====== Namla-Tofanma ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ The Namla-Tofanma family consists of two languges, Namla and Tofanma (Tofamna,) spoken … Indonesia's Papua province. ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of Namla-Tofanma is as follows:\\ \\ Namla-Tofanma Namla Tofanma ===== Sources ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Anceaux (Smits and Voorhoeve 1994) … after Mallo Galis (1956: appendix 1-12, i.e. 85-97) … comparative terms for Tofamna (Tofanma) Voorhoeve (1971: 98-109) … comparative terms for Tofamna after … Voorhoeve (1975: 116) 36 comparative terms for Tofamna after Galis (1956) Lee (2005) … comparative terms for Namla Menanti (2005) 245 comparative terms for Sembramtəla of Tefalma (Tofanma I) village Wambaliau (2005: 24-27) 245 comparative terms for Tofanma after Menanti ===== HIstory of classification ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ … ===== HIstorical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ …\\ \\ …\\ \\ …\\ \\ …\\ \\ …\\ \\ …\\ \\ …\\ \\ …\\ \\ …\\ \\ \\ … initial consonants …\\ \\ Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both languges: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |flesh/meat|*mi |míː |miː̀ ~ -mi |-mi | |know |*misi |misjɛ |mɪsili | | |nose |*me̝ndi |mənɖi- |mɪnt̪ɪ |mniti | |night |*me̝ntV |ˈməˈnʈa |min- |menti- | |see |*mɛsV |mɛs- |mæsijɔ |mes- | |language |*mæ |maː |mɛ | | |here |*mæ |ma- |me- | | |bamboo |*ma… |mai |máɪ | | |sit |*mato̝ |mɔtɔ- |matu | | |bandicoot |*m[a]wi |mɑˈwi | | | |this |*mV |ma |mɔ̃ | | |breast |*mo̝m |ˈmɔ̀mú |muː |mo | |tail |*mVndu |ˈmənɖu- |muntʷu- |muntuo | |child |*mlæ |mɭa ~ mla-|ˈmlɛ ~ məlɛ\\ ~ m̩læ- ~ məlæ-| | Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***n-** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |wind |*ninimbi |ˈniŋimbí |ninpi |nembi | |hold |*niŋgi |ˈniŋgi- |niŋgǐ | | |house |*n… |nei |ni | | |near |*nmV |neˈmei |nəmi- | | |two |*nɛne̝ |neˈne |næni |neni | |1 sg. |*næ |nɑ |neː |ni- | |hair/feather(s)|*nam |ˈnaɑːm ~ -nám|nɑ̌ ~ -na |-na | |dry |*nVŋg… |nɔŋkʷé | | | |dry |*nVŋg… |nɔŋkʷé | | | |1 pl. |*n[o̝/u] | |ŋu ~ nu- (?)| | |sky |*nmlV |nəmlɔu |nəmlɔ | | Initial bilabial voicelss stop /*p/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***p-** |**f** |**f** |**f** | |give |*pænV |faníli- ~ fɑ́n-|vænə- (?)| | |sago flour|*po̝ |fo |fu | | |blow |*po̝li |foli-mbɛ̌ |fuli | | |sit/stay |*pRo̝ |fro- | |fru- | Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma|Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***t-** |**t [t ʈ]**|**t** |**t** | |speak |*tæl[i/e̝] |tiˈɭ- |tæli | | |knife |*te̝pa |tèṕá |tipɑ | | |mosquito|*tɛkɛ |təˈkè |tekeʔ |tek | |fence |*tæ |ta |te | | |yellow |*tVklV |ʈɔˈkle | | | |urine |*tu |ˈtu |ˈtʊ | | |wet |*tuku |tuˈgu |tugu- | | Initial laminal voiceless /*s/ is retained as such in both languagtes: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***s-** |**s** |**s** |**s** | |cough |*sVpɛ |supɛ̌ |sjɔpɛ | | |laugh |*se̝lV |seˈla-|sili | | |worm |*s… |sənʈɔ̀| | | |that/there|*sæ |sa |sɛ |seː | |eat/drink |*sæ |sa- |se- ~ si-|se- | Velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***k-** |**k** |**k** |**k** | |seven |*kVmbV |kəmbəi- |kimpi | | |head |*kɛmblæ |ˈkəmpɭa- |kemble- |kemble | |burn (tr.)|*kæ |ka- |kɛ- |-ke- | |tongue |*kVŋgo̝ku |ˈkãŋkòkú |kuŋguːku|goŋgogok| |cloud |*k… |ˈkurê (?)|kou |kou | |bow |*kulV |kuˈlu |kuli | | |one |*knano̝ |knɔˈnɔ |kənʌnu |kenano | |three |*kli |kɭí |kəli |kli | One apparent counterexample is found also in Towe [kenemˈba] and may simply be in error: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla|Tofanma|Tofanma| | | |Namla|Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***k-** |**k**|**ø** |**** | |machete|*knVpa |knepá|nʌpɑ | | Initial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***mb-** |**mb [mb mp b]** |**mb [mb mp b]** |**mb [b]**| |pig |*mbe̝ |mbe |ᵐpí | | |ant |*mbe̝ |mpé |mpisɛ | | |mount./village|*mbe̝kle̝ |mbeˈkle-~békɭɛ-\\ ~-mbekɭɛ́-~békle-|mpikli-\\ ~ mbikəli|bekli | |root |*mbæke̝ |-pike (?) |mpæki ~ mbæki | | |below/low |*mbale̝ |mbaɭí ~ baˈɭè |mbɑli ~ mbali- | | |left |*mb… |ˈmbɔkeja- |bɑgi- | | |foot/leg |*mbu |mbu- | | | |louse |*mble̝ |ble |ᵐpili |vli | |stab |*mblæ |mbɭa- |mpəle | | One example with initial voiceless [p] in both families is proabbly a loan from Tebi-Towe: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla|Tofanma|Tofanma| | | |Namla|Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***P-** |**p**|**p** |**** | |tree kangaroo|*Pæsi |pisi |pæsi | | Initial apical prenasaized voiced stop /*nd/ is retained as such in both languages, often as devoiced [nt nʈ nt̪]: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***nd-** |**nd [nt nʈ nd d]** |**nd [nt nt̪ nd d d̪]**|**nd [nt d]**| |mother's m.|*ndi |ˈdi- |di- | | |tooth |*nde̝me̝ |ˈdəmə- |ⁿt̪ɪmi |deme | |bone |*nda |nʈɑː~-nʈɑ~-nʈáː~-ntá|nt̪ɑ ~ --ntɑ |nta | |mud |*ndo̝ku |ˈnʈɔkú |ˈnt̪uku | | |kunai grass|*nduku |ˈntukuˈɭú |ˈntukʷɑfi | | |split (tr.)|*ndRe̝kæ |ndrɛ̀ká- |d̪riːke- | | Initial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***ŋg-** |**ŋg [ŋg ŋk]**|**ŋg [ŋg ŋk]**|**** | |excrement |*ŋg… |ŋgeí |ŋgi | | |over there|*ŋgasu |ksu- (?) |ŋkɑsuʔ | | |roof |*ŋgum |ŋkum |ŋku | | Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***w-** |**w [w β]** |**w [w v]** |**w** | |thorn/sharp|*wi |ˈwi ~ -βí |vi | | |fire |*wV |wɔː ~ wy- |ve ~ væ- |we | |swim |*wæli |wili- |væli- | | |hear |*waR/td> |waˈr- |vɑr- |war- | |walk/go |*wV |wú- ~ -wo- ~ -u-|wɑ- ~ vɑ- ~ -wɔ|wo- | |2 sg. |*wV |ˈwu- |wɔː |wa- | Initial apical non-stop /*l/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***l-** |**l [l ɭ]** |**l** |**l** | |star |*lVndim |ləˈnʈim |lint̪i |linti | |egg/seed |*le̝ |le |liː | | |new |*læki |liˈki |lǣkɪ̌ |loki | |blood |*læke̝ |ˈləke ~ lyke\\ ~ -ˈliki|lǽkɪ̂ ~ lǽkî|laki | |man/person |*læ |lɑː ~ -ˈɭɑ |lɛː ~ -lɛ | | |husband |*lVŋgV |lɔŋkɔ |leŋgwa- | | |tree |*la |ˈɭɑ- ~ ˈlɑ- |lɑ̌ ~ læ- |la- | |rain |*lam |lam |lɑ̃ |la | |mouth/lip(s)|*lɔ |ˈɭò- |lɔ- | | |hand/finger |*lo̝ |-ɭɔ |lu- ~ ru- |lu- ~ lo-| Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma|Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***j-** |**j** |**j** |**j** | |eye |*j… | |jei |jei | |come |*jæ |jaː- ~ -jɑ- |jɛ- |-je | |arm/hand |*ja |ˈjà- ~ ˈjɑː- ~ ˈjɑ-| | | |five |*jani |jani- |jɑni- | | |sago porridge|*jasi |jɑˈsi |jɑːsi | | |earth/ground |*j… |jaɔ |jɑi |jai | |dig |*jo̝ko̝li |jɔkɔˈli- |jukuli | | |tired |*jumbe̝ne̝ |juˈmbənɛ | |jumbini-| … medial consonants …\\ \\ Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma|Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***-m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |mother |*[a]mi |ˈɑmi |mǐ | | |near |*nmV |neˈmei|nəmi- | | |net bag|*nmæ |nəˈmá |nəmɛ | | |sky |*nmlV |nəmlɔu|nəmlɔ | | |tooth |*nde̝me̝ |ˈdəmə-|ⁿt̪ɪmi |deme | Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma|Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***-n-** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |give |*pænV |faníli- ~ fɑ́n-|vænə- | | |wind |*ninimbi |ˈniŋimbí (?) |ninpi |nembi (?)| |two |*nɛne̝ |neˈne |næni |neni | |machete|*knVpa |knepá |nʌpɑ | | |one |*knano̝ |knɔˈnɔ |kənʌnu |kenano | |five |*jani |jani- |jɑni- | | |tired |*jumbe̝ne̝ |juˈmbənɛ | |jumbini- | Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in both languages, unlike root-initial /*p/ which is fricated to [f] (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla|Tofanma|Tofanma| | | |Namla|Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***-p-** |**p**|**p** |**** | |father's f.|*api |ˈɑpi-|ǎpi | | |father |*apa |ˈɑpa |ˈɑpɑ | | |knife |*te̝pa |tèṕá |tipɑ | | |cough |*sVpɛ |supɛ̌|sjɔpɛ | | |machete |*knVpa |knepá|nʌpɑ | | A number ofTofanma words have a medial labidental fricative [f]. Many of these are loans from Yetfa to the south (below,) in which the reflex of South Pauwasi River medial /*p/ as /ɸ/ is regular.\\ \\ Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ has been found in only one word, in which it is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla|Tofanma|Tofanma| | | |Namla|Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***-t-** |**t**|**t** |**** | |sit|*matu |mɔtɔ-|matu | | Medial laminal voicelss /*s/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla|Tofanma|Tofanma| | | |Namla|Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***-s-** |**s**|**s** |**s** | |know |*misi |misjɛ|mɪsili | | |see |*mɛsV |mɛs- |mæsijɔ |mes- | |tree kangaroo|*Pæsi |pisi |pæsi | | |over there |*ŋgasu |ksu- |ŋkɑsuʔ | | |sago porridge|*jasi |jɑˈsi|jɑːsi | | Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***-k-** |**k** |**k** |**k** | |mount./village|*mbe̝kle̝ |mbeˈkle-~békɭɛ-\\ ~-mbekɭɛ́-~békle-|mpikli-\\ ~ mbikəli|bekli | |root |*mbæke̝ |-pike |mpæki ~ mbæki | | |left |*mb… |ˈmbɔkeja- |bɑgi- | | |mosquito |*tɛkɛ |təˈkè |tekeʔ |tek | |yellow |*tVklV |ʈɔˈkle | | | |wet |*tuku |tuˈgu |tugu- | | |mud |*ndo̝ku |ˈnʈɔkú |ˈnt̪uku | | |kunai grass |*nduku |ˈntukuˈɭú |ˈntukʷɑfi | | |split (tr.) |*ndRe̝kæ |ndrɛ̀ká- |d̪riːke- | | |tongue |*kVŋgo̝ku |ˈkãŋkòkú |kuŋguːku |goŋgogok| |new |*læki |liˈki |lǣkɪ̌ |loki | |blood |*læke̝ |ˈləke ~ lyke\\ ~ -ˈliki |lǽkɪ̂ ~ lǽkî |laki | |dig |*jo̝ko̝li |jɔkɔˈli- |jukuli | | Medial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***-mb-** |**mb [mb mp]**|**mb [mb mp]**|**mb [mb]**| |six |*VmbV |oombu- |ʌumpɑʔ | | |wind |*ninimbi |ˈniŋimbí |ninpi |nembi | |seven|*kVmbV |kəmbəi- |kimpi | | |head |*kɛmblæ |ˈkəmpɭa- |kemble- |kemble | |tired|*jumbe̝ne̝ |juˈmbənɛ | |jumbini- | Medial apical presnasalized voiced stop /*nd/ is retained as such in both languages, often as devoiced [nt nʈ nt̪]: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***-nd-** |**nd [nd nɖ nʈ]**|**nd [nt nt̪]**|**nd [nt]**| |nose |*me̝ndi |mənɖi- |mɪnt̪ɪ |mniti (?) | |night|*me̝ntV |ˈməˈnʈa |min- (?) |menti- | |tail |*mVndu |ˈmənɖu- |muntʷu- |muntuo | |star |*lVndim |ləˈnʈim |lint̪i |linti | Medial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***-ŋg-** |**ŋg [ŋg ŋk]**|**ŋg [ŋg]**|**ŋg [ŋg]**| |hold |*niŋgi |ˈniŋgi- |niŋgǐ | | |dry |*nVŋg… |nɔŋkʷé | | | |tongue |*kVŋgo̝ku |ˈkãŋkòkú |kuŋguːku |goŋgogok | |husband|*lVŋgV |lɔŋkɔ |leŋgwa- | | Root-medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ has been found in only one word which may be a loan from or to Towe: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla|Tofanma|Tofanma| | | |Namla|Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***-w-** |**w**|**** |**** | |bandicoot|*m[a]wi |mɑˈwi| | | Medial apical non-stop /*l/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***-l-** |**l [l ɭ]** |**l [l]** |**l** | |outside |*ɛli |eli- |ɛli- | | |fly (v.) |*VRilæ- |ɛrila- |rile- | | |child |*mlæ |mɭa ~ mla- |ˈmlɛ ~ məlɛ\\ ~ m̩læ- ~ məlæ-| | |mount./village|*mbe̝kle̝ |mbeˈkle-~békɭɛ-\\ ~-mbekɭɛ́-~békle-|mpikli-\\ ~ mbikəli |bekli | |below/low |*mbale̝ |mbaɭí ~ baˈɭè |mbɑli ~ mbali- | | |louse |*mble̝ |ble |ᵐpili |vli | |stab |*mblæ |mbɭa- |mpəle | | |sky |*nmlV |nəmlɔu |nəmlɔ | | |blow |*po̝li |foli-mbɛ̌ |fuli | | |speak |*tæl[i/e̝] |tiˈɭ- |tæli | | |yellow |*tVklV |ʈɔˈkle | | | |laugh |*se̝lV |seˈla- |sili | | |head |*kɛmblæ |ˈkəmpɭa- |kemble- |kemble | |bow |*kulV |kuˈlu |kuli | | |three |*kli |kɭí |kəli |kli | |dig |*jo̝ko̝li |jɔkɔˈli- |jukuli | | … [r] …which we show here as | | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***-R-** |**[r]** |**[r]** |**[r]**| |fly (v.) |*VRilæ- |ɛrila- |rile- | | |sit/stay |*pRo̝ |fro- | |fru- | |split (tr.)|*ndRe̝kæ |ndrɛ̀ká-|d̪riːke-| | |hear |*waRV |waˈr- |vɑr- |war- | Palatal non-stop /*j/ has not been found to occur medially.\\ \\ \\ Only one consonant, bilabial nasal /*m/, occurs finally.\\ \\ Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is lost in Tofanma with nasalization of the preceding vowel, although nasalization is not consisently indicated in Menanti's Tofanma and is not indicated at all in Mallo's: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***-m** |**m** |**Ø** |**Ø** | |hair/feather(s)|*nam |ˈnaɑːm ~ -nám|nɑ̌ ~ -na|-na | |roof |*ŋgum |ŋkum |ŋku | | |star |*lVndim |ləˈnʈim |lint̪i |linti | |rain |*lam |lam |lɑ̃ |la | One example in which /*m/ disappears in Tofanma is given with a final vowel in Lee's Namla, but it might be asked if this isn't a doublet borrowed from Tebi [mamu] (Im 2006) or simply in error, especially as final /*m/ characterizes also East Pauwasi River and South Pauwasi River forms: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma|Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***-m** |**mV (?)**|**Ø** |**Ø** | |breast|*mo̝m |ˈmɔ̀mú |muː |mo | … vowels and diphthongs…\\ \\ High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***i** |**i** |**i** |**i** | |flesh/meat |*mi |míː |miː̀ ~ -mi|-mi | |mother's m. |*ndi |ˈdi- |di- | | |thorn/sharp |*wi |ˈwi ~ -βí|vi | | |three |*kli |kɭí |kəli |kli | |know |*misi |misjɛ |mɪsili | | |hold |*niŋgi |ˈniŋgi- |niŋgǐ | | |wind |*ninimbi |ˈniŋimbí |ninpi |nembi | |nose |*me̝ndi |mənɖi- |mɪnt̪ɪ |mniti | |blow |*po̝li |foli-mbɛ̌|fuli | | |dig |*jo̝ko̝li |jɔkɔˈli- |jukuli | | |outside |*ɛli |eli- |ɛli- | | |swim |*wæli |wili- |væli- | | |mother |*[a]mi |ˈɑmi |mǐ | | |father's f. |*api |ˈɑpi- |ǎpi | | |bandicoot |*m[a]wi |mɑˈwi | | | |five |*jani |jani- |jɑni- | | |sago porridge|*jasi |jɑˈsi |jɑːsi | | High back rounded vowel /*u/ is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***u** |**u** |**u** |**u** | |foot/leg |*mbu |mbu- | | | |urine |*tu |ˈtu |ˈtʊ | | |roof |*ŋgum |ŋkum |ŋku | | |wet |*tuku |tuˈgu |tugu- | | |kunai grass|*nduku |ˈntukuˈɭú|ˈntukʷɑfi| | |bow |*kulV |kuˈlu |kuli | | |tired |*jumbe̝ne̝ |juˈmbənɛ | |jumbini-| |tail |*mVndu |ˈmənɖu- |muntʷu- |muntuo | |mud |*ndo̝ku |ˈnʈɔkú |ˈnt̪uku | | |tongue |*kVŋgo̝ku |ˈkãŋkòkú |kuŋguːku |goŋgogok| |over there |*ŋgasu |ksu- |ŋkɑsuʔ | | High mid front vowel /*e̝/ is raised and merged with the reflexes of /*i/ in modern Tofanma. Variant reflexes [e i] in Mallo's vocabulary shows this merger to have been completed only very recently: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***e̝** |**e [e ɛ ə]** |**i [i]** |**e̝ [e i]**| |pig |*mbe̝ |mbe |ᵐpí | | |ant |*mbe̝ |mpé |mpisɛ | | |egg/seed |*le̝ |le |liː | | |louse |*mble̝ |ble |ᵐpili |vli | |tooth |*nde̝me̝ |ˈdəmə- |ⁿt̪ɪmi |deme | |mount./village|*mbe̝kle̝ |mbeˈkle-~békɭɛ-\\ ~-mbekɭɛ́-~békle-|mpikli-\\ ~ mbikəli|bekli | High mid back rounded vowel /*o̝/ is raised and merged with the reflexes of /*u/ in modern Tofanma. Variant reflexes [o u] in Mallo's vocabulary shows this merger to have been completed only very recently: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***o̝** |**o [o ɔ]**|**u [u]**|**o̝ [o u]**| |sago flour |*po̝ |fo |fu | | |hand/finger|*lo̝ |-ɭɔ |lu- ~ ru-|lu- ~ lo- | |sit/stay |*pRo̝ |fro- | |fru- | |breast |*mo̝m |ˈmɔ̀mú |muː |mo | Low mid front vowel /*ɛ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Namla-Tofanma|Namla|Tofanma |Tofanma | || |Namla|Tefalma |? | || |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | ||***ɛ** |**** |**ɛ […]**|**ɛ […]**| ||*… | | | | Low mid back rounded vowel /*ɔ/ is uncommon. It is …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla|Tofanma|Tofanma| | | |Namla|Tefalma|? | | | |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | | |***ɔ** |**** |**** |**** | |mouth/lip(s)|*lɔ |ˈɭò- |lɔ- | | Low mid central vowel /*æ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***æ** |**a** |**ɛ [ɛ e æ]** |**ɛ […]**| |language |*mæ |maː |mɛ | | |here |*mæ |ma- |me- | | |1 sg. |*næ |nɑ |neː |ni- (?) | |fence |*tæ |ta |te | | |that/there |*sæ |sa |sɛ |seː | |eat/drink |*sæ |sa- |se- ~ si- (?) |se- | |burn (tr.) |*kæ |ka- |kɛ- |-ke- | |man/person |*læ |lɑː ~ -ˈɭɑ |lɛː ~ -lɛ | | |come |*jæ |jaː- ~ -jɑ- |jɛ- |-je | |child |*mlæ |mɭa ~ mla- |ˈmlɛ ~ məlɛ\\ ~ m̩læ- ~ məlæ-| | |stab |*mblæ |mbɭa- |mpəle | | |net bag |*nmæ |nəˈmá |nəmɛ | | |give |*pænV |faníli- ~ fɑ́n-|vænə- (?) | | |split (tr.)|*ndRe̝kæ |ndrɛ̀ká- |d̪riːke- | | |head |*kɛmblæ |ˈkəmpɭa- |kemble- |kemble | In one recurring correspondence, Namla has high front [i] while Tofanma has low front [æ]… This pattern is tentatively reconstructed with /*æ/ because it is very common and there are otherwise no examples of /*æ/ followed by /*i *e̝/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma |Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma | | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***æ/_Ci Ce̝**|**i** |**æ** |**a (?)**| |tree kangaroo|*Pæsi |pisi |pæsi | | |swim |*wæli |wili- |væli- | | |new |*læki |liˈki |lǣkɪ̌ |loki (?) | |speak |*tæl[i/e̝] |tiˈɭ- |tæli | | |root |*mbæke̝ |-pike (?) |mpæki ~ mbæki| | |blood |*læke̝ |ˈləke ~ lyke\\ ~ -ˈliki|lǽkɪ̂ ~ lǽkî |laki | Low central vowel /*a/ is not nearly as common as /*æ/ (above/) It is retained as such in both languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***a** |**a** |**a [a ɑ]** |**a** | |bone |*nda |nʈɑː~-nʈɑ~-nʈáː~-ntá|nt̪ɑ ~ --ntɑ |nta | |tree |*la |ˈɭɑ- ~ ˈlɑ- |lɑ̌ ~ læ- |la- | |arm/hand |*ja |ˈjà- ~ ˈjɑː- ~ ˈjɑ- | | | |hair/feather(s)|*nam |ˈnaɑːm ~ -nám |nɑ̌ ~ -na |-na | |rain |*lam |lam |lɑ̃ |la | |father |*apa |ˈɑpa |ˈɑpɑ | | |hear |*waRV |waˈr- |vɑr- |war- | |father's f. |*api |ˈɑpi- |ǎpi | | |five |*jani |jani- |jɑni- | | |sago porridge |*jasi |jɑˈsi |jɑːsi | | |over there |*ŋgasu |ksu- (?) |ŋkɑsuʔ | | |below/low |*mbale̝ |mbaɭí ~ baˈɭè |mbɑli ~ mbali-| | |knife |*te̝pa |tèṕá |tipɑ | | |machete |*knVpa |knepá |nʌpɑ | | When followed by high mid back rounded /*o̝/ in the following syllable, /*a/ is backed and rounded to [ɔ] in Namla: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Namla |Tofanma |Tofanma| | | |Namla |Tefalma |? | | | |Lee |Menanti |Mallo | | |***a/_Co̝** |**… [ɔ]**|**a [ɑ ʌ]**|**a** | |sit|*mato̝ |mɔtɔ- |matu | | |one|*knano̝ |knɔˈnɔ |kənʌnu |kenano | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Namla-Tofanma|Namla|Tofanma|Tofanma| || |Namla|Tefalma|? | || |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | ||***…** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Namla-Tofanma|Namla|Tofanma|Tofanma| || |Namla|Tefalma|? | || |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | ||***…** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Namla-Tofanma|Namla|Tofanma|Tofanma| || |Namla|Tefalma|? | || |Lee |Menanti|Mallo | ||***…** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | ===== Pronouns ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ …\\ \\ …\\ ===== Verbal morphology ===== No information on Namla-Tofanma verbal morpholgy is currently availabe to us. ===== Loans to and from neighboring languages ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ …\\ \\ Tofanma has borrowed a number of terms from Yetfa to the south, with Yetfa attestations drawn from Kim (2006.) None of the words below are found in Namla. According to Kim, some Yetfa speakers live in the Tofanma Dua village in the Tofanma language region: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Yetfa |Yetfa |Tofanma | | |Terfones|Tofanma Dua|Tefalma | | |Kim |Kim |Menanti | |rat |-ˈnapki |napki |ˈnɑpəgi | |night |tuɸu |tufu |t̪ufumɑ | |canoe |kuɸ |koɸ |kʌfu | |sweet potato|kliŋkai |kleŋgai |kleŋkɑi ~ kleŋkɑɪ| Namla shares a few terms with Poule (a.k.a. Molof,) with Poule attestations drawn from Rumaropen (2005.) The direction of borrowing isn't immediately clear: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Poule |Poule |Namla | | |Molof |Waley |Namla | | |Rumaropen |Rumaropen |Lee | |path|mɪtnínə |mɪtnínə |miˈtu | |sun |nemáːn |nemáːn |ˈnəˈmane| |wash|joɭ- ~ -joɭɨ-|joɭ- ~ -joɭɨ-|jɔˈɭi- | … Some of these matches may well be legitimate mutual retentions: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Namla-Tofanma|Poule |Poule | | | |Molof |Waley | | | |Rumaropen|Rumaropen| |language|*mæ |maː |maː | |urine |*tu |tú |tú | |egg |*le̝ |ɭɪː |liː |