====== Omati River ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== The Omati River family, also known as Turama-Omatian, is comprised of three or four closely-related languages spoken along and around the inland reaches of the Omati and Turama Rivers in the westernmost portion of Papua New Guinea's Gulf Province (Franklin 1973: 263-267.) Its members are quite similar to one another, approaching mutual intelligibility (Petterson 2011: 4.) ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of Omati River is as follows:\\ \\ Omati River Barikewa Kaser-Mouwase Kaser Mouwase ===== Sources ===== Johnston (1919-1920: 119) 130 comparative terms for Karima (Mouwase) of Kibeni village Johnston (1921-1922: 166) 126 comparative terms for Barika (Barikewa) of Asanu village Saunders (1923-1924: 57) 118 comparative terms for Dugeme (Dukemi Kaser) Franklin ed. (1973: 573-575) 100 comparative terms for Ikobi-Kairi (Kikori River) and Mena varieties of Kaser and for Omati (Mouwase) Petterson (1991) 190 comparative terms for Barikiwa (Barikewa) of Iba village Petterson (2011) phonology of Turama River Kaser of Koumaio village Petterson (2011) dictionary of Kaser Petterson (2014) Kaser verb morphology Carr (2006) 190 comparative terms for Barikewa or Kaiam village, Kaser of Koumaiou and Mowase of Gibidai\\ \\ In addition to these, a survey vocabulary of Kaser was provided in spreadsheet form by Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics Ukarumpa, but it is unattributed. It is not the same as Franklin's or Carr's data. ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Proto-Omati River had at least 11 consonants and 7 vowels as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | | | *t | | *k | | *b | *d | | *g | | *ɸ | *s | | | | *w | | *j | | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | | *u | | *e̝ | | *o̝ | | *ɛ | | *ɔ | | | *a | | ….\\ \\ Only a limited set of consonants occurs finally: |< - 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | *t | | *b | | | *ɸ | *s | Phonologically, Omati River dialects can be divided into two groups, those in which final consonants are very common, and those in which they are not allowed, and an epenthetic vowel is appended to erstwhile consonant-final roots to avoid them. This division crosscuts that between languages, for example Carr's Barikewa of Kaiam village has many final consonants but Petterson's Barikiwa of Iba often appends a vowel, while in both Petterson's and Carr's Turama River Kaser of Koumalou has final consonants, as does Franklin's Ikobi-Kairi dialect, but Franklin's Mena and both Saunder's and Petterson's Dukemi (Dugeme) dialects regularly append vowels. Mouwase is most consistent in this respect, but also employs and alternate strategy in which final consonants are sometimes lost altogether. In none of these cases is it clear that this final vowel is phonemic. These epenthetic vowels are relatively recent in origin and reflect the influence of the neighboring Kiwai and Inland Gulf languages, which disallow final consonants.\\ \\ …\\ \\ In addition to the simple vowels above, … diphthongs are found as follows: |< - 60px 60px >| | *aⁱ | *aᵘ | | *aᵋ | | Nasalization is contrastive, but is difficult to reconstruct because it is preserved only sporadically in Kaser. For example, /*isĩ/ "eye" is not directly attested as such, but nasalization is indicated by outcomparison to Lake Kutubu /*[i]hĩ/ and possibly in the Kaser compound /sĩ-guin/ "star".\\ \\ Tone is contrastive, but has not been indicated in the protoforms below.\\ \\ Initial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Omati | Barikewa | Kaser | Mouwase | | *m- | m | m | m | | *n- | n | n | n | | *t- | d | h | h | | *t-/_Vs | ? | ø | h | | *k- | ø | k | k | | *b- | b | b | b | | *d- | t | t | t | | *g- | k | k | k | | *ɸ- | ɸ | ɸ | ɸ | | *s- | s | s | s | | *w- | w | w | w | | *j- | j | j | ɾ | Medial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Omati | Barikewa | Kaser | Mouwase | | *-m- | m | m | m | | *-n- | n | n | n | | *-t- | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | | *-b- | β | β | β | | *-d- | ɾ | t | t | | *-g- | k | k | k | | *-ɸ- | ɸ | ɸ | ɸ | | *-s- | s | s | s | Final consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Omati | Barikewa | Kaser | Mouwase | | *-m | n | m | mV | | *-n | n | n | nV | | *-t | ɾ | ɾ | ɾV | | *-b | β | β | βV | | *-ɸ | ɸ | ɸ | ɸV | | *-s | s | s | sV | Vowels and vowel sequences correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Omati | Barikewa | Kaser | Mouwase | | *i | i | i | i | | *u | u | u | u | | *e̝ | e̝ | e̝ | i | | *o̝ | o̝ | o̝ | u | | *o̝/_ɛ ɔ | ɔ | o̝ | ɔ | | *ɛ | ɛ | ɛ | ɛ | | *ɔ | ɔ | ɔ | ɔ | | *a | a | a | a | | *a/_i | a | a | ɛ | | *a/_u | a | a | ɔ | | *aⁱ | aⁱ | aⁱ | ɛⁱ | | *aⁱ/m_ | aⁱ | aⁱ | ɔⁱ | | *aᵘ | aᵘ | aᵘ | ɔᵘ | | *aᵋ | aᵋ | aᵋ | aᵋ | | * | | | | | * | | | | | * | | | | | * | | | | These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Barikewa attestations drawn from Petterson (1991) and Carr (2006 ibid.,) Kaser from Carr (2006) and Petterson (2011 ibid.) and Mouwase from Carr (2006) and Petterson (2014 ibid.) unless otherwise indicated. Abbreviated sources are as follows: [hj] = Johnston (1919-1920: 119, 1921-1922: 166), [hs] = Saunders (1923-1924: 57,) [kf] = Franklin ed. (1973: 573-575.) Petterson's Kaser and Mouwase forms are phonemic; all other sources including Petterson's Barikiwa are survey vocabularies.\\ \\ For clarity, our presentation is divided into four sections, beginning with initial and medial consonants, followed by final consonants, then vowels, then vowel sequences and diphthongs.\\ \\ \\ Initial and medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |house |*min |mìn ~ minì |mîn |mīn |min |mini ~ mina |mini | |meat/flesh |*mis |mīs |mǐs |mīs |mis | |misi | |speech |*me̝n | | |mèn |min |mini ~mina ~mi| | |who? |*ma |màˑ- |mâˑ |mā |mɑ |maː |mɑ | |bow |*ma | | |ma |mà | | | |fish |*maⁱ |mɨ̄i |ˈmoï |mə̀i |mɨ̃i |mɔi ~ mɛi |məi | |not |*maⁱ | | |mai ~ mə̄i |məi- |mɔi |moia | |water |*maᵘ | | |mū |mu |mɔu |mou | |head |*mab |ˈmàˑβō |mɑβ |màβ |mɑβ |maβɔ ~ maβa |mɑβo | |on/at |*manɛ | | |manɛ | |manɛ | | |branch |*mat |-maˑɾ | |mar | |marɛ ~ mara | | |old man |*magaⁱ |mākɨ̀i ~ mɑ̄kɨ̀i|ˈmɑkəi |makə̀i |mɑˈkəi |makɛi |mɑkei | |big |*magaᵘbu |makuwu |mɑ̀kuβu |makauβu |mɑˈkuβu |makuβu |mɑkuβu | |knee |*magu |mɑ̄ˑkúˑ |mɑ̀kú | |mɑˈku | | | |tooth |*magu |-mākū |-mɑ̄kù | | | | | |but |*mɔ | | |-mɔ | |mɔ | | |again |*mɔdɛ | | |mɔtɛrî | |mɔtɛ | | |cloud |*mo̝ |mòˑ |mõ̂ |-mō | |-mu | | | |***-m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |plural |*-mɛ | |-mɛ̀ | |-me |-mɛ | | |thumb |*-ma |-mā |-ma |-mà |-mɑ |-ma |-mɑ | |fly (n.) |*b[u]mani | |bumani [hj]| | | |bumeni [hj]| |egg |*damɛ |tāmē |támɛ́ |tamɛ̀ |tɑme | | | |soft |*datamɛ₂ | | |taramà | |taramɛ | | |bird's tail|*dumi |tūˈmì |tumi | | |tumi | | |navel |*dum[a] | |tuma [hj] | |tuma [hs]| | | |afternoon |*samɛ₂ |sāmə̀ |sāmá |samá |sɑmɑ |samɛ |sɑme | |view |*sumin | | |sumín | |sumi | | |pitpit |*sumɛn | | |sumɛn | |sumɛnɛ | | |bandicoot |*suma |sūmā | |sumá | |suma | | |chin |*ko̝-mɛt |ō-mɛ̄ɾɛ | |ko-mɛ́r |ˈku-mer | | | |dirt |*[k/g]imi | | |kimì | |kimi | | |wet |*gimin | |kimín |kimín |kiˈmin |kimina ~ kimi | | |back |*gimit |kīˈmīɾɩ | | | | |kiˈmiɾi | |heart |*gamo̝ |kāˑmò |kɑ́mò |kamù ~ -kamo|ˈkɑmu |kamu |ˈkɑmu | |tongue |*go̝mɛn |kˈōˑmɛ̄n |kɔ̄mɛ́n |komɛ́n |kuˈmén | |koˈmene | Initial and medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***n-** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |name |*ne̝ne̝n |nēnēn |ninín |nenén |ninín |ninin ~ ninina|niˈnini | |1 pl. |*na | |ná- |na- |nɑ- |na |nɑ- | |eat/drink |*na- |nɔ̄- |nɑ- |nə- ~ na-|nɑ- |na- |nɑ- | |banana |*naᵋ |nàē |náɛ̀ |nɛ̀ |ne | | | |friend/relative|*naɸ[u] | |nafu [hj] | |nafu [hs]| | | |sky |*nɔt |ˈnɔ́ˑɾɔ̄ | |nɔ́r |noɾ |noro | | | |***-n-** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |ergative |*-nɛ | | |-nɛ | |-nɛ | | |on/at |*manɛ | | |manɛ | |manɛ | | |when? |*bɛsanɛ |bɛ̄sànᵊ |bɛ̄sánɛ̄n |bɛsanɛ̂ |biˈsɑne | | | |fly (n.) |*b[u]mani | |bumani [hj]| | | |bumeni [hj]| |name |*ne̝ne̝n |nēnēn |ninín |nenén |ninín |ninin ~ ninina|niˈnini | |knowledge |*tane̝ |danē |dɑní- | | | | | |cassowary |*sigina |sīkīna |sikinɑ́ |sikinà |sigiˈnɑ |sikina |sikiˈnɑ | |knowledge |*[k/g]ane̝ | | |kane |kɑˈni- |kɛni- |ˈkeni- | |star |*guⁱni |ˈkūnˑìˑ |kúˈnìː | |sin-kwin |kuini |kʷini | Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is voiced to /d/ in Barikewa and fricated and deoccluded to /h/ in Kaser and Mouwase: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***t-** |**d** |**d** |**h** |**h** |**h** |**h** | |yesterday/tom.|*t[e̝/a]t |dǎɾē |dǎr̃ |hēɾ |hiɾ |hira ~ hiri-|ˈhiɾi | |fruit/seed |*taᵋ | |dàē |haɛ ~ hã́ɛ| |haɛ |hɑe | |two |*taᵋ | | |hã̄ɛ ~ haɛ|hɑ̃ẽ |haɛ | | |foot/leg |*tãᵋ |dāé |dae |hâɛ |hɑ̃i |haɛ |hɑe | |base/root |*t… |daūwī |dāᵘí |hɛⁱ |hɛ́i ~ həi|hɛi |hei | |bone |*tab |dāˑwɔ̄ ~ ˈdɑ̄βɔ|dɑβ |háβ |hɑβ |haβɔ ~ haβa |ˈhɑβɔ | |knowledge |*tane̝ |danē |dɑní- | | | | | |snake |*tat | | |hār |hɑɾ |harɛ |ˈhɑɾe | When /*t/ is followed by /*s/ in the onset of the next syllable or root-finally, the expected reflex /h/ is dropped in Kaser and sporadically in Mouwase: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr | |**** |***t-/_Vs**|**** |**** |**ø** |**** |**h [h ø]** |**** | |grass |*tasan | | |asan | |hasana | | |spittle/saliva|*tɔs | | |ɔs | |hɔsɔ | | |weep/cry |*tus | | |us- | |hus(u)- ~ us-| | In one example, Barikewa initial [h] indicates a loan from Kaser: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***t₂-** |**h** |**** |**h** |**** |**h** |**** | |canoe|*t₂aᵘ |hə̄u | |həu | |hɔu | | Medial /*t/ is lenited to non-stop [ɾ], as it is in Lake Kutubu: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***-t-** |**** |**ɾ** |**r [ɾ]**|**ɾ** |**r [ɾ]**|**ɾ** | |dual |*-ti | |-ɾi |-rí |-ɾi |-ri |-ɾi | |give |*ɔt- |ɔ̄rɔ̄- | | | |ɔrɔ- |or- | |old/rotten|*b[a/ɔ]ti |bāɾi |bɑ̀ɾí | |bɑɾí |bɔri |ˈboɾi | |dove |*b[a/ɔ]tɛ | | |bɔ́rɛ̀ | |-barɛ | | |finish |*ɸ[ɛ]tɔ | | |ɸɔrɔ́- | |ɸɛrɔ | | |soft |*datamɛ₂ | | |taramà | |taramɛ | | |good |*d₂atɔ |dàɾɔ̀ |dɑɾo |darɔ̀ |ˈdɑɾo |daɾɔ |ˈdɑɾo | |crocodile |*sib₂ita | | |sibirá | |sibira | | |rat/mouse |*gaⁱɸati |kɨ̄iɸàɾi |ˈkɑiɸaɾi| |kɑiɸaˈɾi|kɛiɸari |keiˈɸaɾi| |sit |*gati- | |koɾí- |kəri |kɑˈɾi- |kɛri- |ˈkeɾi- | |rain |*go̝te̝ |kōɾē |kóɾé |ko̝re̝ |kuɾí | |kuɾi | |louse |*gutɔm |kūɾɔ̄n |kūɾɔ́n | |kuˈɾom | |kuɾomo | Velar voiceless stop /*k/ is only found intially, where it is retained as such in Kaser and Mouwase and dropped in Barikewa: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River |Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | |**** |***k-** |**ø** |**ø** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** | |stone/rock|*kam |āmò |ɑ́mò |kām |kɑm |ka ~ kama|ˈkɑmo | |small |*kɔse̝(-me̝)|sī-mbīʔ |sī-mí |kɔse(-me)|ˈkos-mi | | | |lung(s) |*kɔsɛ | | | |ˈkuse |kɔsɛ |kose | |mouth |*ko̝ |ō- ~ ōˑ- |u- ~ ˈôː-|kò- |ku- |ku- |ku- | |laugh |*ko̝a |wāː |waː- |koa- |koɑ- ~ kwɑ-|kɔa- |ˈkoɑ- | Initial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***b-** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** | |lie down/sleep |*bis- |bis- |bis- |bis- |bis- |bisi- |bis- | |come |*be̝n- |bēn- |bi- |ben- |bi- |bi(n)- ~ bɛ-|bi- | |turn over |*bɛ- | | |bɛ- | |bɛ- | | |woman |*bɛs |bɛ̄ ́sɛʔ | |bɛ̄s |bes |bɛsɛ ~ bɛsa |ˈbese | |when? |*bɛsanɛ |bɛ̄sànᵊ |bɛ̄sánɛ̄n |bɛsanɛ̂ |biˈsɑne | | | |what? |*ba | | | | |baː |bɑ | |sap |*baⁱ | | |bəi | | | | |break |*baᵋ- | | |bəɛ | |baɛ ~ bai | | |child |*baᵘm | | |baum ~ bə́um|bɑun- ~ -bom|bumu ~ buma |bon- ~ -bumo| |old/rotten |*b[a/ɔ]ti |bāɾi |bɑ̀ɾí | |bɑɾí |bɔri |ˈboɾi | |dove |*b[a/ɔ]tɛ | | |bɔ́rɛ̀ | |-barɛ | | |hair/leaf/feather|*bɔt |-bɔ̄ɾɔ̄ ~ -bɔ̄ɾ|-bór ~ -bɔ̄r̃|-bɔ̀r |-bor |-bɔrɔ ~ -bɔr|-ˈboɾo | |neck |*bo̝gɔ | |ˈboko |bokɔ̀ |buˈko |bɔkɔ | | |fly (n.) |*b[u]mani | |bumani [hj] | | | |bumeni [hj] | Root-medial /*b/ is lenited to [β] in all dscendants. This is synchronically viewable as /w/, because medial [b] /*b₂/ is well established in loans (below,) there is otherwise no trace of Omati River medial /*w/, and because neighboring inland Gulf languages typically occlude medial but not initial /*w/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***-b-** |**β w** |**β w** |**β** |**β** |**β** |**β** | |indicative |*-bɔ |-βɔ ~ -wɔ |-wo ~ -βo ~ -βɔ| | | | | |wind |*Vbubu |āβūβū |āβúβū | | |iβuβu |ˈiβuβu| |big |*magaᵘbu |makuwu |mɑ̀kuβu |makauβu |mɑˈkuβu |makuβu |mɑkuβu| |heavy |*d₂abi |dāβí |dɑ́βí | |dɑβí | | | |share |*d₂uba | | |duβa | |duβa | | |earth/ground|*sabɔ |sāˈβɔ̀ |sɑ̄βó |saβɔ́ |sɑˈβo | | | |frog |*sɔbɛ |sūβɛ́ |sɔ̀wɛ́ |sɔβɛ́ |soβe | | | |corpse |*[k/g]o̝bo̝| | |koβo | |kuβu | | |cold |*ge̝be̝ |kēβè |kíβi |keβè |kiβi |kiβi |kiβi | |netbag |*gabɔs |kāβɔ́s |kàˈwɔ́s |kaβɔs |kɑβos |kaβɔsɔ |kɑβɔsɔ| |ear |*gɔbi |kɔ́βī |kóβi |kɔβi |ˈkoβi |kɔβi | | |person |*go̝bɛ |koβɛ ~ kɔβɛ |kɔ̀βɛ́ |kɔβɛ́ ~ koβɛ|koβe ~ kuβe| | | |vine |*jabu | |jɑ́βú | |iɑβu |rɔβu |ɾoβu | |moon |*wasiba |ˈwáːsīβā ~\\ ˈwáːsīwā|wáːsiβàː |βasiβà |wɑsiβa | | | Medial [*b] in native words indicates a compound or reduplication. It is sometimes realized as voiceless [p] in Petterson's Barikiwa and Mouwase: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River |Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***…-b-** |**b [b p]**|**b** |**b** |**b**|**b [b p]**|**b [b p]**| |butterfly|*b[ɔⁱ]-b[ɔⁱ]| |bui-bui [hj]| | |pɔi-pɔi | | |sole |*tãᵋ-baᵋ |dāé-pāɛ́ |dai-bai [hj]| | |haɛ-paɛ |hɑe-pɑe | |six (?) |*se̝-bɔt | | |sé-bɔ̀r | | | | |mouth |*ko̝-bɔ |ō-bɔ̄ | | | |ku-bɔ |ku-bo | Here root-medial [b] indicates a loan from Inland Gulf or Kiwai: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***-b₂-** |**** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** | |wallaby |*tɛb₂ɛtɛ | | |tɛ̀bɛrɛ |ˈtebeɾe|tɛbɛrɛ |ˈtebeɾe| |crocodile |*sib₂ita | | |sibirá | |sibira | | |flying fox|*gub₂ɛi |kūbèi |kúbɛ̀i | |kubei | |kubei | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River |Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***-b₂- (?)**|**** |**b** |**b** |**?**|**?** |**b** | |father |*ab₂[a] | |ˈɑbɑ́ |abá ~ abɔ̀| | | | |man's sister|*bab₂[o̝] | | | | | |bɑˈbo | Initial apical voiced stop /*d/ is devoiced to /t/ in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***d-** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |hit/beat/kill |*dɛ- | | |tɛ̄- |te- |tɛ- |te- | |path |*dɛⁱ |tíː |tí | |rei [kf] | | | |two |*d[aⁱ] |tēi |tɛ́i: | | |-tai |-tɑi | |egg |*damɛ |tāmē |támɛ́ |tamɛ̀ |tɑme | | | |father |*dab[u] |tāβù | |taβu |tɑβu | | | |theft |*dan | | |tan | |-tana ~ -ta| | |soft |*datamɛ₂ | | |taramà | |taramɛ | | |egg |*daᵘm | | |-tə́um | |tɔumu ~ tɔu|toumu | |see |*do̝- |tōˑ- |tu- |to- |tu- |tɔ- |to- | |bird's tail |*dumi |tūˈmì |tumi | | |tumi | | |navel |*dum[a] | |tuma [hj]| |tuma [hs]| | | |index finger/4|*duɸ | |tufu [hj]|-tùɸ | | |tufu ~ tufi [hj]| … /*d₂/ …: :\\ |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***d₂-** |**** |**d** |**d** |**d** |**d** |**d** | |body |*d₂in |dìˑn |-dini [hj]|dìn | | |-dino [hj]| |path |*d₂igɛ | | |dikɛ́ |ˈdike |dikɛ |ˈdike | |pandanus sp.|*d₂aᵘ | | |də́u | |dɔu- | | |sago |*d₂am | | |dám | |damɔ ~ da| | |go up |*d₂ab- | | |daβ ~ daβɔ| |daβɔ | | |heavy |*d₂abi |dāβí |dɑ́βí | |dɑβí | | | |good |*d₂atɔ |dàɾɔ̀ |dɑɾo |darɔ̀ |ˈdɑɾo |daɾɔ |ˈdɑɾo | |lime |*d₂ɔ | |do [hj] | |do [hs]| |do [hj] | |make |*d₂ɔ-d₂ɔ | | |dɔdɔ̀ | |dɔdɔ | | |fall |*d₂ɔɸi | | |dɔɸi | |dɔɸi | | |after/behind|*d₂u | | |dù | |du | | |fireplace |*d₂um | | |dúm | |duma |dumu | |share |*d₂uba | | |duβa | |duβa | | |bean |*d₂ugɔt |dūkɔ̀ |duˈkɔ̄ː̀ |dukɔr |dukoɾ | | | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***d-/…-** |**** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |long |*sɔ-diɸ |sɔ̄-tīf |so-tiɸ | | |sɔ-tiɸi |ˈsoː-tifi| |eyeball|*isi-daᵘm | | |si-tə́um |si-tom |isi-tɔmu | | |elbow |*se̝-dagu |sé-tākù |ˈsi-tɑ́kà| |si-tɑˈku|si-tuku |ˈsi-tuku | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | |****|***d** |**** |**d** |**?** |**d** |**?** |**d** | |arm |*se̝-din |sē dìn |si-dini [hj]| |si-dini [hs]| |si-dino [sic] [hj]| …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***-d-** |**** |**ɾ** |**t** |**t**|**t** |**t** | |older sibling|*adɛ |āɾè |ɑ́ɾe |atè |ɑte |atɛ |ˈɑte | |again |*mɔdɛ | | |mɔtɛrî | |mɔtɛ | | Velar voiced stop /*g/ is devoiced to /k/ in all descendants. Initially, /*g/ much more common than /*k/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | |**** |***g-** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** | |wet |*gimin | |kimín |kimìn |kiˈmin |kimina ~ kimi| | |back |*gimit |kīˈmīɾɩ | | | | |kiˈmiɾi | |claw |*giɸ | |kíːɸ | | | |ˈkìɸi | |sand |*gigi[n] | |kíkín | |kiki | | | |cold |*ge̝be̝ |kēβè |kíβi |keβè |kiβi |kiβi |kiβi | |mosquito |*ge̝so̝n | |kisinu [hj]|kesón | |kisunu | | |tusk |*gɛsɛga |kēsēkɑ̄ |késéˈkâ | |kisⁱˈkɑ |kɛsɛka |ˈkesekɑ́ | |yam |*gɛsab |kēsāβɔ |kèˈsáβ | |kesɑβ | | | |blood |*gaⁱ |kɨ̄í |kəi |kə́i |kəi |kɛi |kei | |old |*gaⁱ |káe | |kai |kɑi | | | | | | | | | | | | |tail |*gaᵘ | | |kə̀u |kəu |kɔu |kou | |rat/mouse |*gaⁱɸati |kɨ̄iɸàɾi |ˈkɑiɸaɾi | |kɑiɸaˈɾi |kɛiɸari |keiˈɸaɾi | |bird |*gaᵋ | | |káɛ |kɑe |kaɛ |kɑe | |heart |*gamo̝ |kāˑmò |kɑ́mò |kamù ~ -kamo |ˈkɑmu |kamu |ˈkɑmu | |night |*gaɸo̝n |kāˈɸòn |kàˈɸón |kaɸon ~ kaɸún|kɑɸun |kaɸu ~ kaɸunu|kɑɸunu | |rain/snake |*gab |kāβɔ́ |kɑwó | |kap [kf] | |kavo [kf]| |netbag |*gabɔs |kāβɔ́s |kàˈwɔ́s |kaβɔs |kɑβos |kaβɔsɔ |kɑβɔsɔ | |sit |*gati- | |koɾí- |kəri |kɑˈɾi |kɛri- |ˈkeɾi- | |dog |*gas |kàˑs |kɑs |kās |kɑs |kasɛ ~ kasa |kɑse | |new |*gasi |kāsì |kâsî | |kɑˈsí |kɛsi |keˈsi | |die |*gase̝- |kàse- |kase- |kas- |kɑsi- |kasi- |kɑsi- | |pig |*gɔn | | |kɔ̀n |kon |kɔn |kono | |saliva/spittle |*gɔs[ɛ] | |kose [hj] | | | | | |ear |*gɔbi |kɔ́βī |kóβi |kɔβi |ˈkoβi |kɔβi | | |ear |*go̝ | |ko | | | |kuku | |tongue |*go̝mɛn |kˈōˑmɛ̄n |kɔ̄mɛ́n |komɛ́n |kuˈmén | |koˈmene | |person |*go̝bɛ |koβɛ ~ kɔβɛ |kɔ̀βɛ́ |kɔβɛ́ ~ koβɛ |koβe ~ kuβe| | | |rain |*go̝te̝ |kōɾē |kóɾé |kore |kuɾí | |kuɾi | |dry |*gu |kū |kú | |ku | |ku | |song/dance |*guⁱn | |ˈkwiìːn- |kuīn |kuin- | |kʷi- | |star |*guⁱni |ˈkūnˑìˑ |kúˈnìː | |sin-kwin |kuini |kʷini | |flying fox |*gub₂ɛi |kūbèi |kúbɛ̀i | |kubei | |kubei | |short |*guɸi |kōɸɨ̄i |kūɸi | |kuˈɸi |kuɸi |kufi | |louse |*gutɔm |kūɾɔ̄n |kūɾɔ́n | |kuˈɾom | |kuɾomo | |claw/nail |*gujɔ̃ | |kuiɔ | |kuiṍ | | | |**** |***-g-** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** | |old man |*magaⁱ |mākɨ̀i ~ mɑ̄kɨ̀i|ˈmɑkəi |makə̀i |mɑˈkəi |makɛi |mɑkei | |knee |*magu |mɑ̄ˑkúˑ |mɑ̀kú | |mɑˈku | | | |tooth |*magu |-mākū |-mɑ̄kù | | | | | |big |*magaᵘbu |makuwu |mɑ̀kuβu |makauβu |mɑˈkuβu |makuβu |mɑkuβu | |neck |*bo̝gɔ | |ˈboko |bokɔ̀ |buˈko |bɔkɔ | | |chest |*ɸaga |ɸāˈkà | |ɸakà | |ɸaka | | |path |*d₂igɛ | | |dikɛ́ |ˈdike |dikɛ |ˈdike | |elbow |*-dagu |-tākù |-tɑ́kà | |-tɑˈku |-tuku |-tuku | |cassowary |*sigina |sīkīna |sikinɑ́ |sikinà |sigiˈnɑ |sikina |sikiˈnɑ | |father's sister|*sigase̝ | | |sikasè | |sikasi | | |one |*sagan | | |sakán |sɑˈkɑn |sakana ~ saka|sɑkɑ | |tobacco |*so̝go̝ |sūkú |sókóː |sokó |suku | |suku | |sand |*gigi[n] | |kíkín | |kiki | | | |tusk |*gɛsɛga |kēsēkɑ̄ |késéˈkâ | |kisⁱˈkɑ |kɛsɛka |ˈkesekɑ́ | Inital and medial bilabial fricative /*ɸ/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | |**** |***ɸ-** |**** |**ɸ [f]** |**ɸ** |**ɸ [ɸ f]**|**ɸ** |**ɸ** | |sweat |*ɸisV | | | | |ɸisu | | |taro |*ɸe̝t | |fir̃ |ɸér |fiɾ | | | |knife |*ɸe̝t | | |ɸer- |ɸiɾ- |ɸiri ~ ɸira |ɸiɾi | |finish |*ɸ[ɛ]tɔ | | |ɸɔrɔ́- | |ɸɛrɔ | | |areca nut |*ɸaᵋ |ɸāē | | | | | | |day |*ɸaᵋ | | |ɸàɛ | |ɸaɛ | | |chest |*ɸaga |ɸāˈkà | |ɸakà | |ɸaka | | |**** |***-ɸ-** |**** |**ɸ [ɸ f]**|**ɸ** |**ɸ [ɸ f]**|**ɸ** |**ɸ [ɸ f]**| |light (weight) |*[ɔ]ɸɛ |ɛ̄fɛ́ |ɛɸɛ́ |ɛɸɛ́ |eɸe | |ɔɸe | |friend/relative|*naɸ[u] | |nafu [hj] | |nafu [hs] | | | |fall |*d₂ɔɸi | | |dɔɸi | |dɔɸi | | |rat/mouse |*gaⁱɸati |kɨ̄iɸàɾi |ˈkɑiɸaɾi | |kɑiɸaˈɾi |kɛiɸari |keiˈɸaɾi | |night |*gaɸo̝n |kāˈɸòn |kàˈɸón |kaɸon ~ kaɸún|kɑɸun |kaɸu ~ kaɸunu|kɑɸunu | |short |*guɸi |kōɸɨ̄i |kūɸi | |kuˈɸi |kuɸi |kufi | Initial and medial fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River |Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | |**** |***s-** |**** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** | |crocodile |*sib₂ita | | |sibirá | |sibira | | |cassowary |*sigina |sīkīna |sikinɑ́ |sikinà |sigiˈnɑ|sikina |sikiˈnɑ | |father's sister|*sigase̝ | | |sikasè | |sikasi | | |hand/arm |*se̝ |sē ~ sɩˑ- |si ~ sé |sè |si |si |si | |three |*se̝t |sèˑɾē |sɛ̀ⁱr̃ |sēr |siɾ |sir ~ siri |siɾi | |hornbill |*s[ãᵘ] | |so [hj] | |so [hs]|sɔu | | |white |*sabia |sēβà |séβàː |saβia |sɑβiɑ́ |sɛβɛa |seβeɑ | |fat/grease |*sam |sàˑn |sān | |sɑm |sama |sɑmo | |afternoon |*samɛ₂ |sāmə̀ |sāmá |samá |sɑmɑ |samɛ |sɑme | |earth/ground |*sabɔ |sāˈβɔ̀ |sɑ̄βó |saβɔ́ |sɑˈβo | | | |one |*sagan | | |sakán |sɑˈkɑn |sakana ~ saka|sɑkɑ | |long |*sɔ |sɔ̄- |so- |sɔ̀ |so |sɔ |ˈsoː- | |frog |*sɔbɛ |sūβɛ́ |sɔ̀wɛ́ |sɔβɛ́ |soβe | | | |breast |*sõ̝ |sóˑ |su |sȭ |su |su |su | |garden |*so̝n |sòˑn | |son | |sunu ~suna~su| | |tobacco |*so̝go̝ |sūkú |sókóː |sokó |suku | |suku | |smoke |*suⁱn |-sūˑ |-sũì | |-sín | |-sini | |view |*sumin | | |sumín | |sumi | | |pitpit |*sumɛn | | |sumɛn | |sumɛnɛ | | |bandicoot |*suma |sūmā | |sumá | |suma | | |**** |***-s-** |**** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** | |eye |*isĩ |sì |sî |sì |si |isi |isi | |sun |*ɛsɔa |ˈíˈsūː ~ ɩsuwu|ésóò |iɔs |jos |soa |ˈsoɑ | |that |*asa | | | | | |ˈɑsɑ | |lie down/sleep |*bis- |bis- |bis- |bis- |bis- |bisi- |bis- | |when? |*bɛsanɛ |bɛ̄sànᵊ |bɛ̄sánɛ̄n |bɛsanɛ̂ |biˈsɑne| | | |sweat |*ɸisu | | | | |ɸisu | | |grass |*tasan | | |asan | |hasana | | |father's sister|*sigase̝ | | |sikasè | |sikasi | | |small |*kɔse̝(-me̝) |sī-mbīʔ |sī-mí |kɔse(-me) |ˈkos-mi| | | |lung(s) |*kɔsɛ | | | |ˈkuse |kɔsɛ |kose | |kina shell |*[k/g]usi(-mat)| | |kusí(-mar)| |kusi-marɛ | | |cut up |*[k/g]usu | | |kusu | |kukusu | | |mosquito |*ge̝so̝n | |kisinu [hj]|kesón | |kisunu | | |tusk |*gɛsɛga |kēsēkɑ̄ |késéˈkâ | |kisⁱˈkɑ|kɛsɛka |ˈkesekɑ́| |yam |*gɛsab |kēsāβɔ |kèˈsáβ | |kesɑβ | | | |new |*gasi |kāsì |kâsî | |kɑˈsí |kɛsi |keˈsi | |die |*gase̝- |kàse- |kase- |kas- |kɑsi- |kasi- |kɑsi- | |saliva/spittle |*gɔs[e/ɛ] | |kose [hj] | | | | | |moon |*wasiba |ˈwáːsīβā |wáːsiβàː |βasiβà |wɑsiβa | | | |spear |*wasum | | | |wɑsum |βɔsumu |wɑsumo | Bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr | |**** |***w-** |**** |**w [w u]**|**β [w]**|**w** |**β [w]** |**w [w v]**| |shoulder|*w[aⁱ] |-wūˑ |-wì | |wi |βɔi |wei | |water |*wẽ̝ |wēː |we ~ ué | | | | | |seedling|*wãᵋ |wáɛ | | |wə̃ĩ |βai ~ -βaɛ| | |moon |*wasiba |ˈwáːsīβā |wáːsiβàː |βasiβà |wɑsiβa| | | |spear |*wasum | | | |wɑsum |βɔsumu |wɑsumo | |people |*wɔm |wɔ̄n |wɔn |βɔ́m |wom |βɔm |ˈwomo | Palatal non-stop /*j/ occurs only root-initially, where it is occluded to apical /r/ [ɾ] in Mouwase: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | |**** |***j-** |**** |**j** |**** |**j**|**r** |**ɾ** | |2 pl. |*ja | |já- | |ˈjɑ- |ra |ɾɑ- | |vine |*jabu | |jɑ́βú | |iɑβu |rɔβu |ɾoβu | |yellow |*jaja |jǣjā |jèjá | |jijɑ | |ˈɾɑɾɑ | |sugarcane |*jɔᵘ |jɔù |jóù | |jou |rɔu |ɾou | |nose/point|*ju |jū |jú | |-ju | | | The only known example of medial /*j/ is likely a reduplication: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***-j-** |**** |**j** |**** |**j**|**** |**ɾ** | |yellow|*jaja |jǣjā |jèjá | |jijɑ | |ˈɾɑɾɑ | Only a restricted set of consonants occurs finally ….\\ \\ Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is found only following non-front vowels /*u * ɔ *aᵘ *a/. It is reflected as apical /n/ in Barikewa. …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***-m/u_** |**** |**** |**m** |**m** |**mu ma** |**mu mo** | |fireplace |*d₂um | | |dúm | |duma |dumu | |fire/red |*[k/g]um | | |kùm |kum |kumu |ˈkumu | |spear |*wasum | | | |wɑsum |βɔsumu |wɑsumo | | |***-m/aᵘ_**|**** |**** |**m** |**m** |**mu ma ø** |**mu mo** | |child |*baᵘm | | |baum ~ bə́um|bɑun- ~ -bom|bumu ~ buma\\ ~bu|bon- ~ -bumo | |egg |*daᵘm | | |-tə́um | |tɔumu ~ tɔu |toumu | | |***-m/ɔ_** |**** |**n** |**m** |**m** |**m ma ø** |**mo** | |morning |*[k/g]ɛɔm | | |kiɔ̀m |kjom |kɛo ~ kɛoma |keou ~ ˈkeoma| |louse |*gutɔm |kūɾɔ̄n |kūɾɔ́n | |kuˈɾom | |kuɾomo | |people |*wɔm |wɔ̄n |wɔn |βɔ́m |wom |βɔm |ˈwomo | | |***-m/a_** |**** |**n** |**m** |**m** |**mɔ ma ø** |**mo** | |sago |*d₂am | | |dám | |damɔ ~ da | | |fat/grease|*sam |sàˑn |sān | |sɑm |sama |sɑmo | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***…** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |stone/rock|*kam |āmò |ɑ́mò |kām |kɑm |ka ~ kama|ˈkɑmo | Final /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River |Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***-n/i_** |**** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**ni na ø** |**ni** | |this/here|*ɛn | | |ɛn |en |ɛni ~ ɛn- |ˈenɑ | |house |*min |mìn ~ minì|mîn |mīn |min |mini ~ mina |mini | |speech |*me̝n | | |mèn |min |mini ~mina ~mi| | |body |*d₂in |dìˑn |-dini [hj] |dìn | | |-dino [hj]| |view |*sumin | | |sumín | |sumi | | |wet |*gimin | |kimín |kimín |kiˈmin|kimina ~ kimi | | | |***-n/uⁱ_** |**** |**ø** |**** |**n** |**** |**ni** | |smoke |*suⁱn |-sūˑ |-sũì | |-sín | |-sini | | |***-n/u_** |**** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**nu na** |**nu** | |banana |*[k/g][o̝/u]n| | | |kun |kunu ~ kuna |ˈkunu | | |***-n/e̝_** |**** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n na** |**ni** | |name |*ne̝ne̝n |nēnēn |ninín |nenén |ninín |ninin ~ ninina|niˈnini | | |***-n/o̝_** |**** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**nu na ø** |**nu** | |garden |*so̝n |sòˑn | |son | |sunu ~suna~su | | |mosquito |*ge̝so̝n | |kisinu [hj]|kesón | |kisunu | | |night |*gaɸo̝n |kāˈɸòn |kàˈɸón |kaɸon ~ kaɸún|kɑɸun |kaɸu ~ kaɸunu |kɑɸunu | | |***-n/ɛ_** |**** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**** |**ne** | |pitpit |*sumɛn | | |sumɛn | |sumɛnɛ | | |tongue |*go̝mɛn |kˈōˑmɛ̄n |kɔ̄mɛ́n |komɛ́n |kuˈmén| |koˈmene | | |***-n/ɔ_** |**** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**nɔ na ø** |**no** | |thing |*[k/g]ɔn | | |kɔ̄n | |kɔnɔ ~kona ~ko| | |pig |*gɔn | | |kɔ̀n | |kɔ |kono | | |***-n/a_** |**** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**na ø** |**ø** | |theft |*dan | | |tan | |-tana ~ -ta | | |one |*sagan | | |sakán |sɑˈkɑn|sakana ~ saka |sɑkɑ | Final /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***-t/e̝_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |taro |*ɸe̝t | |fir̃ |ɸér |fiɾ | | | |knife |*ɸe̝t | | |ɸer- |ɸiɾ- |ɸiri ~ ɸira |ɸiɾi | |yesterday/tom. |*t[e̝/a]t |dǎɾē |dǎr̃ |hēɾ |hiɾ |hira ~ hiri-|ˈhiɾi | |three |*se̝t |sèˑɾē |sɛ̀ⁱr̃ |sēr |siɾ |sir ~ siri |siɾi | |back |*gimit |kīˈmīɾɩ | | | | |kiˈmiɾi| | |***-t/aᵘ_**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |back |*[k/g]aᵘt | | |kəur |kɑˈwur|kɔuru | | | |***-t/ɛ_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |chin |*-mɛt |-mɛ̄ɾɛ | |-mɛ́r |-mer | | | | |***-t/ɔ_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |wing |*ɔt |ɔ̄ˑɾɔ̀ |ɔ̄r̃ |ɔr |oɾ |ɔrɔ |oɾo | |hair/leaf/feather|*bɔt |-bɔ̄ɾɔ̄ ~ -bɔ̄ɾ|-bór ~ -bɔ̄r̃|-bɔ̀r |-bor |-bɔrɔ ~ -bɔr|-ˈboɾo | |six (?) |*se̝-bɔt | | |sè-bɔ̀r | | | | |sky |*nɔt |ˈnɔ́ˑɾɔ̄ | |nɔ́r |noɾ |noro | | |bean |*d₂ugɔt |dūkɔ̀ |duˈkɔ̄ː̀ |dukɔr |dukoɾ | | | | |***-t/a_** |**** |**** |**r** |**ɾ** |**rɛ ra** |**ɾe** | |branch |*mat |-maˑɾ | |mar | |marɛ ~ mara | | |snake |*tat | | |hār |hɑɾ |harɛ |ˈhɑɾe | Final /*b/ is lenited to [β] …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***-b/u_** |**** |**β** |**β** |**** |**βu βa** |**** | |liver |*ub |ūwū ~ ūβū |úβ |ùβ | |uβu ~ uβa | | | |***-b/e̝_**|**** |**β** |**β** |**β** |**βi βa** |**βi** | |hot |*e̝b |ˈēβè |êβ |éβ |iβ |iβi ~ iβa |iβi | | |***-b/a_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |head |*mab |ˈmàˑβō |mɑβ |màβ |mɑβ |maβɔ ~ maβa|mɑβo | |bone |*tab |dāˑwɔ̄ ~ ˈdɑ̄βɔ|dɑβ |háβ |hɑβ |haβɔ ~ haβa|ˈhɑβɔ | |go up |*d₂ab- | | |daβ ~ daβɔ| |daβɔ | | |yam |*gɛsab |kēsāβɔ |kèˈsáβ | |kesɑβ | | | |rain/snake|*gab |kāβɔ́ |kɑwó | |kap [kf]| |kavo [kf]| When final /*b/ occurs in the first member of a compound, Mouwase unexpectedly reflects it as /h/, joining the reflex of Omati River initial /*t/ (above):\\ \\ …\\ \\ Final /*ɸ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | |**** |***-ɸ/i_** |**** |**ɸ** |**?** |**?**|**ɸi** |**ɸi [ɸ f]** | |long |*sɔ-diɸ |sɔ̄-tīf |so-tiɸ | | |sɔ-tiɸi |ˈsoː-tifi | |claw |*giɸ | |kíːɸ | | | |ˈkìɸi | |**** |***-ɸ/u_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |index finger/4|*duɸ | |tufu [hj]|-tùɸ | | |tufu ~ tufi [hj]| Final /*s/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***-s/i_** |**** |**s** |**s** |**s**|**** |**si**| |meat/flesh |*mis |mīs |mǐs |mīs |mis | |misi | | |***-s/u_** |**** |**** |**s** |**** |**su** |**** | |weep/cry |*tus | | |us- | |hus(u)- ~ us-| | | |***-s/ɛ_** |**** |**s** |**s** |**s**|**sɛ sa** |**se**| |woman |*bɛs |bɛ̄ ́sɛʔ | |bɛ̄s |bes |bɛsɛ ~ bɛsa |ˈbese | | |***-s/ɔ_** |**** |**s** |**s** |**s**|**sɔ** |**sɔ**| |spittle/saliva|*tɔs | | |ɔs | |hɔsɔ | | |netbag |*gabɔs |kāβɔ́s |kàˈwɔ́s |kaβɔs |kɑβos|kaβɔsɔ |kɑβɔsɔ| | |***-s/a_** |**** |**s** |**s** |**s**|**sɛ sa** |**se**| |dog |*gas |kàˑs |kɑs |kās |kɑs |kasɛ ~ kasa |kɑse | Like Rumu (q.v. Petterson 1992,) Proto-Omati River distinguished seven vowels, /*i *u *e̝ *o̝ *ɛ *ɔ *a/.\\ \\ High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River |Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | |**** |***i** |**i** |**i** |**i** |**i** |**i** |**i** | |tree/fire |*i |ìː ~ ìˑ |î ~ í- |ìː |i |iː |i | |2 sg. |*i | | |i |i- |i |i- | |dual |*-ti | |-ɾi |-rí |-ɾi |-ri |-ɾi | |house |*min |mìn ~ minì|mîn |mīn |min |mini ~ mina |mini | |meat/flesh |*mis |mīs |mǐs |mīs |mis | |misi | |lie down/sleep |*bis- |bis- |bis- |bis- |bis- |bisi- |bis- | |long |*-diɸ |-tīf |-tiɸ | | |-tiɸi |-tifi | |body |*d₂in |dìˑn |-dini [hj] |dìn | | |-dino [sic] [hj]| |claw |*giɸ | |kíːɸ | | | |ˈkìɸi | |eye |*isĩ |sì |sî |sì |si |isi |isi | |dirt |*[k/g]imi | | |kimì | |kimi | | |wet |*gimin | |kimín |kimín |kiˈmin |kimina ~ kimi| | |back |*gimit |kīˈmīɾɩ | | | | |kiˈmiɾi | |sand |*gigi[n] | |kíkín | |kiki | | | |sweat |*ɸisu | | | | |ɸisu | | |path |*d₂igɛ | | |dikɛ́ |ˈdike |dikɛ |ˈdike | |crocodile |*sib₂ita | | |sibirá | |sibira | | |cassowary |*sigina |sīkīna |sikinɑ́ |sikinà |sigiˈnɑ |sikina |sikiˈnɑ | |father's sister|*sigase̝ | | |sikasè | |sikasi | | |bird's tail |*dumi |tūˈmì |tumi | | |tumi | | |kina shell |*[k/g]usi(-mat)| | |kusí(-mar)| |kusi-marɛ | | |short |*guɸi |kōɸɨ̄i |kūɸi | |kuˈɸi |kuɸi |kufi | |view |*sumin | | |sumín | |sumi | | |star |*guⁱni |ˈkūnˑìˑ |kúˈnìː | |sin-kwin|kuini |kʷini | |fall |*d₂ɔɸi | | |dɔɸi | |dɔɸi | | |ear |*gɔbi |kɔ́βī |kóβi |kɔβi |ˈkoβi |kɔβi | | |heavy |*d₂abi |dāβí |dɑ́βí | |dɑβí | | | |new |*gasi |kāsì |kâsî | |kɑˈsí |kɛsi |keˈsi | |moon |*wasiba |ˈwáːsīβā |wáːsiβàː |βasiβà |wɑsiβa | | | |fly (n.) |*b[u]mani | |bumani [hj]| | | |bumeni [hj] | |rat/mouse |*gaⁱɸati |kɨ̄iɸàɾi |ˈkɑiɸaɾi | |kɑiɸaˈɾi|kɛiɸari |keiˈɸaɾi | High back vowel /*u/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River |Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | |**** |***u** |**u** |**u** |**u** |**u** |**u** |**u** | |liver |*ub |ūwū ~ ūβū |úβ |ùβ | |uβu ~ uβa | | |after/behind |*d₂u | | |dù | |du | | |dry |*gu |kū |kú | |ku | |ku | |nose/point |*ju |jū |jú | |-ju | | | |weep/cry |*tus | | |us- | |hus(u)- ~ us-| | |fireplace |*d₂um | | |dúm | |duma |dumu | |index finger/4 |*duɸ | |tufu [hj] |-tùɸ | | |tufu ~ tufi [hj]| |cut up |*[k/g]usu | | |kusu | |kukusu | | |bird's tail |*dumi |tū'mì |tumi | | |tumi | | |kina shell |*[k/g]usi(-mat)| | |kusí(-mar)| |kusi-marɛ | | |short |*guɸi |kōɸɨ̄i (?)|kūɸi | |kuˈɸi |kuɸi |kufi | |view |*sumin | | |sumín | |sumi | | |pitpit |*sumɛn | | |sumɛn | |sumɛnɛ | | |flying fox |*gub₂ɛi |kūbèi |kúbɛ̀i | |kubei | |kubei | |bean |*d₂ugɔt |dūkɔ̀ |duˈkɔ̄ː̀ |dukɔr |dukoɾ | | | |louse |*gutɔm |kūɾɔ̄n |kūɾɔ́n | |kuˈɾom | |kuɾomo | |navel |*dum[a] | |tuma [hj] | |tuma [hs]| | | |bandicoot |*suma |sūmā | |sumá | |suma | | |share |*d₂uba | | |duβa | |duβa | | |wind |*Vbubu |āβūβū |āβúβū | | |iβuβu |ˈiβuβu | |knee |*magu |mɑ̄ˑkúˑ |mɑ̀kú | |mɑˈku | | | |tooth |*magu |-mākū |-mɑ̄kù | | | | | |friend/relative|*naɸ[u] | |nafu [hj] | |nafu [hs]| | | |elbow |*-dagu |-tākù |-tɑ́kà (?)| |-tɑˈku |-tuku |-tuku | |spear |*wasum | | | |wɑsum |βɔsumu |wɑsumo | |vine |*jabu | |jɑ́βú | |iɑβu |rɔβu |ɾoβu | |big |*magaᵘbu |makuwu |mɑ̀kuβu |makauβu |mɑˈkuβu |makuβu |mɑkuβu | High mid front vowel /*e̝/ is often heard as high front [i] Barikewa and Kaser and has merged with /i/ in Mouwase: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River |Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***e̝** |**** |**e̝ [e i]**|**e** |**e̝ [e i]**|**i** |**i** | |hot |*e̝b |ˈēβè |êβ |éβ |iβ |iβi ~ iβa |iβi | |hand/arm |*se̝ |sē ~ sɩˑ-|si ~ sé |sè |si |si |si | |water |*wẽ̝ |wēː |we ~ ué | | | | | |speech |*me̝n | | |mèn |min |mini ~mina ~mi| | |come |*be̝n- |bēn- |bi- |ben- |bi- |bi(n)- ~ bɛ- |bi- | |knife |*ɸe̝t | | |ɸer- |ɸiɾ- |ɸiri ~ ɸira |ɸiɾi | |three |*se̝t |sèˑɾē |sɛ̀ⁱr̃ |sēr |siɾ |sir ~ siri |siɾi | |cold |*ge̝be̝ |kēβè |kíβi |keβè |kiβi |kiβi |kiβi | |name |*ne̝ne̝n |nēnēn |ninín |nenén |ninín |ninin ~ ninina|niˈnini| |mosquito |*ge̝so̝n | |kisinu [hj] |kesón | |kisunu | | |rain |*go̝te̝ |kōɾē |kóɾé |kore |kuɾí | |kuɾi | |small |*kɔse̝(-me̝)|sī-mbīʔ |sī-mí |kɔse(-me)|ˈkos-mi | | | |knowledge |*tane̝ |danē |dɑní- | | | | | |die |*gase̝- |kàse- |kase- |kas- |kɑsi- |kasi- |kɑsi- | |father's sister|*sigase̝ | | |sikasè | |sikasi | | High mid back vowel /*o̝/ is often heard as high back [u] in Barikewa and Kaser and has merged with /u/ in Mouwase: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***o̝** |**** |**o [o u]**|**o** |**o̝ [o u]**|**u** |**u** | |cloud |*mo̝ |mòˑ |mõ̂ |-mō | |-mu | | |breast |*sõ̝ |sóˑ |su |sȭ |su |su |su | |mouth |*ko̝ |ō- ~ ōˑ- |u- ~ ˈôː- |kò- |ku- |ku- |ku- | |ear |*go̝ | |ko | | | |ku-ku | |garden |*so̝n |sòˑn | |son | |sunu ~suna~su| | |tobacco |*so̝go̝ |sūkú |sókóː |sokó |suku | |suku | |corpse |*[k/g]o̝bo̝| | |koβo | |kuβu | | |rain |*go̝te̝ |kōɾē |kóɾé |kore |kuɾí | |kuɾi | |mosquito|*ge̝so̝n | |kisinu [hj]|kesón | |kisunu | | When /*o̝/ follows low central /*a/ in a previous syllable, Petterson gives Kaser /u/ alongside /o/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***o̝** |**** |**o [o u]**|**o [o u]** |**o̝ [o u]**|**u** |**u** | |heart|*gamo̝ |kāˑmò |kɑ́mò |kamù ~ -kamo |ˈkɑmu |kamu |ˈkɑmu | |night|*gaɸo̝n |kāˈɸòn |kàˈɸón |kaɸon ~ kaɸún|kɑɸun |kaɸu ~ kaɸunu|kɑɸunu| When /*o̝/ is followed by a low mid vowel /*ɛ *ɔ/ in the next syllable, it is retained as such in Kaser and lowered to low mid /ɔ/ in Barikewa and Mouwase: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***o̝/_Cɛ**|**** |**ɔ** |**o** |**o̝ [u]** |**** |**ɔ [o]**| |tongue|*go̝mɛn |kˈōˑmɛ̄n |kɔ̄mɛ́n |komɛ́n |kuˈmén | |koˈmene | |person|*go̝bɛ |koβɛ ~ kɔβɛ|kɔ̀βɛ́ |kɔβɛ́ ~ koβɛ|koβe ~ kuβe| | | | |***o̝/_Cɔ**|**** |**ɔ [o]**|**o** |**o̝ [u]** |**ɔ** |**** | |neck |*bo̝gɔ | |ˈboko |bokɔ̀ |buˈko |bɔkɔ | | … /o̝/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***…** |**** |**o̝ [u]**|**o** |**o̝ [u]**|**ɔ** |**ɔ [o]**| |see |*do̝- |tōˑ- |tu- |to- |tu- |tɔ- |to- | |hear|*[k/g]o̝- | | |ko- |ku- |kɔ - |ko- | Low mid front vowel /*ɛ/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***ɛ** |**** |**ɛ [ɛ e]**|**ɛ** |**ɛ [ɛ e]**|**ɛ** |**ɛ [ɛ e]**| |this/here |*ɛn | | |ɛn |en |ɛni ~ ɛn- |ˈenɑ | |plural |*-mɛ | |-mɛ̀ | |-me |-mɛ | | |turn over |*bɛ- | | |bɛ- | |bɛ- | | |ergative |*-nɛ | | |-nɛ | |-nɛ | | |hit/beat/kill |*dɛ- | | |tɛ̄- |te- |tɛ- |te- | |woman |*bɛs |bɛ̄ ́sɛʔ | |bɛ̄s |bes |bɛsɛ ~ bɛsa|ˈbese | |wallaby |*tɛb₂ɛtɛ | | |tɛ̀bɛrɛ |ˈtebeɾe |tɛbɛrɛ |ˈtebeɾe | |tusk |*gɛsɛga |kēsēkɑ̄ |késéˈkâ | |kisⁱˈkɑ (?)|kɛsɛka |ˈkesekɑ́ | |yam |*gɛsab |kēsāβɔ |kèˈsáβ | |kesɑβ | | | |when? |*bɛsanɛ |bɛ̄sànᵊ |bɛ̄sánɛ̄n |bɛsanɛ̂ |biˈsɑne | | | |path |*d₂igɛ | | |dikɛ́ |ˈdike |dikɛ |ˈdike | |pitpit |*sumɛn | | |sumɛn | |sumɛnɛ | | |light (weight)|*[ɔ]ɸɛ |ɛ̄fɛ́ |ɛɸɛ́ |ɛɸɛ́ |eɸe | |ɔɸe | |person |*go̝bɛ |koβɛ ~ kɔβɛ|kɔ̀βɛ́ |kɔβɛ́ ~ koβɛ|koβe ~ kuβe| | | |tongue |*go̝mɛn |kˈōˑmɛ̄n |kɔ̄mɛ́n |komɛ́n |kuˈmén | |koˈmene | |chin |*-mɛt |-mɛ̄ɾɛ | |-mɛ́r |-mer | | | |again |*mɔdɛ | | |mɔtɛrî | |mɔtɛ | | |frog |*sɔbɛ |sūβɛ́ |sɔ̀wɛ́ |sɔβɛ́ |soβe | | | |lung(s) |*kɔsɛ | | | |ˈkuse |kɔsɛ |kose | |dove |*b[a/ɔ]tɛ | | |bɔ́rɛ̀ | |-barɛ | | |3 pl. |*amɛ | |ʔamɛ̀ | |ɑˈme- |amɛ | | |older sibling |*adɛ |āɾè |ɑ́ɾe |atè (?) |ɑte |atɛ |ˈɑte | |on/at |*manɛ | | |manɛ | |manɛ | | |egg |*damɛ |tāmē |támɛ́ |tamɛ̀ |tɑme | | | In several examples in which Mouwase has /ɛ/ following /a/ in a previous syllable, Barikewa and Kaser reflect /*ɛ/ as /a/. This is not exceptionless (cf. /*damɛ/ above) and the factors which govern this change are unkown: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***ɛ₂** |**** |**a** |**a** |**a [ɑ]**|**ɛ** |**ɛ [e]**| |afternoon|*samɛ₂ |sāmə̀ |sāmá |samá |sɑmɑ |samɛ |sɑme | |soft |*datamɛ₂ | | |taramà | |taramɛ | | Low mid back vowel /*ɔ/ is retained as such in all descendants: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***ɔ** |**** |**ɔ [ɔ o]** |**ɔ** |**ɔ [ɔ o]**|**ɔ** |**ɔ [ɔ o]**| |wing |*ɔt |ɔ̄ˑɾɔ̀ |ɔ̄r̃ |ɔr |oɾ |ɔrɔ |oɾo | |give |*ɔt- |ɔ̄rɔ̄- | | | |ɔrɔ- |or- | |but |*mɔ | | |-mɔ | |mɔ | | |indicative |*-bɔ |-βɔ ~ -wɔ |-wo ~ -βo ~ -βɔ| | | | | |mouth |*-bɔ |-bɔ̄ | | | |-bɔ |-bo | |lime |*d₂ɔ | |do [hj] | |do [hs] | |do [hj] | |long |*sɔ |sɔ̄- |so- |sɔ̀ |so |sɔ |ˈsoː- | |hair/leaf/feather|*bɔt |-bɔ̄ɾɔ̄ ~ -bɔ̄ɾ|-bór ~ -bɔ̄r̃ |-bɔ̀r |-bor |-bɔrɔ ~ -bɔr |-ˈboɾo | |sky |*nɔt |ˈnɔ́ˑɾɔ̄ | |nɔ́r |noɾ |noro | | |spittle/saliva |*tɔs | | |ɔs | |hɔsɔ | | |thing |*[k/g]ɔn | | |kɔ̄n | |kɔnɔ ~kona ~ko| | |pig |*gɔn | | |kɔ̀n |kon |kɔ |kono | |people |*wɔm |wɔ̄n |wɔn |βɔ́m |wom |βɔm |ˈwomo | |make |*d₂ɔ-d₂ɔ | | |dɔdɔ̀ | |dɔdɔ | | |fall |*d₂ɔɸi | | |dɔɸi | |dɔɸi | | |ear |*gɔbi |kɔ́βī |kóβi |kɔβi |ˈkoβi |kɔβi | | |again |*mɔdɛ | | |mɔtɛrî | |mɔtɛ | | |frog |*sɔbɛ |sūβɛ́ |sɔ̀wɛ́ |sɔβɛ́ |soβe | | | |lung(s) |*kɔsɛ | | | |ˈkuse |kɔsɛ |kose | |saliva/spittle |*gɔs[ɛ] | |kose [hj] | | | | | |louse |*gutɔm |kūɾɔ̄n |kūɾɔ́n | |kuˈɾom | |kuɾomo | |six (?) |*se̝-bɔt | | |sè-bɔ̀r | | | | |neck |*bo̝gɔ | |ˈboko |bokɔ̀ |buˈko |bɔkɔ | | |finish |*ɸ[ɛ]tɔ | | |ɸɔrɔ́- | |ɸɛrɔ | | |earth/ground |*sabɔ |sāˈβɔ̀ |sɑ̄βó |saβɔ́ |sɑˈβo | | | |good |*d₂atɔ |dàɾɔ̀ |dɑɾo |darɔ̀ |ˈdɑɾo |daɾɔ |ˈdɑɾo | |netbag |*gabɔs |kāβɔ́s |kàˈwɔ́s |kaβɔs |kɑβos |kaβɔsɔ |kɑβɔsɔ | Low central vowel /*a/ is generally retained as such in all descendants, unless followed by high vowels /*i *u/ (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** | |who? |*ma |màˑ- |mâˑ |mā |mɑ |maː |mɑ | |thumb |*-ma |-mā |-ma |-mà |-mɑ |-ma |-mɑ | |bow |*ma | | |ma |mà | | | |what? |*ba | | | | |baː |bɑ | |1 pl. |*na | |ná- |na- |nɑ- |na |nɑ- | |eat/drink |*na- |nɔ̄- (?) |nɑ- |nə- ~ na- |nɑ- |na- |nɑ- | |2 pl. |*ja | |já- | |ˈjɑ- |ra |ɾɑ- | |head |*mab |ˈmàˑβō |mɑβ |màβ |mɑβ |maβɔ ~ maβa |mɑβo | |branch |*mat |-maˑɾ | |mar | |marɛ ~ mara | | |bone |*tab |dāˑwɔ̄ ~ ˈdɑ̄βɔ |dɑβ |háβ |hɑβ |haβɔ ~ haβa |ˈhɑβɔ | |snake |*tat | | |hār |hɑɾ |harɛ |ˈhɑɾe | |sago |*d₂am | | |dám | |damɔ ~ da | | |go up |*d₂ab- | | |daβ ~ daβɔ | |daβɔ | | |theft |*dan | | |tan | |-tana ~ -ta | | |fat/grease |*sam |sàˑn |sān | |sɑm |sama |sɑmo | |stone/rock |*kam |āmò |ɑ́mò |kām |kɑm |ka ~ kama |ˈkɑmo | |rain/snake |*gab |kāβɔ́ |kɑwó | |kap [kf]| |kavo [kf]| |dog |*gas |kàˑs |kɑs |kās |kɑs |kasɛ ~ kasa |kɑse | |chest |*ɸaga |ɸāˈkà | |ɸakà | |ɸaka | | |yellow |*jaja |jǣjā |jèjá | |jijɑ | |ˈɾɑɾɑ | |grass |*tasan | | |asan | |hasana | | |one |*sagan | | |sakán |sɑˈkɑn |sakana ~ saka|sɑkɑ | |old man |*magaⁱ |mākɨ̀i ~ mɑ̄kɨ̀i|ˈmɑkəi |makə̀i |mɑˈkəi |makɛi |mɑkei | |big |*magaᵘbu |makuwu |mɑ̀kuβu |makauβu |mɑˈkuβu |makuβu |mɑkuβu | |knowledge |*tane̝ |danē |dɑní- | | | | | |die |*gase̝- |kàse- |kase- |kas- |kɑsi- |kasi- |kɑsi- | |heart |*gamo̝ |kāˑmò |kɑ́mò |kamù ~ -kamo |ˈkɑmu |kamu |ˈkɑmu | |night |*gaɸo̝n |kāˈɸòn |kàˈɸón |kaɸon ~ kaɸún|kɑɸun |kaɸu ~ kaɸunu|kɑɸunu | |3 pl. |*amɛ | |ʔamɛ̀ | |ɑˈme- |amɛ | | |older sibling |*adɛ |āɾè |ɑ́ɾe |atè |ɑte |atɛ |ˈɑte | |on/at |*manɛ | | |manɛ | |manɛ | | |egg |*damɛ |tāmē |támɛ́ |tamɛ̀ |tɑme | | | |afternoon |*samɛ₂ |sāmə̀ |sāmá |samá |sɑmɑ |samɛ |sɑme | |soft |*datamɛ₂ | | |taramà | |taramɛ | | |good |*d₂atɔ |dàɾɔ̀ |dɑɾo |darɔ̀ |ˈdɑɾo |daɾɔ |ˈdɑɾo | |earth/ground |*sabɔ |sāˈβɔ̀ |sɑ̄βó |saβɔ́ |sɑˈβo | | | |netbag |*gabɔs |kāβɔ́s |kàˈwɔ́s |kaβɔs |kɑβos |kaβɔsɔ |kɑβɔsɔ | |father's sister|*sigase̝ | | |sikasè | |sikasi | | |crocodile |*sib₂ita | | |sibirá | |sibira | | |cassowary |*sigina |sīkīna |sikinɑ́ |sikinà |sigiˈnɑ |sikina |sikiˈnɑ | |bandicoot |*suma |sūmā | |sumá | |suma | | |share |*d₂uba | | |duβa | |duβa | | |yam |*gɛsab |kēsāβɔ |kèˈsáβ | |kesɑβ | | | |when? |*bɛsanɛ |bɛ̄sànᵊ |bɛ̄sánɛ̄n|bɛsanɛ̂ |biˈsɑne | | | |tusk |*gɛsɛga |kēsēkɑ̄ |késéˈkâ | |kisⁱˈkɑ |kɛsɛka |ˈkesekɑ́ | Mouwase raises and fronts /*a/ to low mid /ɛ/ when followed by high front /*i/ in the next syllable: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***a/_Ci** |**** |**a [a ɑ]**|**a [a ə]**|**a [ɑ]**|**ɛ** |**ɛ [e]** | |1 dl. |*na-ti | |ná-ɾí |nə-rí |nɑ-ˈɾi |nɛ-ri | | |3 dl. |*a-ti | |á-ɾì | | | | | |sit |*gati- | |koɾí- (?) |kəri- |kɑˈɾi- |kɛri- |ˈkeɾi- | |heavy |*d₂abi |dāβí |dɑ́βí | |dɑβí | | | |new |*gasi |kāsì |kâsî | |kɑˈsí |kɛsi |keˈsi | |2 dl. |*ja-ti | |já-ɾí | |jɑ-ɾi | | | |white |*sabia |sēβà |séβàː |saβia |sɑβiɑ́ |sɛβɛa |seβeɑ | |moon |*wasiba |ˈwáːsīβā |wáːsiβàː |βasiβà |wɑsiβa | | | |fly (n.)|*b[u]mani | |bumani [hj]| | | |bumeni [hj]| There is one unexplained exception: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***a/_Ci** |**a** |**a** |**** |**a** |**a** |**a** | |rat/mouse|*gaⁱɸati |kɨ̄iɸàɾi |ˈkɑiɸaɾi| |kɑiɸaˈɾi|kɛiɸari |keiˈɸaɾi| Mouwase raises and backs /*a/ to low back /ɔ/ when followed by high back /*u/ in the next syllable: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***a/_Cu** |**** |**a [ɑ]**|**** |**a [ɑ]**|**ɔ** |**ɔ [o]** | |knee |*magu |mɑ̄ˑkúˑ |mɑ̀kú | |mɑˈku | | | |tooth|*magu |-mākū |-mɑ̄kù | | | | | |spear|*wasum | | | |wɑsum |βɔsumu |wɑsumo (?)| |vine |*jabu | |jɑ́βú | |iɑβu |rɔβu |ɾoβu | In one example, Mouwase raises /*a/ followed by /*u/ to /u/, probably because it is destressed in a compound: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***a/_Cu** |**a** |**a [ɑ]**|**** |**a [ɑ]**|**u** |**u** | |elbow|*-dagu |-tākù |-tɑ́kà | |-tɑˈku |-tuku |-tuku | … vowel sequences and diphthongs ….\\ \\ …/*ɛⁱ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***ɛⁱ** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |path|*dɛⁱ |tíː |tí | |rei [kf]| | | … /*aⁱ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***aⁱ/g_** |**** |**aⁱ [əi ɑi]**|**aⁱ [əi ]**|**aⁱ [əi ɑi]**|**ɛⁱ** |**ɛⁱ [ei]**| |blood |*gaⁱ |kɨ̄í |kəi |kə́i |kəi |kɛi |kei | | |*gaⁱ |káe | |kai |kɑi | | | | | | | | | | | | |rat/mouse|*gaⁱɸati |kɨ̄iɸàɾi |ˈkɑiɸaɾi | |kɑiɸaˈɾi |kɛiɸari |keiˈɸaɾi | |old man |*magaⁱ |mākɨ̀i ~ mɑ̄kɨ̀i|ˈmɑkəi |makə̀i |mɑˈkəi |makɛi |mɑkei | … /*aⁱ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***aⁱ/m_** |**** |**ɔⁱ [oi]**|**aⁱ [əi ai]**|**aⁱ [ɨi]**|**ɔⁱ [ɔi/ɛi]**|**ɔⁱ [oi əi]**| |fish|*maⁱ |mɨ̄i |ˈmoï |mə̀i |mɨ̃i |mɔi; mɛi |məi | |not |*maⁱ | | |mai ~ mə̄i |məi- |mɔi |moia | |sap |*baⁱ | | |bəi | | | | … /aᵘ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***aᵘ** |**** |**aᵘ** |**aᵘ [əu au]**|**aᵘ [əu u]**|**ɔᵘ [ɔu u]**|**ɔᵘ [ou u]**| |canoe |*t₂aᵘ |hə̄u | |həu | |hɔu | | |pandanus sp.|*d₂aᵘ | | |də́u | |dɔu- | | |tail |*gaᵘ | | |kə̀u |kəu |kɔu |kou | |child |*baᵘm | | |baum ~ bə́um |bɑun- ~ -bom |bumu ~ buma |bon- ~ -bumo | |egg |*daᵘm | | |-tə́um | |tɔumu ~ tɔu |toumu | |back |*[k/g]aᵘt | | |kəur |kɑˈwur |kɔuru | | |big |*magaᵘbu |makuwu |mɑ̀kuβu |makauβu |mɑˈkuβu |makuβu |mɑkuβu | In one example …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***aᵘ/m_** |**** |**** |**u** |**u**|**ɔᵘ** |**ɔᵘ [ou]**| |water|*maᵘ | | |mū |mu |mɔu |mou | … /*aᵋ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***aᵋ** |**aᵋ** |**aᵋ** |**aᵋ** |**aᵋ**|**aᵋ** |**aᵋ**| |3 sg. |*aᵋ | | |aɛ |ɑi- |aɛ |ɑe- | |palm/sole |*baᵋ |-pāɛ́ |-bai [hj]|-bàɛ | |-paɛ |-pɑe | |break |*baᵋ- | | |bəɛ | |baɛ ~ bai (?)| | |areca nut |*ɸaᵋ |ɸāē | | | | | | |day |*ɸaᵋ | | |ɸàɛ | |ɸaɛ | | |banana |*naᵋ |nàē |náɛ̀ |nɛ̀ |ne | | | |fruit/seed|*taᵋ | |dàē |haɛ ~ hã́ɛ| |haɛ |hɑe | |two |*taᵋ | | |hã̄ɛ ~ haɛ|hɑ̃ẽ |haɛ | | |foot/leg |*tãᵋ |dāé |dae |hâɛ |hɑ̃i |haɛ |hɑe | |bird |*gaᵋ | | |káɛ |kɑe |kaɛ |kɑe | |seedling |*wãᵋ |wáɛ | | |wə̃ĩ |βai ~ -βaɛ | | | | | | | | | | | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***…** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |base/root|*t… |daūwī |dāᵘí |hɛⁱ |hɛ́i ~ həi|hɛi |hei | … /*uⁱ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***uⁱ** |**** |**uⁱ [u]**|**uⁱ [ui wi]**|**uⁱ [wi]**|**uⁱ [ui]**|**uⁱ [wi]**| |top |*[k/g]uⁱ | | |kui | |kui | | |song/dance|*guⁱn | |ˈkwiìːn- |kuīn |kuin- | |kʷi- | |star |*guⁱni |ˈkūnˑìˑ |kúˈnìː | |sin-kwin |kuini |kʷini | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***uⁱ** |**** |**uⁱ [ui]**|**** |**i**|**** |**i** | |smoke|*suⁱn |-sūˑ |-sũì | |-sín | |-sini | … /*ia/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| || |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | ||***ia** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | || | | | | | | | … /*ui/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| || |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | ||***ui** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | || | | | | | | | … /*ua/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| || |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | ||***ua** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | || | | | | | | | … /*o̝a/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***o̝a** |**[wa]** |**[wa]**|**oa** |**oa [oɑ wa]**|**ɔa** |**ɔa [oɑ]**| |laugh|*ko̝a |wāː |wa:- |koa- |koɑ- ~ kwɑ- |kɔa- |ˈkoɑ- | … /*ɛɔ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson |Carr | | |***ɛɔ** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |morning|*[k/g]ɛɔm | | |kiɔ̀m |kjom |kɛo ~ kɛoma|keou ~ ˈkeoma| In one example …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa |Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase | | | |Petterson |Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | | |***…** |**** |**ɛCɔ [eCo]**|**iɔC** |**iɔC [joC]**|**Cɔa** |**Cɔa [Coɑ]**| |sun|*ɛsɔa |ˈíˈsūː ~ ɩsuwu|ésóò |iɔs |jos |sɔa |ˈsoɑ | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Omati River|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser|Mouwase |Mowase| || |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | ||***…** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | ===== Pronouns ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Free pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with attestations drawn from Carr (2006) and Petterson (2011, 2014): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Omati River|Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mowase| | | |Carr |Petterson |Carr |Petterson |Carr | |1 sg. |*[i/e̝]n |ʔĕn |in-â ~ n-a|in-ɑ |ina ~ ini |ini | |2 sg. |*i(-a) |â |i |i-ɑ |i(-a) |i-ɑ | |3 sg. |*aᵋ(-a) | |aɛ |ɑi-ɑ |aɛ |ɑe-ɑ | |1 pl. |*na(-mɛ) |ná-mɛ̀ |na-ne |nɑ-nⁱ |na(-na) |nɑ-nɑ | |2 pl. |*ja(-mɛ) |já-mɛ̀ | |ˈjɑ-nɑ |ra(-na) |ɾɑ-nɑ | |3 pl. |*a-mɛ |ʔamɛ̀ | |ɑˈme-nɑ |amɛ(-na) | | |1 dl. |*na-ti |ná-ɾí |nə-rí |nɑ-ˈɾi |nɛ-ri | | |1 dl. incl.|--- |--- |--- |--- |nira |niɾɑ | |2 dl. |*ja-ti |já-ɾí | |jɑ-ɾi |ri-ra ~ ri-ri|ˈɾi-ɾɑ| |3 dl. |*a-ti |á-ɾì | |ɑˈme-nɑ-ɾi|eβi-ri |eβi-ɾɑ| (n.b. Carr's [ɾɑ-nɑ] is given as 3 pl.)\\ \\ A number of example sentences in Carr's survey list show Barikewa and Kaser to distinguish two forms of the third person singular which appear to indicate the absolutive and ergative respectively (no examples involving other persons/numbers were given.) ===== Verbal morphology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ … ===== Loans from neighboring languages ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Loans from Foiafoia …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Foiafoia|Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mouwase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | |wallaby |tebeɾe | | |tɛ̀bɛrɛ |ˈtebeɾe|tɛbɛrɛ |ˈtebeɾe| |path |dige | | |dikɛ́ |ˈdike |dikɛ |ˈdike | |good |daɾo |dàɾɔ̀ |dɑɾo |darɔ̀ |ˈdɑɾo |daɾɔ |ˈdɑɾo | |bean |dukoɾo |dūkɔ̀ |duˈkɔ̄ː̀|dukɔr |dukoɾ | | | |flying fox|kubiai |kūbèi |kúbɛ̀i | |kubei | |kubei | Loans from Kiwai …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kiwai |Barikiwa |Barikewa|Kaser |Kaser |Mouwase |Mouwase| | | |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr |Petterson|Carr | |all |*… |aūwāhā |ˈaúwāhàˑ| |ɑwehɑ̃| |ˈɑwohɑ | |crocodile|*sibiɾa| | |sibirá | |sibira | | |many |*siɾio |ˈhìɾɔ̀ | | | |hirio |ˈhiɾio |