====== Lake Kutubu ======

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

===== Situation =====
The Lake Kutubu family consists of two to five languages spoken in the vicinity of Lake Kutubu and along the Hegigio Mubi and Waga tributaries of the Kikori River in Papua New Guinea's Southern Highlands province. The region is much less populous than the highlands to the north and northeast.

===== Subclassification =====
The internal classification of Lake Kutubu is as follows (Franklin and Voorhoeve 1973: 153-154):\\
\\

Lake Kutubu

East Lake Kutubu

Fiwaga

Foe

West Lake Kutubu

Fasu (Faso, Namo Me)

Some

Namu Mi (Namumi)\\
\\

Franklin and Voorhoeve (1973: 154) give lexicostatistical figures for Kutubuan languages as follows:

|< - 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px >|
|      |  Fiwaga  |  Foe  |  Fasu  |  Some  |  Namumi  |
|Fiwaga|   ---    |  64   |   10   |   15   |    15    |
|Foe   |    64    |  ---  |   18   |   18   |    16    |
|Fasu  |    10    |  18   |  ---   |   59   |    58    |
|Some  |    15    |  18   |   59   |  ---   |    68    |
|Namumi|    15    |  16   |   58   |   68   |   ---    |

No Fiwaga or Some materials are available to us at this time.

===== Sources =====
Williams (1940) Lake Kutubu (Foe)

May and Loeweke (1965) phonology of Fasu

Loeweke and May (1966, 1980) grammar of Fasu

May and Loeweke (1981) dictionary of Fasu (Námo Mē)

May (1992) sketch phonology of Fasu

Rule (1965) Foe (unobtained)

Rule (1977) comparative description of Foe, Huli and Erave (Pole) including including 355 comparative terms (pp. 12-26) and 101 Swadesh terms (pp. 121-124)

Rule (1993) Foe (unobtained)

MacDonald (1973: 131-132) phonological inventory of Foe

Franklin and Voorhoeve (1973: 169-173) 136 comparative terms for Fasu and Foe

Franklin ed. (1973: 557-559) 100 comparative terms for Fasu, Foe and Namumi

Franklin (2001) comparative notes on Kutubuan and Engan

Shaw (1986: 71) 100 comparative terms for Namumi

===== History of classification =====
**[under construction]**\\
\\

Franklin (1968) …

Franklin and Voorhoeve (1973) …

Ross (1995: 151) proposes Enga-Kutubu on the basis of the forms of the personal pronouns (p. 161.)

Franklin (2001) …

===== Historical phonology =====
**[under construction]**\\
\\

Proto-Lake Kutubu had 13 consonants and probably 7 vowels as follows:

|< - 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px >|
|  *m  |  *n  |       |      |      |
|      |  *t  |       |  *k  |      |
|  *b  |  *d  |       |  *g  |      |
|  *f  |  *s  |  *hʲ  |      |  *h  |
|  *w  |      |  *j   |      |      |


|< - 60px 60px 60px >|
|  *i   |      |  *u   |
|  *e̝  |      |  *o̝  |
|  *ɛ   |      |  *ɔ   |
|       |  *a  |       |

Vowels are further distinguished by the presence vs. absence of nasalization:

|< - 60px 60px >|
|  *i   |  *ĩ   |
|  *u   |  *ũ   |
|  *e̝  |  *ẽ̝  |
|  *o̝  |  *õ̝  |
|  *ɛ   |  *ɛ̃  |
|  *ɔ   |  *ɔ̃  |
|  *a   |  *ã   |

Neither final consonants not consonant clusters occur.\\
\\

May and Loeweke treat Fasu tone as lexically contrastive, but several examples suggest it to be at least sometimes dependent upon context; e.g. /haká-sa/ “one” vs. /háka-sa/ “(that) one only” vs. /hakà-sa/ “one (group)” (1981: 7.)\\
\\

Consonants correspond as follows:\\
\\

…\\
\\

Vowels correspond as follows:\\
\\

…\\
\\

These correspondences are examplified as follows, with Foe attestations drawn from Rule (1977: 12-26, 121-124, passim) and Franklin and Voorhoeve (1973: 169-173, Franklin ed. 1973: 557-558, Franklin 2001) Fasu (Faso, Namo Me) from May and Loeweke (1965, 1981,) Loeweke and May (1966, 1980) and Franklin and Voorhoeve (1973: 169-173, 176-181, Franklin ed. 1973: 557, Franklin 2001) and Namumi from Franklin ed. (1973: 559) and Shaw (1986: 71,) who draws from the same source as Franklin while including several terms not found in (1973.)

Loans from Southern Highlands are included here under the assumption that they were already established prior to the break up of Proto-Lake Kutubu.\\
\\

\\

Bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|            |Lake Kutubu|Foe       |Foe         |Námo Mē          |Fasu    |Namumi      |
|            |           |Rule      |Franklin    |May/Loeweke      |Franklin|Franklin    |
|            |***m-**    |**m**     |**m**       |**m**            |**m**   |**m**       |
|another     |*me        |me        |            |metà [?ESH]      |meta    |            |
|pinkie/one  |*men[a/o]  |menage    |mɛnãxɛ      |mèno             |meno    |            |
|tooth       |*mete      |          |mere        |méɾe             |mere    |            |
|what/where? |*ma        |ma        |-ma-        |má               |        |            |
|take/get    |*ma-       |ma-       |ma-         |ma-/mo- (sg./pl.)|mo-     |            |
|flesh/meat  |*mãĩ[jã]   |mãi       |mẽi         |mãĩ̀jã           |maija   |maia ~ maiju|
|father's br.|*mae       |mae       |mae         |maé              |mae     |            |
|fence       |*mafe      |mafe      |            |mafé-            |mafe    |            |
|small       |*mano      |mano      |mãno        |máno             |mano    |            |
|sick/ill    |*maka      |maʔamegaɾa|            |makatà           |        |            |
|smoke       |*musu      |musu      |mus̪u       |musù             |musu    |musu        |
|            |***-m-**   |**m**     |**m**       |**m**            |**m**   |**m**       |
|heavy       |*umi       |umi       |umi         |umì              |umi-    |            |
|1 sg. poss. |*no-mo     |nomo      |nomo        |nòmo             |nomo    |            |
|palm/sole/6 |*dama      |dama      |tama [t̪amʌ]|namá             |        |            |
|afternoon   |*sama      |samage    |samage      |samapú           |samapu  |            |
|rib(s)      |*kamabe    |kamabe    |            |kamapé           |        |            |
|no reason   |*kama[ka]  |kama      |            |kamáka           |        |            |
|ashes       |*kadVma    |kanuma    |kanuma      |katéma           |katema  |            |
|yellow      |*geame     |game      |kame [kãme] |keamé-sa         |kiame-sa|            |
|heart       |*gamuku    |gamũʔu    |gãmũʔu      |                 |        |            |
|steal       |*hʲagi-ma- |agima-    |agima       |hakíma           |hakima  |            |

Apical nasal /*n/ is generally retained as such in all descendants. Initial /*n/ is markedly uncommon:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|             |Lake Kutubu   |Foe      |Foe     |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|             |              |Rule     |Franklin|May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|             |***n-**       |**n**    |**n**   |**n**      |**n**   |**n**   |
|eat/drink    |*ne           |ne-      |ne-     |ne-        |na-/ne- |ne-     |
|no reason    |*nena-kama[ka]|nena-kama|        |nena-kamáka|        |        |
|1 sg. poss.  |*no-mo        |nomo     |nomo    |nòmo       |nomo    |        |
|             |***-n-**      |**n**    |**n**   |**n**      |**n**   |**n**   |
|cold         |*inu          |inu      |        |ínu(-sa)   |inu-sa  |inu     |
|man's sister |*ana          |ana      |ana     |           |        |        |
|pinkie/one   |*men[a/o]     |menage   |mɛnãxɛ  |mèno       |meno    |        |
|small        |*mano         |mano     |mãno    |máno       |mano    |        |
|no reason    |*nena-kama[ka]|nena-kama|        |nena-kamáka|        |        |
|tongs        |*tafina       |         |tafina  |tafiná     |tafina  |        |
|finger/toe   |*sigini       |sigini   |sigini  |           |sikini  |sikini  |
|cassowary    |*sigina       |         |        |sikína     |        |sikina  |
|floor        |*kunu         |kunu     |        |kunu-      |        |        |
|buttocks     |*genate       |genane   |genane  |kenaɾè     |        |        |
|collarbone/12|*geno         |         |keno    |kenó       |        |        |
|knee         |*gakuna       |gaʔanua  |gaxona  |kakuná     |kakuna  |kukunai |
|duck         |*gokona       |goʔona   |koxona  |           |kokona  |        |

In a few disyllabic examples where medial /*n/ precedes a final vowel, medial /*n/ is lost in Foe, the vowel in the first syllable is nasalized and the second is dropped. The reason for this change is not understood:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|           |Lake Kutubu|Foe  |Foe     |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|           |           |Rule |Franklin|May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|           |***-Vn₂V** |**Ṽ**|**Ṽ**   |**VnV**    |**VnV** |**VnV** |
|head       |*uni       |ũ    |ũ       |uní        |uni     |una-    |
|shoulder/11|*ginu      |gĩ   |gĩ      |kínu       |kinu    |        |
|tail       |*ge̝no̝    |ge-  |        |kéno       |keno    |kinu    |

Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ occurs only in loans from Enga-Southern Highlands:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|     |Lake Kutubu|Foe       |Foe     |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|     |           |Rule      |Franklin|May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|     |***t-**    |**t [tʰ]**|**t**   |**t**      |**t**   |****    |
|flea |*tedate    |teɾaɾe    |terare  |tetáɾe     |tetare  |        |
|tongs|*tafina    |          |tafina  |tafiná     |tafina  |        |

Medial /*t/ is generally lenited to apical non-stop /ɾ/ in all descendants:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|              |Lake Kutubu|Foe     |Foe        |Námo Mē    |Fasu     |Namumi   |
|              |           |Rule    |Franklin   |May/Loeweke|Franklin |Franklin |
|              |***-t-**   |**ɾ**   |**ɾ**      |**ɾ**      |**ɾ**    |**ɾ**    |
|tree/fire     |*ita       |iɾa     |ira [iɾʌ]  |iɾá        |ira      |ira ~ irə|
|tongue        |*atu       |aɾu     |auru [auɾu]|aɾú        |aru [alu]|airu     |
|tooth         |*mete      |        |mere       |méɾe       |mere     |         |
|cowrie shell  |*bati      |baɾi    |bari       |paɾí       |         |         |
|space by door |*botoso    |boɾoso- |           |poɾóso     |         |         |
|flea          |*tedate    |teɾaɾe  |terare     |tetáɾe     |tetare   |         |
|fence         |*dutu      |duɾu    |duru       |ɾúɾu       |ruru-    |         |
|bean          |*dugato    |dugaɾo  |           |ɾukuáɾo    |         |         |
|day           |*sete      |seɾe    |           |séɾe       |         |         |
|hit/stab/shoot|*kate-     |kaɾe-   |           |kaɾe-      |kare-    |         |
|lip(s)        |*ko-batu   |ko baɾu |ko-baru    |kopaɾú     |koparu   |         |
|foot/leg      |*kotage    |koɾage  |korage     |koɾakè     |korake   |         |
|door          |*koto      |-koɾo   |           |kóɾo       |         |         |
|turn/spin     |*weto-     |veɾo-de-|vero-de-   |weɾò-      |         |         |

One example of medial /*t/ following apical nasal /*n/ in the onset of the preceding syllable is realized as /n/ in Foe:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|        |Lake Kutubu |Foe   |Foe     |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|        |            |Rule  |Franklin|May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|        |***-t-/nV_**|**n** |**n**   |**ɾ**      |**?**   |**?**   |
|buttocks|*genate     |genane|genane  |kenaɾè     |        |        |

Velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all descendants. In Foe, iinitial /k/ is realized as aspirated or fricated [kʰ kˣ x], contrasting with the subphonemic plain devoiced [k] reflexes of /*g/ (below):

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|              |Lake Kutubu|Foe       |Foe               |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|              |           |Rule      |Franklin          |May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|              |***k-**    |**k [kˣ]**|**k [kʰ x]**      |**k**      |**k**   |**k**   |
|bone          |*kigi      |kigi      |kigi [kʰikʰi xixi]|kikí       |kiki    |kiki    |
|father-in-law |*kauwa     |kauwa     |kauwa             |kaúa       |kaua    |        |
|rib(s)        |*kamabe    |kamabe    |                  |kamapé     |        |        |
|no reason     |*kama[ka]  |kama      |                  |kamáka     |        |        |
|hit/stab/shoot|*kate-     |kaɾe-     |                  |kaɾe-      |kare-   |        |
|ashes         |*kadVma    |kanuma    |kanuma\\ [xãnuma] |katéma     |katema  |        |
|liver         |*kasiako   |kasiaʔo   |                  |kasokò     |kasoko  |kasiako |
|mouth         |*ko        |ko        |ko [xo]           |ko-        |ko-     |        |
|lip(s)        |*ko-batu   |ko baɾu   |ko-baru           |kopaɾú     |koparu  |        |
|foot/leg      |*kotage    |koɾage    |korage            |koɾakè     |korake  |        |
|door          |*koto      |-koɾo     |                  |kóɾo       |        |        |
|die           |*ku-       |ku-       |ku- [kʰu-]        |ku-        |ku-     |ku-     |
|wind          |*kuba      |kuba      |kuba              |kúpa       |kupa    |        |
|floor         |*kunu      |kunu      |                  |kunu-      |        |        |

Medial /*k/ is deoccluded to glottal stop [ʔ] or fricated to [x] in different varieties of Foe (Franklin and Voorhoeve 1973: 155, Franklin 2001: 144):

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|          |Lake Kutubu|Foe       |Foe        |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|          |           |Rule      |Franklin   |May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|          |***-k-**   |**k [ʔ]** |**k [x ʔ]**|**k**      |**k**   |**k**   |
|sick/ill  |*maka      |maʔamegara|           |makatà     |        |        |
|intestines|*fako      |faʔo      |faxo       |fakó       |fako    |        |
|pull out  |*foko-     |foʔo-     |           |foko-      |        |        |
|liver     |*kasiako   |kasiaʔo   |           |kasokò     |kasoko  |kasiako |
|heart     |*gamuku    |gamũʔu    |gãmũʔu     |           |        |        |
|knee      |*gakuna    |gaʔanua   |gaxona     |kakuná     |kakuna  |kukunai |
|duck      |*gokona    |goʔona    |koxona     |           |kokona  |        |
|breast    |*hʲokõ     |oʔõ       |õxõ ~ oxo  |hokó       |hoko    |        |
|only/alone|*haku      |haʔũ-meke |           |hakú       |        |        |

Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is devoiced to /p/ in West Lake Kutubu:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|               |Lake Kutubu|Foe        |Foe          |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|               |           |Rule       |Franklin     |May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|               |***b-**    |**b [b p]**|**b [b p]**  |**p**      |**p**   |**p**   |
|come           |*be-       |           |             |pe-        |pe-     |pi-     |
|thigh          |*bau       |bau        |bau          |paú        |pau     |        |
|mother's sister|*bab[a/o]  |babo       |babo         |papà       |papa    |        |
|cowrie shell   |*bati      |baɾi       |bari         |paɾí       |        |        |
|old (thing)    |*bad[e]    |           |             |paté       |        |        |
|cucumber       |*badagi    |baɾagi     |             |patáki     |        |        |
|brother-in-law |*base      |           |pase         |pasé       |pase    |        |
|space by door  |*botoso    |boɾoso-    |             |poɾóso     |        |        |
|               |***-b-**   |**b [b p]**|**b [b p]**  |**p**      |**p**   |**p**   |
|indicative     |*-bo       |           |             |-po        |        |        |
|house/village  |*abe       |           |             |apè        |ape     |        |
|father's sister|*abe       |abe        |ape          |           |ape     |        |
|father         |*aba       |aba        |aba          |ápa [s]    |        |        |
|mother's sister|*bab[a/o]  |babo       |babo         |papà       |papa    |        |
|open           |*doba-     |doba-      |doba-        |ɾopá-      |ropa-   |        |
|crocodile      |*sibina    |           |             |sipinà     |        |        |
|hot            |*sisibu    |sisibu     |sisibu       |sisipù-sa  |sisipu  |sisibu  |
|nose           |*sabe      |sabe       |sabe [s̪abɛi]|sapè       |sape    |sapa-   |
|rib(s)         |*kamabe    |kamabe     |             |kamapé     |        |        |
|lip(s)         |*ko-batu   |ko baɾu    |ko-baru      |kopaɾú     |koparu  |        |
|wind           |*kuba      |kuba       |kuba         |kúpa       |kupa    |        |
|stone axe      |*gab[i/e]  |gabe       |gabe         |kapì       |kapi    |        |

Initial apical voiced stop /*d/ in non-nasal environments is lenited to non-stop /ɾ/ in West Lake Kutubu:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|             |Lake Kutubu|Foe        |Foe     |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|             |           |Rule       |Franklin|May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|             |***d-**    |**d [d t]**|**d**   |**ɾ**      |**ɾ**   |**?**   |
|day b.y./a.t.|*dawi      |davi       |        |ɾawaí      |        |        |
|open         |*doba-     |doba-      |doba-   |ɾopá-      |ropa-   |        |
|fence        |*dutu      |duɾu       |duru    |ɾúɾu       |ruru-   |        |
|bean         |*dugato    |dugaɾo     |        |ɾukuáɾo    |        |        |

In two examples in which intiial /*d/ is followed by a nasalized vowel or a nasal /*m/ in the onset of the next syllable, its reflex is merged with /n/ in West Lake Kutubu:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|               |Lake Kutubu|Foe        |Foe         |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|               |           |Rule       |Franklin    |May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|               |***d-/_Ṽ** |**d [d t]**|**d [t]**   |**n**      |**?**   |**?**   |
|side of nose/17|*dõ        |           |to          |nò ~ nõ̀   |        |        |
|               |***d-/_Vm**|**d [d t]**|**d [t]**   |**n**      |**?**   |**?**   |
|palm/sole/six  |*dama      |dama       |tama [t̪amʌ]|namá       |        |        |

Medial /*d/ is devoiced to /t/ West Lake Kutubu, contrasting with the lenited reflex of medial /*t/ (above), and merged with [ɾ] in Foe:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|            |Lake Kutubu|Foe   |Foe     |Námo Mē            |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|            |           |Rule  |Franklin|May/Loeweke        |Franklin|Franklin|
|            |***-d-**   |**ɾ** |**ɾ**   |**t**              |**t**   |**?**   |
|father      |*ada       |      |        |atá                |ata     |        |
|old (thing) |*bad[e]    |      |        |paté               |        |        |
|cucumber    |*badagi    |baɾagi|        |patáki             |        |        |
|chin        |*fadu      |faɾu  |varu    |fátu               |fatu    |        |
|rat/mouse   |*fagida    |fagiɾa|fagira  |fakitá             |fakita  |        |
|flea        |*tedate    |teɾaɾe|terare  |tetáɾe             |tetare  |        |
|nail        |*gidaf[a]  |giɾafe|girafe  |kitafá ~\\ kitafené|kitafene|        |
|thorn       |*geda      |      |        |kéta               |keta    |        |
|pandanus mat|*geda      |      |        |kéta               |keta    |        |

One example of medial /*d/ followed by a nasal /*m/ in the onset of the next syllable observes a different pattern than intial /*d/ in the same environment (above), merging with apical nasal /n/ in Foe but devoiced to /t/ in West Lake Kutubu:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|     |Lake Kutubu|Foe   |Foe     |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|     |           |Rule  |Franklin|May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|     |***-d-/Vm**|**n** |**n**   |**t**      |**t**   |**?**   |
|ashes|*kadVma    |kanuma|kanuma  |katéma     |katema  |        |

Velar voiced stop /*g/ is devoiced to merge with the reflexes of /*k/ [k] (above) in West Lake Kutubu:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|              |Lake Kutubu    |Foe        |Foe               |Námo Mē                |Fasu     |Namumi  |
|              |               |Rule       |Franklin          |May/Loeweke            |Franklin |Franklin|
|              |***g-**        |**g [g k]**|**g [g k x]**     |**k**                  |**k**    |**k**   |
|shoulder/11   |*ginu          |gĩ         |gĩ                |kínu                   |kinu     |        |
|nail          |*gidaf[a]      |giɾafe     |girafe            |kitafá                 |kitafene |        |
|yellow        |*geame         |game       |kame [kãme]       |keamé-sa               |kiame-sa |        |
|buttocks      |*genate        |genane     |genane            |kenaɾè                 |         |        |
|tail          |*ge̝no̝        |ge-        |                  |kéno                   |keno     |kinu    |
|collarbone/12 |*geno          |           |keno              |kenó                   |         |        |
|thorn         |*geda          |           |                  |kéta                   |keta     |        |
|pandanus mat  |*geda          |           |                  |kéta                   |keta     |        |
|dog           |*g[e/ẽ/a]s[a/ã]|gẽsa       |gesã [xɛsʌ]       |kása                   |kasa     |kasa    |
|banana        |*ga            |ga         |ga                |kapúta                 |kaputa   |kaputa  |
|skin/bark     |*ga[o/u]       |           |                  |kaú                    |kau ~ kao|kau     |
|heart         |*gamuku        |gamũʔu     |gãmũʔu            |                       |         |        |
|stone axe     |*gab[i/e]      |gabe       |gabe              |kapì                   |kapi     |        |
|knee          |*gakuna        |gaʔanua    |gaxona            |kakuná                 |kakuna   |kukunai |
|fly (n.)      |*gofõ          |gofõ       |                  |kofó                   |         |        |
|saliva/spittle|*gose[ka]      |           |koseka            |                       |         |        |
|duck          |*gokona        |goʔona     |koxona            |                       |kokona   |        |
|              |***-g-**       |**g [g k]**|**g [g kʰ x]**    |**k**                  |**k**    |**k**   |
|path          |*ig[i]a        |iga        |iga [ixʌ]         |íkia                   |ikia     |ija     |
|cucumber      |*badagi        |baɾagi     |                  |patáki                 |         |        |
|rat/mouse     |*fagida        |fagiɾa     |fagira            |fakitá                 |fakita   |        |
|bean          |*dugato        |dugaro     |                  |ɾukuáɾo                |         |        |
|finger/toe    |*sigini        |sigini     |sigini            |                       |sikini   |sikini  |
|cassowary     |*sigina        |           |                  |sikína                 |         |sikina  |
|bone          |*kigi          |kigi       |kigi [kʰikʰi xixi]|kikí                   |kiki     |kiki    |
|foot/leg      |*kotage        |koɾage     |korage            |koɾakè                 |korake   |        |
|steal         |*hʲagi-ma-     |agima-     |agima             |hakíma-                |hakima   |        |
|one           |*hʲaga         |           |                  |háka- ~ haká-\\ hakà-sa|         |haka-sa |
|death adder   |*hesege        |hesege     |hesege            |hesekè                 |heseke   |        |
|moon          |*he̝ge̝        |hege       |hɛxɛ              |                       |heke     |hɪki    |
|namesake      |*jago          |           |jago              |jàko                   |jako     |        |

Bilabial or labiodental fricative /*f/ is retained as such in all descendants (Franklin 2001: 146.) Both Rule (1977: 8-10) and May (1992) specify /f/ as labiodental in Foe and Námo Mē respectively:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|               |Lake Kutubu|Foe   |Foe        |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|               |           |Rule  |Franklin   |May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|               |***f-**    |**f** |**f [f v]**|**f**      |**f**   |**?**   |
|chin           |*fadu      |faɾu  |varu       |fátu       |fatu    |        |
|intestines     |*fako      |faʔo  |faxo       |fakó       |fako    |        |
|rat/mouse      |*fagida    |fagiɾa|fagira     |fakitá     |fakita  |        |
|blow           |*fo        |      |           |fò-        |        |        |
|pull out       |*foko-     |foʔo- |           |foko-      |        |        |
|swamp          |*fũ        |fũ    |           |           |        |        |
|side of neck/13|*fufu      |      |fufu       |fúfu       |fufu    |        |
|               |***-f-**   |**f** |**f**      |**f**      |**f**   |**?**   |
|light (weight) |*[ã]f[a]   |ãfa   |ãfa        |           |        |        |
|fence          |*mafe      |mafe  |           |mafé-      |mafe    |        |
|side of neck/13|*fufu      |      |fufu       |fúfu       |fufu    |        |
|tongs          |*tafina    |      |tafina     |tafiná     |tafina  |        |
|nail           |*gidaf[a]  |giɾafe|girafe     |kitafá     |kitafene|        |
|fly (n.)       |*gofõ      |gofõ  |           |kofó       |        |        |

…:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|    |Lake Kutubu|Foe  |Foe     |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|    |           |Rule |Franklin|May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|    |***f-**    |**f**|****    |**p**      |****    |****    |
|hole|*fase      |fase |        |pàse-      |        |        |

Apical fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all descendants. According to Rule (1977: 8-10), Foe /s/ is realized as dental [s̪] when followed by vowels /e a/ and as retroflexed [ʂ] when followed by /i o u/, while May and Loeweke's (1981: 7) Námo Mē /s/ is realized as [ʃ] when followed by back /o u/:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|                 |Lake Kutubu    |Foe         |Foe          |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|                 |               |Rule        |Franklin     |May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|                 |***s-**        |**s [s̪ ʂ]**|**s**        |**s [s ʃ]**|**s**   |**s**   |
|enough           |*sia           |sia         |             |siá-       |        |        |
|crocodile        |*sibina        |            |             |sipinà     |        |        |
|hot              |*sisibu        |sisibu      |sisibu       |sisipù-sa  |sisipu  |sisibu  |
|finger/toe       |*sigini        |sigini      |sigini       |           |sikini  |sikini  |
|cassowary        |*sigina        |            |             |sikína     |        |sikina  |
|day              |*sete          |seɾe        |             |séɾe       |        |        |
|happy            |*ses[e]        |sesaha      |             |sesé-      |        |        |
|afternoon        |*sama          |samage      |samage       |samapú     |samapu  |        |
|nose             |*sabe          |sabe        |sabe [s̪abɛi]|sapè       |sape    |sapa-   |
|all              |*su            |su-         |su-          |sú         |su      |        |
|ripe/red         |*su            |su          |su           |sù         |su(-sa) |        |
|                 |***-s-**       |**s [s̪ ʂ]**|**s**        |**s [s ʃ]**|**s**   |**s**   |
|plant(s)         |*es[ẽ/e-]      |esẽ         |             |esé-       |        |        |
|smoke            |*musu          |musu        |mus̪u        |musù       |musu    |musu    |
|brother-in-law   |*base          |            |pase         |pasé       |pase    |        |
|space by door    |*botoso        |boɾoso-     |             |poɾóso     |        |        |
|hole             |*fase          |fase        |             |pàse-      |        |        |
|hot              |*sisibu        |sisibu      |sisibu       |sisipù-sa  |sisipu  |sisibu  |
|happy            |*ses[e]        |sesaha      |             |sesé-      |        |        |
|liver            |*kasiako       |kasiaʔo     |             |kasokò     |kasoko  |kasiako |
|dog              |*g[e/ẽ/a]s[a/ã]|gẽsa        |gesã [xɛsʌ]  |kása       |kasa    |kasa    |
|saliva/spittle   |*gose[ka]      |            |koseka       |           |        |        |
|death adder      |*hesege        |hesege      |hesege       |hesekè     |heseke  |        |
|reluctant        |*hasi          |hasi        |             |hasi-      |        |        |
|edible pitpit sp.|*wãsĩã         |wasiã       |             |wãsĩã̀     |        |        |

Palatal fricative /*hʲ/ has been found only initially, where it is merged with the reflexes of /*h/ (below) in West Lake Kutubu and dropped in Foe:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|           |Lake Kutubu|Foe   |Foe      |Námo Mē                |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|           |           |Rule  |Franklin |May/Loeweke            |Franklin|Franklin|
|           |***hʲ-**   |**ø** |**ø**    |**h**                  |**h**   |**h**   |
|eye/sixteen|*hʲĩ       |ĩ     |ĩj       |hĩ̀̀̀                  |hĩ      |hĩ      |
|steal      |*hʲagi-ma- |agima-|agima    |hakíma-                |hakima  |        |
|one        |*hʲaga     |      |         |háka- ~ haká-\\ hakà-sa|        |haka-sa |
|breast     |*hʲokõ     |oʔõ   |õxõ ~ oxo|hokó                   |hoko    |        |

The precise quality of the sound shown here as /*hʲ/ is not possible to determine from Lake Kutubu alone. The reason it is thought to be palatal, as opposed to unoccluded /*h/ below, is because it corresponds to /*s/ in Rumu-Omati River, while /*h/ corresponds to /*w/ in Rumi-Omati River and elsewhere, suggesting perhaps an aspiration of previous non-stops /*w *j/, /*j/ being very marginal in Lake Kutubu (below.)\\
\\

Unoccluded fricative /*h/ has been found only initially, where it is retained as such in all descendants:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|           |Lake Kutubu|Foe      |Foe             |Námo Mē    |Fasu     |Namumi  |
|           |           |Rule     |Franklin        |May/Loeweke|Franklin |Franklin|
|           |***h-**    |**h**    |**h**           |**h**      |**h**    |**h**   |
|water      |*hẽ        |         |                |hẽ́        |hẽ       |hĩ      |
|death adder|*hesege    |hesege   |hesege          |hesekè     |heseke   |        |
|moon       |*he̝ge̝    |hege     |hɛxɛ            |           |heke     |hɪki    |
|seed/egg   |*hãẽ       |hae      |hãẽ ~ hãĩ [hʌ̃ⁱ]|hãẽ̀ ~ hae |hãĩ ~ hai|hai     |
|reluctant  |*hasi      |hasi     |                |hasi-      |         |        |
|only/alone |*haku      |haʔũ-meke|                |hakú       |         |        |
|mother     |*hũã       |hũa      |hũa             |hũã̀ [s]   |         |        |

Bilabial non-stop /*w/ is retained as such in all descendants. It is occluded to [v] in Foe when followed by front vowels /*i *e/:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|                 |Lake Kutubu|Foe        |Foe        |Námo Mē    |Fasu     |Namumi  |
|                 |           |Rule       |Franklin   |May/Loeweke|Franklin |Franklin|
|                 |***w-**    |**w [w v]**|**w [w v]**|**w**      |**w**    |**?**   |
|walk/go          |*wi-       |vi-        |vi-        |           |         |        |
|turn/spin        |*weto-     |veɾo-de-   |vero-de-   |werò-      |         |        |
|no               |*wae       |wae        |wae        |waè        |wae ~ wai|        |
|edible pitpit sp.|*wãsĩã     |wasiã      |           |wãsĩã̀     |         |        |
|                 |***-w-**   |**w [w v]**|**w [w v]**|**w**      |**w**    |**?**   |
|wing             |*a[u]wa    |           |awa        |           |auwa     |        |
|day b.y./a.t.    |*dawi      |davi       |           |ɾawaí      |         |        |
|father-in-law    |*kauwa     |kauwa      |kauwa      |kaúa       |kaua     |        |

Palatal non-stop /*j/ has been found only in loans from Enga-Southern Highlands (below):

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|           |Lake Kutubu|Foe  |Foe     |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|           |           |Rule |Franklin|May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|           |***j-**    |**?**|**j**   |**j**      |**j**   |**?**   |
|namesake   |*jago      |     |jago    |jàko       |jako    |        |
|           |***-j-**   |**j**|****    |**j**      |**j**   |****    |
|grandmother|*a[i]ja    |aja  |aja     |aijá       |        |        |


… vowels ….\\
\\

…:\\
\\

\\


===== Pronouns =====
**[under construction]**\\
\\

… absolutive pronouns … as follows, with attestations drawn from Rule (1977: 47-48) and May and Loeweke (1981, cf. Loeweke and May 1966: 26):

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|           |Lake Kutubu|Foe    |Námo Mē    |
|           |           |Rule   |May/Loeweke|
|1 sg.      |*…         |na(-no)|àno        |
|2 sg.      |*…         |n-aʔa  |né         |
|3 sg.      |*…         |jo     |é          |
|1 pl.      |*…         |jia    |isú        |
|1 pl. incl.|*…         |jija   |---        |
|2 pl.      |*…         |h-aʔa  |ɾé         |
|3 pl.      |*…         |j-aʔa  |ì          |
|1 dl.      |*…         |j-age  |éto        |
|1 dl. incl.|---        |j-aʔa  |---        |
|2 dl.      |---        |hag-aʔa|této       |
|3 dl.      |---        |hage-ɾa|tetà       |

According to Rule (1977: 19,) the Foe second person dual is also used to mean third person dual when accompanied by a difference in tone /hagaʔá/. The morphological separation of Foe /-aʔa/ is based upon, besides parallelism between persons, the assumption that Foe's second and third person duals are based upon the word /ha-ge/ “two” (pp. 20, 123.)\\
\\

… ergative/possessive …:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|           |Lake Kutubu|Foe         |Námo Mē    |
|           |           |Rule        |May/Loeweke|
|1 sg.      |*…         |no-mo       |nò-mo      |
|2 sg.      |*…         |no-maʔa-mo  |nó-mo      |
|3 sg.      |*…         |jo-ø        |é-po       |
|1 pl.      |*…         |jia-mo      |isià-po    |
|1 pl. incl.|*…         |jija-mo     |---        |
|2 pl.      |*…         |he-maʔa-mo  |ɾé-po      |
|3 pl.      |*          |jaʔa-ø      |í-pu       |
|1 dl.      |*…         |jage-mo     |etá-po     |
|1 dl. incl.|*…         |jaʔa-ø      |---        |
|2 dl.      |*…         |hage-maʔa-mo|tetá-po    |
|3 dl.      |*…         |hage-ɾa-mo  |teta-pò    |



===== Loans from neighboring families =====
**[under construction]**\\
\\

… Enga-Southern Highlands …:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|               |ESH          |Lake Kutubu|Foe        |Námo Mē    |
|               |             |           |Rule       |May/Loeweke|
|tree/fire      |*ita         |*ita       |iɾa        |iɾá        |
|grandmother    |*a[i]ja      |*aja       |aja        |aijá       |
|smoke          |*m[i/u]t[i/u]|*musu      |musu       |musù       |
|father's br.   |*mae         |*mae       |mae        |maé        |
|mother's sister|*mbap[a]     |*bab[a/o]  |babo       |papà       |
|hot            |*titipu      |*sisibu    |sisibu     |sisipù-sa  |
|flea           |*teɺa        |*tedate    |teɾaɾe     |tetáɾe     |
|tongs          |*t[a]pina    |*tafina    |tafina [kf]|tafiná     |
|father-in-law  |*kauwa       |*kauwa     |kauwa      |kaúa       |
|cold/wind      |*kupa        |*kuba      |kuba       |kúpa       |
|nail           |*ŋgindupa    |*gidafa    |giɾafe     |kitafá     |
|open           |*ɺombu-      |*doba-     |doba-      |ɾopá-      |
|namesake       |*jaŋgo       |*jago      |jago [kf]  |jàko       |
|garden         |*e           |---        |e          |---        |
|pandanus sp.   |*aŋga        |---        |ãge        |---        |
|bandicoot      |*pakena      |---        |fagena     |---        |
|stone          |*kana        |---        |kana       |---        |
|bark belt/skin |*kako        |---        |kaʔo       |---        |
|bird           |*hʲaka       |---        |ja         |---        |
|hair/feather(s)|*iti         |---        |---        |ìti        |
|mother's br.   |*awa         |---        |---        |auá        |
|pig/game       |*mena        |---        |---        |mená       |
|law/tradition  |*mana        |---        |---        |manè       |
|swamp          |*pau         |---        |---        |faú        |
|steam          |*popo        |---        |---        |fófo       |
|brother        |*ka[e]me     |---        |---        |hamè       |
|egg            |*kapa        |---        |---        |kapà       |
|frog           |*koti        |---        |---        |kutí       |
|lower leg      |*ŋgimbo      |---        |---        |kipò [s]   |
|flying fox     |*ŋgʲaima     |---        |---        |kaíma      |
|daylight       |*jape        |---        |---        |jápe       |
|rain cape      |*japeta      |---        |---        |japeɾá     |
|cassowary      |*jati        |---        |---        |jasì [s]   |
|sky/wet season |*jak[i/e]    |---        |---        |jàki       |
|widow          |*jaɺo        |---        |---        |jaɾó       |

…:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|      |ESH     |Lake Kutubu|Rumu-Omati|
|father|*apa    |*aba       |*aba      |
|lip(s)|*kambuɺu|*ko-batu   |*…        |

… a number of terms loaned from Lake Kutubu into West and South Kewa (q.v. Frankin and Voorhoeve 1973: 169-173,) with West Kewa attestations drawn from Franklin, Franklin and Kirapeasi (2006) and South Kewa (Pole) from Rule (1977: 12-26, 121-124):

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|          |Lake Kutubu|West Kewa|South Kewa|
|rat       |*fagida    |pɐkirɐ   |pakiɾa    |
|finger/toe|*sigini    |rikini   |          |

…:

|< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >|
|          |… |Námo Mē    |Fasu    |Namumi  |
|          |  |May/Loeweke|Franklin|Franklin|
|stone     |*…|ekè        |ẽkẽ     |ɪki     |
|fat/grease|*…|sawé       |sawe    |sawi    |
|new       |*…|kawè       |kawe    |kawi    |