jawo (?) | | |jaut | | … /*u/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***u/ap_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |ironwood sp.|*mbap[u]t | | |bafut |bat | | |thorn |*wapuŋ | | |wafuŋ |woŋ |woŋ | |mushroom |*kəɺaput | | |klaput |kˈlaut | | |white |*kəɺaput | | |klaput\\ ~ kraɸut [JA]|kˈlaut | | Low-mid front vowel /*ɛ/ is uncommon. Like medial and final /*u/ above, it is found in only four contexts: in monosyllabes /*Cu(C)/, as the last vowel in a root with an initial vowel in the previous syllable, as the last vowel in a root with destressed vowel [*ə] in the previous syllable and as the last vowel in a root with low central /*a/ in the previous syllable: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***ɛ** |**e** |**e** |**e** |**e** |**e** | |go up |*mbɛ |be | | |be | | |peel (v.) |*pɛp |pep | | |pep | | |obey |*kɛŋ |keŋ | | |keŋ | | |drink |*ɺɛp |ɺep |rɛp | | | | |idle |*jɛm |jem | | |jem |jem | |this |*iŋgɛ |ndie |-ndɛ |ndʒe |ŋge |ŋgi (?) | |itch/itchy |*məɺɛ- | | |mle- |mle- | | |tree sp. |*ndəmɛ |deme | | |deme | | |increase |*kəjɛ |kee | | |ke | | |metal |*ɺəPɛ |ɺepe | | |lepe | | |tree kangaroo|*məmbɛŋ |membeŋ | | |membeŋ | | |wing |*ndəjɛŋ |deeŋ | | | |dɛŋ [JA] | |forest |*ndəpəjɛn |depeeŋ |dweŋ | |duˈen |duen ~ d(u)wen| |rack sp. |*kəmbəɺɛŋ | | |kembleŋ|kebleŋ | | |back |*tatɛ |tate doŋ| | |tat-on | | |insane |*janɛ |jane | | |jane | | |crooked/crip.|*taɺɛŋ | | |taleŋ |taleŋ | | Low-mid central vowel /*ɜ/ is backed to /o/ in West Grime River and Gresi-Kemtuik and fronted to /e/ in Moi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***ɜ** |**o** |**o** |**e** |**o** |**o** | |to/at (?) |*sɜ ~ ho |so | |se |so | | |sweet |*tɜm |tom | |tem |tom |tom | |leaf/head hair |*ndɜp | | |dep |dop |dop | |seed/bone |*ndɜn |doŋ |dɔŋ |den |don |don | |mosquito |*sɜn |soŋ |sɔŋ |sen |son | | |dirt |*kɜn | | |ken |kon | | |lime |*kɜt | | |ket |kot | | |fire |*kɜj | | |kei |koj |koi | |stay |*ŋgɜt |ŋgo | |ket |got | | |sugar palm sp. |*wɜŋ |woŋ | | |woŋ | | |still/yet |*misɜ |msjo | |mese | | | |lightning |*iɺɜp |-iɺop |-jrɔp |-riep |\idop ~ -irop|-jrɔp [JA]| |shell sp. |*pəɺɜ | | |ple-ple |plo | | |cut/split |*pəɺɜ | | |ple |plo | | |hair of head |*mbətɜ | | |bete |beto |beto | |flower sp. |*ŋgəɺɜ | | |klei |glo | | |yellow/bright |*mbəɺɜŋ | | |bleŋ |bloŋ | | |shoot/sprout |*təɺɜn |troŋ | |tren | | | |sago/sago tree |*ndəpɜt | | |depet\\ ~ dɛɸɛt [JA]|duot |duot | |breadfruit sp. |*səŋgɜm |skom |səgɔm |siŋgem |segom |sgom [JA] | |flesh/meat |*kəndɜŋ | | |kendeŋ |kedoŋ | | |grass sp. |*ŋgənɜŋ | | |kneŋ |genoŋ | | |scabies |*inəŋgɜn |iŋgoŋ | |niŋgen |igon | | |evil spirit sp.|*masɜ | | |mase |maso |maso | |weak/gentle |*maɺɜ |maɺo | |male |malo | | |grass seed(\s) |*wasɜ | | |wase |waso | | |deny |*mbakɜt |bakwa | |baket | | | |back/behind |*nasɜŋ | | |naseŋ |nasoŋ |nasoŋ | |butterfly |*kambɜt | |kabɔt |kambet |kabot |kabɔt [JA]| |weak/soft |*wakɜt | | |waket |wakot |wakot | |sand |*kasaŋgɜt | |kasəŋgɔt|kasaŋget | | | Several seemingly irregular examples may be loans into Namblong and Kemtuik from Moi: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***[ɜ]** |**e** |**?** |**?** |**o** |**?**| |spleen |*kən[ɜ] |kene | | |keno | | |sugar glider|*mbas[ɜ] |base | | |baso | | |song sp. |*wan[ɜ] |wane | | |wano | | | |***[ɜ]** |**o** |**?** |**?** |**e** |**?**| |palm sp./bow|*pəɺ[ɜ] |pɺo | | |ple | | Low-mid back rounded vowel /*ɔ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***ɔ** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |pus |*mɔk | | |mok |mok | | |red |*mbɔm | | |bom |bom | | |2 sg./pl. |*kmɔt | | |kumot ~ kmot|mot |hot | |star/firefly|*utɔp |utop |utɔp ~ tɔp|tup- (?) |top |top | |3 sg./pl. |*nəmɔt | | |nemot |nemot |nemot| |short/blunt |*təmbɔt |tebwa | |tumbot |tebot |tebot| |egg(s)/roe |*nakɔm |nakom | |naŋgom |nakom | | |fibrous |*sasɔp |asop | | |sasop | | When preceded by initial bilabial non-stop /*w/, /*ɔ/ is merged with low central /a/ in Namblong: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***ɔ/w_** |**a** |**ɔ** |**o** |**o** |**o**| |sun |*wɔj |wai |wɔj |oi |woj |woi | |theft |*wɔm | | |wom ~ om|wom |wom | |shrimp/prawn|*wɔp |wap |uɔp |wop ~ op|wop |wop | |nail |*wɔn | | |-on |won | | |grass sp. |*wɔjɔ | | |ojo |wojo | | |spoon/ladle |*tawɔj |tawai | | |taguoi |tawoi| This does not occur if /*ɔ/ is final or becomes final in Namblong due to the loss of final /*k/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***ɔ/w_#** |**o** |**?** |**o** |**o** |**o**| |deaf/mute |*mawɔ | | |mao |mawo | | |bead sp. |*tawɔ |tawo | |tao |teguo | | |song sp. |*sawɔ |hawo ~ awo| |sao |seguo | | | |***ɔ/w_k#**|**o** |**?** |**o** |**o** |**o**| |cut up |*wɔk |wou | |wok ~ ok|wok | | |scrape/grate|*wɔk |wou | | |wok |wok | When preceded by initial bilabial non-stop /*w/, /*ɔ/ is merged with low central /a/ in Namblong: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***ɔ/w_** |**a** |**ɔ** |**o** |**o** |**o**| |sun |*wɔj |wai |wɔj |oi |woj |woi | |theft |*wɔm | | |wom ~ om|wom |wom | |shrimp/prawn|*wɔp |wap |uɔp |wop ~ op|wop |wop | |nail |*wɔn | | |-on |won | | |grass sp. |*wɔjɔ | | |ojo |wojo | | |spoon/ladle |*tawɔj |tawai | | |taguoi |tawoi| Final /*ɔ/ is merged with low central /*a/ in all descendants save Namblong: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***ɔ/_#** |**o** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** | |yam/sw. potato |*isɔ |isjo |isa |sja |isa |isa | |mother |*iŋgɔ |indjo | |ndʒa | | | |leaf |*pəɺɔ |pɺo |pra | | | | |banana flower |*ndəndɔ |dedo | | |deda | | |sago |*səmɔ |mo |səma | | | | |not/no |*kəpɔ |kwo |kwa- |kfa |kua |kw | |net bag |*kəmbɔ |kebo |kəba |kemba |keba |keba | |thatch |*jambəɺɔ |jambɺo |jambra |jambla |jabla |ibla | |spread out/wide|*mbatɔ |bato | | |bata |beta ~ bta| |hut |*mbaɺɔ |baɺo | |bala |bala ~ bla| | |line/row |*taɺɔ |taɺo | | |tala | | |stone axe |*wandɔ |undo |wanda |wanda |wada |uda [JA] | |frog sp. |*wasɔ |uso | |wasa |wasa | | |house |*jamɔ |jemo |jama | | | | |snake |*aɺəmɔ |ɺemo ~ɺmo|rəma |arma ~ alma|lema |lema | |earthen bowl |*sapəɺɔ |hapɺɔ | |sapla |saula | | |people/tribe |*sapəɺɔ |hapɺɔ | |sapla |saula | | One example follows this pattern but has an unexplained final /i/ in the eastern languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***ɔ/_#** |**o** |**** |**ai** |**ai** |**ai**| |happy|*jakɔ[i] |jako | |jakai |jakaj |ikai | Seeming exceptions to this rule follow non-stops /*w *j/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***ɔ/w_#** |**o** |**?** |**o** |**o** |**?** | |deaf/mute|*mawɔ | | |mao |mawo | | |bead sp. |*tawɔ |tawo | |tao |teguo | | |song sp. |*sawɔ |hawo ~ awo| |sao |seguo | | | |***ɔ/j_#** |**?** |**?** |**o** |**o** |**?** | |grass sp.|*wɔjɔ | | |ojo |wojo | | |wallaby |*asəjɔ |hajo | |asjo | |sia [JA]| …:\\ \\ Seeming exceptions to this rule follow non-stops /*w *j/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***[a/ɔ]** |**o** |**o** |**a** |**o** |**o**| |sharp |*kaɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ |kaɺoŋ |karɔŋ |kaɺaŋ |kaloŋ |kaloŋ| |palm sp. |*saŋgəɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ| | |saŋglaŋ|sagloŋ | | | |***[a/ɔ]** |**o** |**** |**a** |**a** |**** | |beads sp.|*jap[a/ɔ]ŋ |jawoŋ | |jafaŋ |jawaŋ | | | |***[a/ɔ]** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**o** |**o**| |long |*waɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ |uɺaŋ |waraŋ |walaŋ |ˈwaloŋ |waloŋ| Medial and final low central vowel /*a/ is generally retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** | |give |*ma |ma | |ma |ma | | |above |*mba |ba | | |ba |ba | |stay |*ta |ta | | |ta | | |arm/hand |*ta | | |ta |ta |ta | |1 sg. |*ŋgna(-m) |ŋam |ŋam |ka |genam |kenam ~ knam\\ ~ genam| |cassowary |*mam |mam |mam | | | | |earth/ground |*map |map |map ~ mab | | | | |palm sp. |*pam |pam | | |pam | | |dry |*paŋ |paŋ |paŋ |paŋ |paŋ |paŋ | |hatch |*paŋ |paŋ | |paŋ |paŋ | | |old/dry |*mba[m/ŋ] |baŋ | | |bam | | |come up |*mban |baN | | |ban | | |light (v.) |*mbaŋ |baŋ | | |baŋ | | |cut/break |*mbaŋ |baŋ | | |baŋ | | |hit/beat |*mbaŋ |baŋ | | |baŋ | | |who? |*nan |nam ~nan ~naŋ |naŋga | | | | |path |*tap |tap |tap |tap |tap |tap | |origin/clan |*taŋ |taŋ | |taŋ |taŋ | | |centipede |*tak | | |tak |tak |taq [JA] | |eat |*ndam |dam |dam |dam |dam |dam | |bird's nest (?)|*ndaŋ |daŋ | |daŋ |daŋ | | |prop(s)/frame |*ndaŋ |daŋ | | |daŋ | | |carving |*sam |sam | |sam |sam |sam | |tail/last |*sat |sa |sat |sat [JA] |sat |sat | |border |*saŋ |saŋ | | |saŋ | | |almost |*kam |kam | | |kam | | |close/block |*ŋgaŋ |ŋgaŋ | | |gaŋ | | |build |*ŋgaŋ | | |kaŋ |gaŋ | | |soul/shadow |*ɺap |ɺap | |nap |lap | | |measure |*jam |jam | |jam |jam |jam | |house |*jap | | |jap |jap |jap | |agree |*jaŋ |jaŋ | | |jaŋ | | |earth/ground |*knan | | |kenan |nan | | |new plant |*tamaŋ |tamaŋ | |tamaŋ |tamaŋ | | |wing |*tambaŋ | |tabaŋ |tambaŋ |tabaŋ | | |stalk (n.) |*tajaŋ |tajaŋ | |tajaŋ |tajaŋ | | |scream |*kajaŋ |kajaŋ | | |kajaŋ | | |statue |*waɺam | | |walam |walam | | |flood |*ɺataŋ |ɺataŋ | | |lataŋ | | |betrothed |*mbajnaŋ |banjaŋ | | |bajnaŋ | | |pandanus sp. |*waɺ[a/ɔ] | | |wala |wala | | |canoe |*mbaji | |baj | |baji |bai | |spirit sp. |*naɺi |naɺi | |nali |nali | | |fish |*ndasi | | |dasi |dasi |dasi | |equal |*ndaɺi | | |dali |dali |dali | |uterus/womb |*sani[ŋ] |haniŋ | |sani |sani | | |men's house |*saɺi | | |sali |sali- | | |down/below |*kati |kati | | |kati | | |branch |*kaɺi |kaɺi |kari |kali [JA] |kali |kari [JA] | |sleep (n.) |*wasi |wasi | |wasi | | | |flower sp. |*waŋgi | | |waŋgi |wagi | | |digging stick |*waɺi |waɺi | |wali |wali | | |life/peace |*waɺi |waɺi | |wali |wali |wali | |weak/paralyzed |*jambi | | |jambi |jambi | | |paradise sp. |*knaɺi |ŋaɺi | |knali |nali |hali | |still/yet |*maniŋ |maniŋ | | |maniŋ |maniŋ | |fruit sp. |*mbawin |baʉŋ | | |bawin | | |yam/sw. potato |*naniŋ |naniŋ | |naniŋ |naniŋ | | |hear |*tas[i/ɛ][n/ŋ] |tasiŋ |taseŋ | | | | |point/show |*taɺiŋ | | |taliŋ |taliŋ |taliŋ | |cooked |*ndasiŋ |dasiŋ | | |dasiŋ | | |hard |*ndawin |dauŋ | | |dawin |dawin [JA] | |cold |*ndaɺip |deɺip ~ daɺip |dɛrip |darip\\ ~ dalip [JA] |dalip |dalip | |leaf umbrella |*watim | | |watim |watim | | |beetle sp. |*wasiŋ | | |wasiŋ |wasiŋ | | |kidney |*wawit |waʉ | | |wawit | | |bird sp. |*paɺu | | |palu |palu | | |grandparent |*mbambu |babu | | |babu |babu | |moon |*mbanu |banu |banu |banu |banu |banu | |beloved |*mbaɺu |baɺu | | |balu | | |day after tom. |*naPu | | |napu |napu | | |marsupial sp. |*nanu |nanu | | |nanu | | |marrow |*naku |naku | | |naku | | |near |*ndaŋgu |daŋgu | | |dagu |dagu | |pig bone blade |*saɺu | | |salu |salu | | |pandanus sp. |*ŋgambu | | |kambu |gabu | | |spirit sp. |*wambu |wambu | |wambu |wabu | | |lizard |*waɺu |waɺu |waru | |walu |waru- [JA] | |tip/end |*jambu |jambu | |jambu | | | |butcherbird |*jasu |jasu | | |jasu | | |turmeric/yellow|*ja[ŋ]u |jaŋgu |jaŋgu |jaŋgu [JA] |ˈjaŋu |jaŋu ~ jaŋo [JA] | |ironwood sp. |*mbap[u]t | | |bafut |bat | | |fish sp. |*sambu[ŋ] |hambuŋ\\ ~ ambuŋ| | |sabu | | |crab claw(s) |*sambu[m/ŋ] |abum | | |sabuŋ | | |tusk |*sambuŋ |hambuŋ\\ ~ ambuŋ| | |sabuŋ | | |bee |*saŋgup |aŋgup | | | |səgup [JA] | |woman |*kambuŋ | | |kambuŋ |ˈkabuŋ |kabuŋ | |fireplace |*katuk | | |katuk |katuk | | |sky |*kawut |kawuo |kawt |keut\\ ~ keud [JA] (?) | | | |lenggua |*kaɺuk | | |kaluk |kaluk | | |greens sp. |*wasut | | |wasut |wasut | | |frog sp. |*jawut |jawo | | |jaut | | |bracelet sp. |*sam[ɔ/u]n |amuŋ | | |samon | | |vegetable(s) |*mbaɺʉ |baɺʉ | | |balʉ | | |sick/ill |*sandʉ | | |sandu |sadʉ |sadu | |fight/quarrel |*saŋgʉ | | |saŋgu |sagʉ | | |mud/swamp |*kaɺʉ |kaɺʉ | | |kalʉ | | |send message |*wambʉ |wabʉ | | |wabʉ | | |fat (a.) |*wakʉ | | |waku |wakʉ | | |pigeon sp. |*jaŋgʉ |jaŋgʉ | |jaŋgu |jagʉ | | |year/season |*jaŋgʉ | | |jaŋgu |jagʉ |jaŋgju | |fly (n.) |*[m/n]ambʉn | | |mambun |nambʉn | | |sound/echo |*namʉŋ |namʉŋ | | |namʉŋ | | |areca nut |*ndawut | | |dawut ~ daut |dagʉt |dakuit ~ dakut\\ ~dakt| |disappear |*sakʉp |hakʉp ~ akʉp | | |sagʉp | | |girl |*kaŋgʉt | | |kaŋgut |kagʉt | | |spirit sp. |*jamʉk |jamʉʉ | | |jamʉk | | |collect/gather |*jaɺʉm |jaɺʉm | | |jalʉm |jalum | |fly (n.) |*saŋguɔ |aŋguo |səŋgɔ ~ səŋgo | | | | |shoulder |*jaɺ[u/ʉ] |jaɺʉ | |jalu |jalu |jalu | |goura pigeon |*kamb[ɔ/ʉ]t |kebʉe |kəbut |kambot |kabot |kabɔt [JA] | |two |*namuan |namwan | |naman |ˈnamon |namon | |three |*naŋgəɺik |naŋgɺii |naŋgrik |naŋklik |naŋglik |naŋglik | |sorcery |*tasəmu | | |tasumu |tasemu | | |tongue |*mambəɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p |mambɺop |mambrɔp\\ ~ mambrɔb| | | | |earthen bowl |*sapəɺɔ |hapɺɔ | |sapla |saula | | |people/tribe |*sapəɺɔ |hapɺɔ | |sapla |saula | | |thatch |*jambəɺɔ |jambɺo |jambra |jambla |jabla |ibla | |palm sp. |*saŋgəɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ | | |saŋglaŋ |sagloŋ | | |paralysis |*japəɺa |japɺa | |japla | | | |tooth |*wasəɺa[ŋ] | | |wasəra [JA] |waslaŋ | | |one |*kapəɺaj[a] | | |kapraj- ~ kafrai\\ kabraj [JA]|kˈlaja ~ klaj-|kelai | |back |*tatɛ |tate doŋ | | |tat-on | | |insane |*janɛ |jane | | |jane | | |crooked/crip. |*taɺɛŋ | | |taleŋ |taleŋ | | |divide |*was[ɛi][ŋ] | | |waseŋ |wasej | | |torch |*sak[ɛ/ɔ]j |ake | | |sagoj | | |who? |*nandV |nande | |nande |nando |nando | |evil spirit sp.|*masɜ | | |mase |maso |maso | |weak/gentle |*maɺɜ |maɺo | |male |malo | | |sugar glider |*mbas[ɜ] |base | | |baso | | |song sp. |*wan[ɜ] |wane | | |wano | | |grass seed(\s) |*wasɜ | | |wase |waso | | |deny |*mbakɜt |bakwa | |baket | | | |back/behind |*nasɜŋ | | |naseŋ |nasoŋ |nasoŋ | |butterfly |*kambɜt | |kabɔt |kambet |kabot |kabɔt [JA] | |weak/soft |*wakɜt | | |waket |wakot |wakot | |sand |*kasaŋgɜt | |kasəŋgɔt |kasaŋget | | | |news/message |*ndaw[ɜ/ɔ] |dawo | | |deguo | | |foam |*maŋg[ɜ/ɔ]n |maŋgoŋ | | |maŋgon | | |alone/apart |*mban[ɜ/ɔ]m |banom | | |ˈbanom | | |gather |*taŋg[ɜ/ɔ][m/ŋ]|taŋgoŋ | | |tagom | | |smoked/dried |*ndak[ɜ/ɔ]n |dakoŋ | | |dagon | | |request/desire |*saŋg[ɜ/ɔ]n |haŋgoŋ\\ ~ aŋgoŋ| | |sagon | | |forbidden |*kaŋg[ɜ/ɔ]t |kaŋgwa | | |kagot | | |feast sp. |*waɺ[ɜ/ɔ]p |waɺop | | |ˈwalop | | |nail |*waɺ[ɜ/ɔ][n/ŋ] |waɺoŋ |warɔŋ | | | | |deaf/mute |*mawɔ | | |mao |mawo | | |hut |*mbaɺɔ |baɺo | |bala |bala | | |line/row |*taɺɔ |taɺo | | |tala | | |house |*jamɔ |jemo |jama | | | | |happy |*jakɔ[j] |jako | |jakai |jakaj |ikai | |egg(s)/roe |*nakɔm |nakom | |naŋgom |nakom | | |spoon/ladle |*tawɔj |tawai | | |taguoi |tawoi | |fibrous |*sasɔp |asop | | |sasop | | |sharp |*kaɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ |kaɺoŋ |karɔŋ |kaɺaŋ |kaloŋ |kaloŋ | |beads sp. |*jap[a/ɔ]ŋ |jawoŋ | |jafaŋ |jawaŋ | | |cockatoo |*imbam |ibam |ibam |biam |ibam |ibam [JA] | |big man |*iɺam |iɺam | |iram |iram | | |root |*siŋgaŋ |ndaŋ |sraŋ |siŋgaŋ |sraŋ |sɛdaŋ\\ ~ -sᵊraŋ [JA] | |new/young |*imaniŋ |imaniŋ | | |imeniŋ |iminiŋ ~ emeniŋ | |parrot sp. |*ujaŋ |ujaŋ |iwaŋ |jaŋ |iwaŋ ~ juaŋ |wjaŋ [JA] | |sting |*kujat |kja | | |kʉat | | |call |*təɺa[ŋ] |tɺaŋ | | |tra | | |louse |*səna[ŋ] |hnaŋ ~ naŋ |səna |sna ~ səna [JA] |sena |sena | |catch |*məɺak | | |mlak |mlak |mlak | |unwilling |*mbəsam |besam | | |besam | | |hunt |*mbəɺaŋ |bɺaŋ | | |blaŋ |blaŋ | |lizard sp. |*təmbap |tebap | | |tebap | | |fill/be full |*təɺam | | |tram |tram | | |firstborn/heir |*təɺaŋ |traŋ | | |traŋ |traŋ | |spirit sp. |*ndəmat |dema | | |demat | | |bride price |*ndəɺaŋ | | |draŋ |draŋ | | |old/always |*sənaŋ |naŋ | |snaŋ [JA] |senaŋ | | |wild pig |*kəɺat | | |klat |klat | | |tree sp. |*kəɺaŋ |kɺaŋ | | |klaŋ | | |digit |*ŋgəɺaŋ | |-graŋ | |glaŋ |graŋ | |magic spell |*pəɺasi |pɺasi | |plasi | | | |left |*təkaɺi[k] |tekaɺi | | |ta kali |ta-(t)kalik | |hornbill |*ndəpaɺi | |dwari |defali ~ devali | |dwari [JA] | |work |*kəmbaɺi |kebaɺi | |kembali |keˈbali |kebali | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***a-/…** |**ø** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a ø**| |thorn |*wapuŋ | | |wafuŋ |woŋ |woŋ | |mushroom|*kəɺaput | | |klaput |kˈlaut | | |white |*kəɺaput | | |klaput\\ ~ kraɸut [JA]|kˈlaut | | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***a-/w_Cɔ**|**ø** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a ø** | |stone axe|*wandɔ |undo |wanda |wanda |wada |uda [JA]| |frog sp. |*wasɔ |uso | |wasa |wasa | | |long |*waɺ[a/ɔ]ŋ |uɺaŋ |waraŋ |walaŋ |ˈwaloŋ |waloŋ | … /*a/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***a** |**** |**** |**a** |**a** |**a**| |foot/leg |*masi |mesi |mɛsi |masi |masi |masi | |heart |*ndambʉ |debʉ |dɛbu |dambu |ˈdabʉ |dabi | |cooking pot|*kamb[i/ʉ] |kebii | | |kebʉ | | |hot |*ɺak[ɛi/ai]|ɺeke | | |lakaj | | … /*a/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**ə** |**ə** | |sea |*mbajap | | |baib |beˈap |bep ~ beb | |matoa |*samuɔ |amuo | |samo |semu | | |center post |*naŋguɔn |naŋguoŋ | | |neŋguon| | |news/message |*ndaw[ɜ/ɔ] |dawo | | |deguo | | |bead sp. |*tawɔ |tawo | |tao |teguo | | |song sp. |*sawɔ |hawo ~ awo| |sao |seguo | | |vine/rope |*taŋgan |taŋgaŋ |taŋgaŋ |taŋgan |tegan |tgan | | |***a** |**?** |**?** |**a** |**ə** |**a** | |eye |*namuɔ | | |namo |nemu |nam | | |***a** |**a** |**?** |**?** |**a** |**ə** | |spread out/wide|*mbatɔ |bato | | |bata |beta ~ bta| … diphthongs… /*uɛ *uɔ *ua/ …\\ \\ … /*uɛ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba | | |***uɛ** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |fish |*uɛ |ʉe |-uɛ | | | | |swim |*suɛ |sʉe | | |sue | | |joint |*mbuɛm | |-bem |-bum |buem |-bem [JA]| |eclectus |*kuɛŋ |kʉeŋ | | |kuem | | |magic |*mbəɺuɛ |bɺʉ | |blu |blue | | |cough |*təkuɛk |tekuei | |tukok |tegue | | |peel (v.) |*ŋgəɺuɛt |ŋgɺʉa | | |gluet | | |shake/swing|*səkəɺuɛk |skɺʉʉ | |siklek |segluep | | |armpit |*kəɺəmuɛ[ŋ] |kɺemʉŋ |krɛmi | |kleme | | |cover |*kəɺəmbuɛt |kɺbʉa | | |klebet | | |grass sp. |*kuaɺap\\ -takuɛm|kwaɺ-\\ -takwem| | |kwalap\\ -takuem| | … /*uɛ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***uɛ** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |clay|*kuɛnsi |kinsi | | |kuensi | | … /*uɛ/ … /*uɔ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***[uɛ/uɔ]** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |hit/strike|*təŋg[uɛ/uɔ]ŋ|teŋguoŋ | |tuŋgoŋ |tegueŋ | | … /*uɛ/ … /*ua/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***[uɛ/ua]** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |stomach|*təŋg[uɛ/ua]n|teŋgueŋ |tɛŋgwɛŋ| |teˈguan|tgwen| …/*uɔ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux |Banundi |Wilden |Purba| | |***uɔ** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |pick |*mbuɔ |buu | | |buo | | |child |*nduɔ |du | |do |duo |du | |bird sp. |*muɔŋ | | |moŋ |muoŋ | | |pick |*[ŋ]uɔk |ŋguou | | |ŋuok | | |grub sp, |*kuɔn |kuoŋ | |kon |kuon | | |kiss |*kuɔŋ |kuoŋ | | |kuoŋ | | |chewed quid |*kuɔk |kuou | | |kuok | | |wilt/wither |*kuɔk |kuou | | |kuok | | |dog |*unduɔ |unduo |undo |ando |uduo |udu | |river/valley|*mbətuɔ | |bətɔ |boto [JA] |betuo |betu | |pit/hole |*kəmuɔ |kemuo | |kumo |kemuo | | |wound/boil |*kəɺuɔ |kɺuo | |klo |kluo | | |up/above |*mbəɺuɔ[ŋ] |bɺoŋ | |blo |blo |blu | |break/smash |*təkuɔk |tekuo | | |teguok | | |wooden fork |*səɺuɔm |ɺum ~ hɺum| |srom ~ slom|sruˈom | | |penis |*kənuɔn |kenuoŋ |kənɔŋ |kunun | | | |dry/famine |*kəɺuɔŋ |kɺouŋ | | |kluoŋ | | |pig |*inəmbuɔ |ibuo |ibɔ |mbo |neˈmbo |nembu| |fly (n.) |*saŋguɔ |aŋguo |səŋgɔ ~ səŋgo| | | | |center post |*naŋguɔn |naŋguoŋ | | |neŋguon| | When final /*uɔ/ follows bilabial nasal /*m/, it is reduced to /u/ in Kemtuik and lost in Gresi:: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| | |***uɔ/m_#**|**uo** |**u** |**o** |**u** |**ø**| |stone|*ndəmuɔ |demuo |dəmu |demo |deˈmu |dum | |eye |*namuɔ | | |namo |nemu |nam | |matoa|*samuɔ |amuo | |samo |semu | | … /*ua/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River |Namblong |Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi |Wilden |Purba | | |***ua** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |leaf sp. |*sua |swa | | |suˈa | | |frog sp. |*kuat kuat | | |kot-kot |kuˈat-kuˈat | | |wound/sore |*kua[i] |kwai | |ko |kuo |ku | |afraid |*suaɺi |swaɺi | | |suali |suali | |spirit/soul|*kuasɛp |kesep | | |kuasep | | |grass sp. |*kuaɺap\\ -takuɛm|kwaɺ-\\ -takwem| | |kwalap\\ -takuem| | |cassowary |*isuaɺi | | |suali ~ suari [JA]|isuˈali |iswari [JA] | |grasshopper|*mənduap |mendwap |mɛndɔp |mundop |meˈndop\\ ~ ndop|ndɔp [JA] | |cockroach |*səŋguan |skwaŋ [JA] |səgwɔn | |seguon |səgwan- [JA]| |friend |*andua |andwa | |andua |andua |andua | |two |*namuan |namwan | |naman |ˈnamon |namon | ===== Pronouns ===== Grime River free pronouns are as follows, with Nimboran (Namblong) forms drawn from May (1997: 142-152,) Kwansu (Mlap) from Anceaux (Smits and Voorhoeve 1994: 223-231,) Moi from Banundi (2003: 4-8,) Kemtuik fron van der Wilden (2008) and Gresi from Purba, Paidi and Karoba (2002: 27-35): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Nimboran|Kwansu |East Grime|Moi |Kemtuik |Gresi | | | |May |Anceaux | |Banundi |Wilden |Purba | |1 sg. |*ŋgnɔ(-m) |ŋo/ŋa-m |ŋa-m |*ŋgna(-m) |ka(-t) |gena-m; a-t |kena-m; a-t| |2 sg. |*kɔ |ko/ko-m |ko-m |*k-mɔ-t |kmo-t |mo-t |ho-t | |3 sg. |*nɔ |no/no-m |no-m |*n-mɔ-t |no-mo-t |ne-mo-t |ne-mo-t | |1 pl. excl.|? |ŋo/ŋa-m |? |*a (?) |kame(-t)|a-t-naŋ |a-t-naŋ | |1 pl. incl.|*jɔ |jo/jo-m |io |*i-mɔ |--- |i-mo-t(-naŋ)|i-mo-t-naŋ | |2 pl.. |*kɔ |ko/ko-m |ko-m-naŋ|*k-mɔ |ko-mo |mo-t-naŋ |ho-t-naŋ | |3 pl. |*nɔ |no/no-m |no-m-naŋ|*n-mɔ |no-mo |ne-mo-t-naŋ |ne-mo-t-naŋ| It may be seen that East Grime River has a suffix /*-t/ on singular forms and a suffix /*-mɔ/ on every form except for that of the third person singular, with the vowels of the bases elided when followed by /*-mɔ/. A suffix /*-naŋ/ derives plurals in both Kwansu and in Kemtuik-Gresi, though in the case of Kemtuik-Gresi the bases are themselves suffixed with singular /*-t/, while Gresi also has a first person plural /gram-naŋ/, suggesting /*-naŋ/ to be an enclitic. Besides this suffix, it's not clear that Proto-Grime River distinguished singulars from plurals except in the first person inclusive. While all of the languages distinguish exclusive from inclusive first person plurals, it's not clear if this distinction dates to proto-Grime River. Moi's idiosyncratic first person plural may well be a loan from Indonesian /kami/. Kentuik-Gresi has an idiosyncratic first person singular /*a-t/, used in Kemtuik also as the base of the first person plural exclusive (Paidi and Karoba's glosses are inconsistent,) which is conceivably the original form of either the first person singular or the first person plural exclusive. ===== Verbal morphology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ …\\ ===== Loans to and from neighboring languages ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ The most obvious sources and probable recpients of cross-family loans are Demta and Lake Sentani. Unlike terms borrowed from Indonesian (below,) all off these are native concepts. It is possible that, like "water", found throughout the Northwest New Guinea family, that some of the comparisons are legitimate mutual retentions. …Sentani forms drawn from Mehuwe, Hartzler and Hartlzer (1993) and …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Demta |Tabla |Nafri |Sentani | |w. cockatoo |*imbam |epam [JA] |juɸa [JA] |jəba [JA] |dʒeba [JA] | |new |*inim | |neme [JA] |nime ~ nimə [JA]|nemə [MH] | |cassowary |*isuaɺi |war |suale [JA] |sjuri [JA] | | |oil |*məɺaj | |mərai [MH] | |məlai [MH] | |broken/bad |*pəku | | | |bəˈko [MH] | |bow/arrow |*pəɺ[ɜ] | |pəra [MH] | |fəla [MH] | |hole |*put | |buru [MH] |baru [JA] |bulu [MH] | |hut |*mbaɺɔ | |parə [MH] | |falə [MH] | |water |*mbu | |bu [JA] |bu [JA] |bu [MH] | |cold |*nim |ninim [JA] |niŋ [JA] |ninime [JA] |nime [MH] | |forest |*ndəpəjɛn |dupe ~ duɸɛ [JA] | | | | |hornbill |*ndəpaɺi |japar [JA] |reɸari [JA] |təbari [JA] |rəbali [MH]| |seed/egg |*ndɜn | |doŋ ~ doŋ [JA] |tɔ [JA] |ro [MH] | |old |*sənaŋ |senan [JA] |soɲaŋ [JA] | | | |thigh |*kəmbum |kombom [JA] |kemboŋ [JA] | | | |liver/spleen |*kən[ɜ] | | | |kəna [MH] | |excrement |*kʉ |ku ['JA] | | | | |vagina/vulva |*km[a/ɔ] | |kema ~ kma [JA]| |kəma [MH] | |digit |*ŋgəɺaŋ | | | |kala [MH] | |life |*waɺi | |wari [MH] |wari [JA] |wali [MH] | |house |*jamɔ |mɔ [JA] |mje [MH]] |/td> |imae [MH] | |turmericyellow|*ja[ŋ]u |jaŋan ~ jaŋgan [JA]|jaŋko [MH] |jano [JA] |jaŋgo [MH] | … Sarmi Coast forms drawn from Lee and Sawi (2005: 30-43): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|Mo |Sunum |Sobei|Korur |Fedan | |cassowary|*isuaɺi |ahwırı |xusuri|sʷodi| | | |wallaby |*məmbɛŋ |ʾmaːpen| | |mamben|mamben| … Proto-Malayo-Polynesian forms drawn from Blust and Trussel (2016): |< - 100px 100px 100px >| | |Grime River|PMP | |banana |*undʉ |*punti| |breadfruit|*uɺu |*kuluʁ| … regional … Both words for "tobacco" are ultimately related to Indonesian /təmbakau/ but were immediately borrowed form neighboring languages:\\ \\ …\\ \\ All Grime River languages have borrowed from Indonesian. Most of the borrowed terms refer to concepts not native to the region, and some derive in turn from Sanskrit ("cotton", "city", "horse",) Persian ("grape", "plate", "shirt", "sheep",) Portuguese ("table", "Holland", "ball", "citrus sp.",) Dutch ("coffee", "glass") and even the Arawakan language Taino ("cassava") and the Tupi language Guarani ("pineapple") via Portuguese: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Indonesian|Namblong|Kwansu |Moi |Kemtuik|Gresi| | | |Swan |Anceaux|Banundi|Wilden |Purba| |grape/wine |aŋgur |aŋgur | | |aŋgul | | |chicken |ajam |ajam |ajaŋ | |ajam |ajam | |fat/grease |miɲak |minja | | | | | |table |medʒa |medʒa | | |media | | |plate |piriŋ | | |plim |plim |piriŋ| |shirt |badʒu |badʒu | | | | | |ball |bola | | |bale |bale | | |Holland |bəlanda |bɺando | |balandi| | | |cooking pot|bəlaŋa | | |blaŋ- |blaŋ | | |rice |bəras |bɺa | |blasi |blasi |blat | |pineapple |nənas | | | |nasi | | |sheep |domba |domba | | |domba | | |cow |sapi | | | |sapi | | |needle |dʒarum | | | |jalum | | |cotton |kapas | | | |kapasi | | |kapok tree |kapok |kapou | | | | | |cassava |kasbi |kasebi | | |kasbi | | |rafter(s) |kasau |kasou | | |kasu | | |clothes |kain |kajien | | | | | |coffee |kopi |kopi | | |kopi | | |city |kota |kota | | | |kota | |horse |kuda |kuda | | |kuda | | |glass |gəlas | | |klase |glasi | | |citrus sp. |limau | | | |lemo | | |citrus sp. |limun |limon | | | | | |yes |ja |ja | | |ja | |