====== Asmat-Kamoro ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== The Asmat-Kamoro family consists of six languages spoken along the nearly the entirety of the southwestern coastal lowlands of New Guinea, from the southwest shore of Etna Bay in the northwest to just north of Kolopom island in the southeast. ===== Sources ===== Modera (1830) variety of Kamoro (unobtained) Miklucho-Maclay (1876) variety of Kamoro (unobtained) Robidé van der Aa (1879) Lakahia variety of Kamoro (unobtained) van der Sande (1907) vocabularies of Nagramadu, Angádi and Goreda varieties of Kamoro Dumas (1911) 435 terms for Mimika and Atuka rivers variety of Kamoro Ray (1912: 326-330) comparative study of Angadi-Mimika (Kamoro) dialects, including Robidé van der Aa's Lakahia and van der Sande's Angádi, Nagramadu and Goreda as well as Utanata River, Mimika, Kupera Pukwa and Kiruru varieties of Kamoro Feuilletau de Bruijn (1913) Kaja-kaja variety of Asmat (unobtained) Feuilletau de Bruijn (1915) Kaja-kaja variety of Asmat (unobtained) Drabbe (1950) unpublished comparative vocabularies of Kamoro, Sempan and Asmat Boelaars (1950: 90-102) English-language recension of Drabbe's then-unpublished grammar of Tarjà Kàmoro Drabbe (1953) grammar of Tarjà Kàmoro, comparison of Kamoro dialects and (pp. 96-104) 378 comparative terms for Kàmoro, Sémpan and Asmat Drabbe (1954: 232-255) 100 comparative terms for Kàmoro, Sémpan and Kawenak (Central Asmat)t Drabbe (1958) grammar of Keenok (Central Asmat) of Amor village Drabbe (n.d.) dictionary of Keenok (Central Asmat) of Amor village Drabbe (1959) grammar of Kawenak (Central Asmat) (unobtained) Drabbe (1959) dictionary of Kawenak (Central Asmat) (unobtained) Drabbe (1963) study of Asmat dialects and (pp. 212-233) 377 comparative terms for Kawenak, Keenok and Keenakap varieties of Central Asmat, Kaünak (Citak) and Kaweinag (Casuarina Coast) Drabbe (n.d.) dictionary of Kàmoro (unobtained) Drabbe (n.d.) dictionary of Sémpan (unobtained) Galis (1955) 16 comparative terms and numbers drawn from the preceding literature Voorhoeve (1965) dictionary and grammar of Flamingo Bay variety (Surú village) of Kawenak (Central) Asmat Voorhoeve (1975: 369-374) general description of member languages based primarily upon Drabbe (1953, 1963) Voorhoeve (1980) survey of Asmat dialects and (pp. 61-121) 455 reconstructed terms for Proto-Asmat, including supporting forms from Kamoro and Sempan drawn from Drabbe (1953) Voorhoeve (2005: 148-149, 152-154, 158-164) Proto-Asmat-Kamoro correspondences and (unexempified) reconstructions Roesler (1972) phonology of Asmat of Ajam (unobtained) Roesler and Roesler (2011) dictionary of Asmat (Kawenak) of Ayam village Bromley (1973) orthography of Citak (unobtained) Bromley (1975) orthography of Citak (unobtained) van Arsdale (1974: 31-32) 66 comparative terms for Awok (Keenakap,) Wooi-Karmbis, Jinak (Tamnim,) Brazza and Upper Eilanden (Citak) Peckham (1991:160-166) 208 comparative terms for Nanesa (Etna Bay) Kamoro Lebold, Kriens and Susanto (2013) 239 comaprative terms for Central Asmat (Kawenak) of Isyaman village ===== Subclassification ===== Asmat-Kamoro Kamoro-Sempan Kamoro Sempan Asmat Casuarina Coast Asmat Citak Asmat North Asmat Central Asmat\\ \\ The Kamoro-Sempan node is too shallow to merit a reconstruction of its own. The Asmat-Kamoro languages can also be viewed as a chain from Kamoro in the northwest to Asmat in the southeast. ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Proto-Asmat-Kamoro had 11 consonants and probably 5 vowels as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | | *p | *t | *c | *k | | *f | *s | | | | *w | *r | *j | | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | | *u | | *e | | *o | | | *a | | This is mostly identical to the system presented in Voorhoeve (1980: 53) for Proto-Asmat.\\ \\ Apical non-stop /*r/ does not occur initially.\\ \\ Consonant clusters do not occur within roots.\\ \\ Initial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Asm-Kam | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | | *m- | m | m | *m | *m | | *n- | n | n | *n | *n | | *p- | p | p | *p | *p | | *t- | k | t | *t | *t | | *t-/_i | k | t | *c | *T | | *c- | k | t | *c | *T | | *k- | ø | ø | *k | *k | | *k-/verbs | k | k | *k | *k | | *f- | ø w | f | *f | *f | | *s- | t | h | *s | *s | | *w- | w | w | *w | *w | | *w-/kin | ø | w | *w | *w | | *j- | j | j | *j | *j | | *j-/_i u | ø | ø | *j | *j | Medial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Asm-Kam | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | | *-m- | m | m | *m | *m | | *-n- | n | n | *n | *n | | *-n-/_V# | n r | n | *n | *n | | *-p- | p | p | *p | *p | | *-t- | k | t | *t | *t | | *-t-/_i u e | k | t | *c | *T | | *-c- | k | t | *c | *T | | *-k- | k | k | *k | *k | | *-k-/… | ø | k | *k | *k | | *-f- | ø | f ø | *f | *f *w *ø | | *-F- | ø | f ø | *F | *f | | *-s- | t | h | *s | *s | | *-s-/f s_ | t | ø | *s | *s | | *-w- | ø | w | *w | *w | | *-w-/… | ø | ø | *w | *w | | *-r- | r | r | *r | *r | | *-j- | j | j | *j | *j | Vowels and vowel sequences correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Asm-Kam | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | | *i | i | i | *i | *i | | *u | u | i | *i | *i | | *u/#_ | u | ju i | *ju | *ju | | *e | e | e | *e | *e | | *o | o | o | *o | *o | | *a | a | a | *a | *a | | *iu | u | u | *iu | *iu | | *ui | i | i | *ui | *ui | These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Kamoro and Sempan forms mostly drawn from Drabbe (1953: 96-104.) Forms drawm from Voorhoeve (1980: 61-121, 2007) are indicated by [CV]. The reconstruction presented here is based substantially upon Voorhoeve's (1980) Proto-Asmat in consultation with Drabbe (1963: 212-233,) and most of the comparisons below appear in one form or another therein. However our reconstructions of Proto-Asmat differ in some details, and Kamoro and Sempan comparisons have not hitherto been laid out completely and in a phonologically-driven manner, while comparisons involving only Kamoro and Sempan haven't hitherto been presented.\\ \\ \\ Any consonant can occur initially except for apical non-stop /*r/.\\ \\ Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all three subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***m-** |**m** |**m** |***m** |***m** | |nose |*mi |ˈmi-rimu |mi-maˈkɛ |*mi(-emaek)|*mi(-mak) | |milk |*mi |-mi/td> |-mi/td> | |--- | |beneath |*mimane |'mimarə |'mimanə | |--- | |mucus |*mini |miˈni | | |--- | |thought |*minipV |mipi |mipo (?) |*minipV |*minip | |python |*minewe | |menewe [CV] |*min[i]w |*miniw | |ghost sp. |*miwi |mii | |*miwi |*miwi | |husband |*miwisi | |miwihi [CV] |*miwisi |*-miwis(i) | |tail |*m[i/e]p[i/e]|ˈmipi |ˈmɛpə |*mep[e] |*mepe(-mak) | |thumb |*m[i/u]-tewu | |ˈmitiwi |*mitiwitV |*mitit | |mouth |*mea[f] |mwɛ (?) |meˈa |*mea[f] |*mea | |armband sp. |*metane |makare [CV] |metane [CV} |*metane |*metan(e) | |termite sp. |*mese | |meˈhɛ |*mes[e] |*mes(e) | |saliva |*mesa[p/f]u |maˈtaɔ |ˈmahapi |*masapi |*masap | |tip/point |*m[e/a]n[e] |-mare | |*m[e/a]n[e]|*aw men(e) | |back |*maeke | |mekə |*maeke |*ma(e)ke | |lightning |*mVro |ma'ra-pəta |maarɔ |*… |*(masa-)maro | |vomit |*m[a]o |'maɔ |mɔ mɔ- |*m[a]o- |*mo- | |hand/arm |*mafane |ˈmaarə |ˈmafanə |*mafane |*mafane,\\ *mane | |orphan |*manima |ma'nima-rə |'manima- |*man[i]ma |*manema | |eye |*mana |ma-me |ma'nakə |*mana |*mana(-ka) | |path |*mato |mako [CV] |moto [CV] |*mato |*matot | |cry/weep |*mace |makə makə- |matə matə- |*mace mace-|*maTi maTi- | |knowledge |*mas[a/o]mo |'matamɔ |'mahamɔ |*mas[o]m[o]|*masom(o) | |wasp sp. |*m[a]ko |moko [CV] | |*mako |*mako | |Venus |*mawor[a] | | |*mawor[a] |*ma(i)wor | |foot/leg |*mawu |maw |maˈwi |*mawi |*maji ~ *mawi | |star |*mawuto |ˈmaakɔ |ˈmawətɔ |*mawito |*mawito | |day |*mare |mara-tja [CV] |mare [CV] |*mar[e]- |*mar(e) | |tail feather(s)|*m[a/o]to |-makɔ |mɔ'tɔ ~ -mɔkɔ|*-mot[o] |--- | |trunk/nase |*mopane |mapare [CV] |mopane [CV] |*mopane |*mopane | |sugarcane |*monefV |mɔne | | |--- | |tie/fasten |*mot[e/a]- |mɔke- |mota- [CV] |*motV- |*mot- | |not/none |*muna |-ˈmuna |-ˈmɔna (?) |*.mina. |*min(a) | |war |*mo[t/c]ane |ˈmɔkarə |ˈmatanə | |--- | |chop down |*mo- |ˈmɔ- |ˈmɔ- |*mo- |*mo- | |wet |*mocofo |mɔkɔ |ˈmɔtɔ-kɔ |*moco(-ko) |*moTo(k) | |navel |*mok[o]per[e]|'mɔɔrə (?) |meperə |*mokpere |*mokopere,\\ *mopere| |blister |*moro |moro [CV] | |*mor[o] |*mor(o) | |lime |*mu | | |*mi |*mi | |water |*mui |mi |mi |*mui |*muˈi | |bathe |*mui- | |mi- |*mui- |*mui- | |root |*mumu |nuˈmu [sic] |miˈmi |*mimi |*mimi | |testicle(s) |*musa(-eake) |muta\\ muˈta-eke [CV]|ˈmihakə |*misakV |*misaka | |mouse |*musu |muˈtu |miˈhi- | |--- | |bamboo sp. |*muwisi |ˈmuiti | |*muwis[i] |*muis | Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in three subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***n-** |**n-** |**n-** |***n** |***n** | |dance |*ni |ni- [CV] | |*ni ni- |*ni ni- | |carry |*nek[e/a]- |neke- |neka- | |--- | |eat/drink |*n[a/e]- |ne- |ne- |*n[a/e]- |*na-, *ne- | |slow |*namese | |namehe [CV]|*names[e]|*namese | |white |*napu |napu [CV] | |*napi |*napi | |go down |*nafu- |-naw- |-nafi- |*nafi- |*naj-, *now-| |raw/unripe|*nati |naˈki |naˈti |*nati |*naTi | |ghost |*nato | |'natɔ |*nato |*nat(o) | |flesh/meat|*nasa |naˈta |naˈha |*nasa |*nasa | |just/only |*nasane |natare [CV]|nahana [CV]|*nasane |*nesen | |wound |*nas[o/u] |naˈtu |naˈhi |*nas[o/u]|*naso | |hide |*nawoma |'naɔ'ma |'naɔ'ma | |--- | |1 pl. |*nare |narɛ |narɔ |*nare |*naro | |carry |*noco- |noko- [CV] | |*noc[o]- |*noT- | |1 sg. |*nore |nɔrɔ |nɔrɔ |*nore |*nor | Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all three subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***p-** |**p** |**p** |***p** |***p** | |fish (v.) |*pi- |pi- [CV] |pi- [CV] |*pi- |*pi- | |fly (v.) |*pi- |pi-ɔnaɔ- |pi-aɔnaɔ- |*pi- |*pi- | |edge |*pima |pim-ini [CV]|pima [CV] |*pima |*pima | |smell |*pinVmo |ni'mu (?) |pinumɔ |*pinVm[o] |*pinum | |skin/bark |*pitini |ˈpikiri |ˈpitini |*pitini |*piTini | |blackpalm sp.|*pisi |piti [CV] |pihi [CV] |*pisi |*pise | |break |*piki-(mi)- |piki-(mi)- |piki-(mi)- |*piki-(m[i])-|--- | |give birth |*pe- |pe- |pe- |*pe- |*pe- | |crab |*pea |pea [CV] |pea [CV] |*pea |*pea | |boil (n.). |*pem[e/a] |ˈpema [CV] | |*pem[e] |*peme | |tight/firm |*pepe | |pepe [CV] |*pepe>/td> |*pepe | |termite sp. |*penamo | |ˈpenamo [CV] |*penam[o] |*penam(o) | |vagina |*pere |pere-ta |pere [CV] |*pere |*per(e) | |scale(s) |*pa |pa [CV] |pa [CV] |*pa |*pa | |turn around |*pai- |paj- [CV] | |*pai- |*paj- | |wallaby |*painaro |'pajnarə |'pajnarɔ | |--- | |shy/shame |*paisi |ˈpajti |ˈpajhi | |--- | |dirty |*p… |panawa [CV] |pana-ko [CV] |*p… |*ponow(a) | |itch/scabies |*pa… |pateta [CV] |pajhi [CV] |*… |*pases | |mangrove |*pawe |paˈe [CV] |pawe [CV] |*paw[e] |*paw(e) | |seek |*paw[a/o]- |paɔ- |paɔ- |*paw[a/o]- |*powa-~*pawo-| |breadfruit |*pawo | |pawo [CV] |*pawo |*pawo | |pigeon sp. |*parufa |parua [CV] | |*parif[i] |*pari | |wide |*paj[a/o]ko |pa'jɔkɔ |pa'jakɔ | |--- | |paddle |*po |pɔ |pɔ |*po |*po | |midrib |*po |po [CV] |po [CV] |*po |*po | |plant (v.) |*po-mo- |pe-me- [CV] |po-mo-[CV] |*po-m[o]- |*pom(o)- | |side |*p[o]mane | |pamane [CV] |*poman[e] |*poman | |ironwood sp. |*posa |pota [CV] |poha [CV] |*posa |*posa | |see/look |*por[a]- |poro- [CV] |pora- [CV] |*por[a]- |*por- | |ask |*poro- |-pɔrɔ- |-pɔrɔ- |*por[o]- |--- | |girl |*… | |ˈparaha- [CV]|*… |*-porawis | |cassowary |*pu | |pi |*pi |*pi | |flatulate |*pu-m- | |ˈahama pumu- |*as pu-m- |*asa pum- | |forehead |*mana-pun[i/u]| |maˈna-pini |*mana-pini |*manapin | |ripe |*puwu |puu |piˈwi |*piwi |*piwi | |moon |*pura |puˈra |piˈra |*pira |*pira | |sea/coast |*puru |puru [CV] |piri [CV] |*piri |*piri | Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is backed to velar /k/ in Kamoro: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***t-** |**k** |**t** |***t** |***t** | |do (?) |*te- |kə- |te- | |--- | |rattan |*tema |kɛˈma |taˈma |*tema |*tama ~ *tema | |give |*tema- |kɛmə- |tea-tamɔ- |*te-tema- (sg.)\\ *ta-tema- (pl.)|*tetam- (sg.)\\ *tatam- (pl.)| |go up |*tepe- | |tepe- [CV] |*tepe- |*tepe- | |rain |*tefe |kee |te |*tefe |*te(e) | |take |*tewa- |ke- |tewa- |*tew[a]- |*tew- | |child/son |*tewu | |tiˈwi |*t[i]wi |*tiwi | |split (tr.)|*tere-me- | |tere-me- [CV]|*tere-m[e]- |*terem- | |belly |*tejake | |teakə |*tejake |*tia(-ke) | |jaw |*tVpane |kepare [CV]| |*… |*topane | |morning |*tamusija |ˈkaɔmutja |taməˈhɛ | |--- | |banana |*tafu |kaw | |*tafi |--- | |nipa fruit |*tas[e/a] | |taha [CV] |*tase |*tase | |taboo |*tasa |kaˈta |taˈha |*tasa |*tas(a) | |say/speak |*tawe- | |tawə- |*tawe- |--- | |sago grub |*tawV | | |*tawV |*tow | |hit/beat |*tawaFo |kaɔ- |tafɔ- |*tawaF[o]- |*toaf- | |flying fox |*tare | |tare [CV] |*tare |*tare | |old |*tarawu |akaˈraw-tə |tarai-ha [CV]|*tarawi |*tarej | |yesterday |*towa |kɔˈa |tɔˈa |*towa |*to(a) | |front |*topVne |kopane [CV]|topene [CV] |*… |*Topon(e) | |on top |*tone | |tone [CV] |*tone |*tom(e) | When initial /*t/ is followed by high front vowel /*i/, it is merged with palatal /*c/ (below) in Asmat. It would be just as possible to recontruct these examples with /*c/ since the distinction between /*t *c/ is neutralized in Kamoro and Sempan, but we choose /*t/ because it assumed to be the less marked sound: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve| | |***t-/_i** |**k** |**t** |***t** |***T** | |cut up |*ti- |ki- [CV] | |*ti- |*Ti | |canoe |*tiu |ku |tu |*tiu |*Tiˈu | |leech |*tifi |kii | |*tifi |*Ti | |with (com.)|*tini |kiri [CV] | |*tin[i]- |*Tin(i) | |go upriver |*tini- |kini- [CV]|tini- [CV] |*tin[i]- |*Tin- | |secret |*t[i/u]r[i/u]wa| |tiriwa [CV]|*tiriw[a]|*Tiruw(a)| Initial palatal stop /*c/ is merged with the reflexes of /*t/ in Kamoro and in Sempan. Excepting sequences /*ci/ which are not contrastive with /*ti (above,) it appears to exist only followed by low central vowel /*a/, although medial /*c/ can be followed by /*o/ as well (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***c-** |**k** |**t** |***t** |***T** | |kill |*cafa- | |ta- [CV]|*cafa- |*Ta- | |arrow |*c[ai]sa | |tesa |*c[ai]sa |*Taisa ~ *Tiasa| |house |*came |kame |tame |*came |*Tame | |penis |*camane |ˈkamarə |ˈtamanə |*camane |*Tamane | |sap |*capi |kapi [CV] | |*capi |*Tapi | |vagina |*cani | |ta'ni |*cani |*Tani | |below |*can[a]s[a] | |ta'naha |*can[a]s[a]|*Tenes- | |outside |*casane | |ˈtahanə |*casane |*Tasane | |one |*cawak[e/a] |eˈna-kɔa |taˈwahɛ |*cawaka |*Towaka | |nest |*cawa |ˈkao |ˈtao |*cawa |*Towa ~ *Tawa | |sago palm |*cawo | | |*cawo |*Tawo ~ *Towo | |woman/female|*cawoca |'kaɔka | |*cawoca |*TawoTa | |who? |*carV |-kare [CV]| |*carV |*Tar | |2 pl. |*care |karɛ |tarɔ |*care |*Tara | Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is uncommon. It is dropped in Kamoro and Sempan except in verb stems (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve| | |***k-** |**ø** |**ø** |***k** |***k** | |two/double|*kapoma |apoma [CV]| |*kapoma|*kapom | |person |*k[a]we |we-nata |ɔwe-naha |*kawe |*kawej | |enough |*kawa |'a-namɔ |'awa-namɔ|*kawa |--- | |tongue |*komane |mare |ˈɔmane |*komane|*(k)omane| |brain(s) |*kuisi |iˈti |ihi |*kuisi |*kuisi | As /*k/ is retained only sporadically in Asmat varieties (Voorhoeve 1980: 90, 117, 118,) it's highly likely that some forms which have been reconstructed here with an initial vowel in fact began with /*k/. Some of these may be recoverable through outcomparison; for example /*ewo/ "crocodile" and /*apimi/ "sago pulp" may have really been /*kewo/ and /*kapimi/ as evidenced by Cook River /*keu/, Marind /*kiu/ "crocodile" and Cook River /*keipm/ "sago tree", even though there is no longer any direct evidence for this in Asmat (q.v. p. 76.) We conclude that Asmat likely is (or was) in the process of eliminating initial /*k/ altogether.\\ \\ Initial bilabial or labiodental voiceless fricative /*f/ is reflected as /w/ or zero /ø/ in Tarya Kamoro: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorheove | | |***f-** |**w ~ ø**|**f** |***f** |***f** | |vein/tendon |*fima |ima [CV] |'fumapi [CV]|*fima |*fima(-pir) | |hair |*fini |iˈri |fiˈni |*fini |*(u-)fini | |nail |*f[i]ti | |fiti |*fiti |*fiTi | |turtle |*fiwa[t/c]o |ˈiɔkɔ |fiwatɔ | |--- | |make thatch |*fe- | |fe- [CV] |*fe- |*fe- | |hard/strong |*feak[e] | |ˈfakə |*feak[e] |*feak | |sharp |*f[e/a]ro | |feroko [CV] |*f[e/a]ro |*faro(t) | |neck |*f[e/o]mak[e]|eˈma | |*fomak[e] |*femak ~ *fomak | |thorn/spine |*fa | |fa [CV] |*fa |*fa | |buttocks |*fae(-more) | |'fae-meɾə |*fae(-more)|*fae(a), *faemore| |cuscus |*face |ˈwakə |fatə |*face |*faTi | |widow/widower|*fuisama | |ˈfiama |*fuisam[a] |--- | Initial apical voiceless fricative /*s/ is occluded to /t/ in Kamoro, filling the gap left by the shift of /*t/ to /k/ (above.) In Drabbe's Sempan, /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/, though Drabbe (1953: 88) states that this varies between [h s] by dialect: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***s-** |**t** |**h [h s]** |***s** |***s** | |dig |*si- |ti- [CV] |hi- |*si- |*si- | |plait |*si- |ti- | |*si- |*si- | |sand |*simako |'timakɔ | | | | |sand |*sini |tiˈri |hiˈni |*mi-sini |*misini | |sour |*si[t/c]are |tikaɾə |'hitaj | |--- | |tooth |*sisi |titi |hi |*sisi |*sisi | |thorn |*s[i/e]sV[i/e]|tetə |hii | |--- | |earth/mud |*sefe |tee |he |*sefe |*se | |pawpaw sp. |*sena |tena [CV] |hena [CV] |*sen[a] |*sen(a) | |egg |*sa |ta [CV] |ha [CV] |*sa |*sa | |distribution |*sai | |haj- [CV] |*sai |*saj | |shoulder |*sairi |ˈtairi |ˈhiari |*sairi |*saji | |dried/smoked |*saewa | |hawa |*saewa |*saiwa (?) | |death |*sapo |tapɔ- |hapɔ | |--- | |be extinguished|*sapu-(mu)- |taˈpu- |hapi-(m)- |*sapi-(m[i])- |*sapim- | |murder |*s[a]nao |taˈnao [V] |hanaɔ |*… |*soˈnao | |split |*sakai- |takaj-\\ takai-imi- [CV]|heke-me- [CV]|*sakai-/*saka-m-|*sakam- | |white |*sako |takɔ |ha'kɔ | |--- | |sawfish sp. |*sa[w]ate |tawake [CV] | |*sawate |*sawote | |song |*sawo |taɔ |haɔ |*sawo |*so | |light (color) |*s[a]reco | |hereto [CV] |*… |*sareT ~ *saroT| |rope |*somane |ˈtɛma |'hɔmanə |*somane |*somane | |lung(s) |*sofo | | |*sofo |--- | |upper arm |*sofo |tɔɔ |hɔfɔ |*sofo-ope |*sope | |afraid |*sonV |tono [CV] |honae [CV] |*sone |*sone | |elbow |*sonane |ˈtɔra-pɔa |ˈhɔnanə |*sonane |*sonane | |charcoal/black |*sosV | | |*sosV |*sos | |black |*sosak[e] |tate |ˈhɔakɛ |*sosakV |*sosaka | |dry |*soso[to] |totoko [CV] | |*soso[tV] |*sosot | |heart |*soke |toke [CV] |ˈhɔkə |*sok |*sok(-Tan) | Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is generally retained as such in all three subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***w-** |**w** |**w** |***w** |***w** | |other/another |*wen[i/u] | |weni [CV] |*wen[i] |*ˈwen | |wave (n.) |*wao |wao [CV] |wao [CV] |*wao |*ˈwao | |forest |*wafo(-asane)|ˈwaɔ |wahane [CV] |*waf[o](-asane)|*wa, *wasane| |garden/clearing|*wasa |wata [CV] |waˈha |*was |*was(a) | |red ochre |*wasae |watae [CV]|wahe- ~ waha [CV]|*was[ae] |*wasa | |bamboo sp. |*wakane | |wakane [CV] |*wakan[e] |*wakan(e) | |now/today |*wawa |wa-'wa |wa'wa |*wawa |*wawa | |liver |*waw[a/o] |waɔ |wawa |*waw[a/o] |*wao | |sheet lightning|*w[a]raki |ˈuraki | |*waraki |*warakaj | |bundle |*wo |wo [CV] |wu [CV] |*wo |*wu | |thunder |*wur[u] | |wuru |*wiri |*wuru | |palm cabbage |*wui[ja] |wia [CV] | |*… |*ˈwui | Two apparent exceptions in which Kamoro drops root-intiial /*w/ are kin terms which are typically prefixed by possessors: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro|Sempan|Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***(-)w-** |**ø** |**w** |***w**|***w** | |father |*witu |iku |wɔti |*witi |*-wiT, *-ote| |mother (ref.)|*w[o]se |ɔtə |'wɛhɛ |*wose |*wose | Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is retained in all three languages when followed by mid and low vowels /*e *a *o/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***j-/_e a o**|**j** |**j** |***j** |***j** | |stone |*j[e]ka | |jaka |*j[e]ka |*jeka | |enemy |*jewawe | |jewawe |*jewawe |--- | |walking |*ja[e] |jae |jaɛ |*ja |*ja | |two |*jam[i/u]nV |jamane |ja'mina |*jamin[o]ko |*jaminuk | |salt/salty |*jame |jame [CV] | |*j[a]me |*jeme | |crooked |*jamerV |jamer [CV]|jame [CV] (?)|*jamerV |*jamer | |shield |*jamase | |jamahe [CV] |*j[a]m[a]se |*jemese | |armpit |*jamopu |ˈjamopu |jamapi [CV] |*jamopi |*jamopi | |ear |*jafane |ˈiini |ˈianə |*jafane |*jafane\\ ~ jane(-maka)| |men's house |*jafawe |jafa [CV] | |*jafawe |*jawe | |wing |*jaf[a]ro |jaˈru | |*jaf[a]ro |*jaoro | |fat/grease |*jaf… | | |*jaf… |--- | |call |*j[a]te- |jeke- | |*j[a]te- |*jate- | |charcoal |*jaka | | |*jaka |*jaka | |cook/burn |*jawi- |jaj-mi- |-jwi- |*jawi- | | |rib(s)/side |*jawimi |ˈjajmi |jajmi |*jawimi |*jawimi | |black ashes |*jawo |eˈaɔ | |*jawo |*jowomiTi | |sun |*jawu |jaw |jɔˈwi |*jawi |*jowe ~ *jowi | |go/walk |*jar[e]- | |jare- [CV] |*jar[e]- |*jar- | |hole |*j[a/o]Fa | |ja'fa |*j[a/o]Fa |*jofa | |b.o. paradise|*j[a/o]wa |'jaw-makɔ |'jɔw-mɔtɔ |*jowa(-mot[o])|*jowa | |midday/noon |*joka | |joka [CV] |*joka |*joka | |river |*jow[a/o] |jɔ |jɔ |*jowa |*joa(k) | There is at least one unexplained exception: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat|Voorhoeve| | |***[j]-/_a**|**ø** |**j** |**?**|**---** | |snake|*[j]akas[i]a|ˈakatja|ˈjakəha| |--- | When followed by high vowels /*i *u/, initial /*j/ is dropped in Kamoro and in Sempan. Note that initial /*ju/ develops differently from vowel sequence /*iu/ (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***j-/_i** |**ø** |**ø** |***j** |**** | |urine |*ji |ji |ˈitakə |*ji |*ji | |fish net |*jim[i/e] |ˈimi |ˈimi |*jim[i/e] |*jime | |nape |*jimas[i] | |ˈimahi |*jimas[i] |--- | |cave/cavity|*jipa/td> |'ipa |ipa [CV] |*jipa |*jip(a) | |shadow |*jipur |ipu [CV] |ipi [CV] |*jipir[u] |*jipuru | |pull |*jifi-mi- |ii-mi- [CV]|i-mi- [CV]|*jifi-m[i]-|*jim- | |knee |*jinifa |ˈiri-pɔ |ˈini-pɔ |*jinifa |*jina | |go outside |*jisi- |iti- [CV] |ihi- [CV] |*jis[i]- |*jis- | |bamboo |*jis[u]m[i/u]| |ihimi |*jisim[i] |*jisim(i) | |enter |*jiwi- |ii- [CV] |iwi- [CV] |*jiwi- |*jiw(i)- | |hear/sense |*jiwV- |i- | |*jiwV- |--- | |casuarina |*jiw… | |iiwi [CV] |*jiwase |*jiwase | |rainbow |*jiri |'iri | |*jir[i] |*jir(i) | |gall/bile |*jiri |i'ri |i'ri |*jiri |*jiri | |command |*jiri-mi- |iri-mi- | |*jiri-m[i]-|*jirim- | |cross river|*jira |ira- [CV] | |*jirV- |*jir- | |hornbill |*jiro | |iiri [CV] |*jir[o] |*jiru | |small |*j[i/u]wu | | |*jiwi |*jiwi | | |***j-/_u** |**ø** |**ø** |***j** |***j** | |door |*jumasapu |ˈimapu |ˈimahapi |*jumasapi |*jimasapi(ne)\\ ~ jimasapu(ne)| |cold |*juFoko | |ˈifakɔ |*juFoko |*jufo(-to/ko) | |heavy |*jutoro | | |*jutoro |*juturu ~ *jitoro | |dark |*juwiti |ˈiiki |ˈiwiti |*juwiti |*jiwiTi | |dog |*juwuri |uˈuri |iwiri |*juw[i]ri |*juwuri | |night |*jurama | |ˈirama |*jurama |*jirama | Kamoro retains /*j/ before /*i/ in only one word which is conspicuous for being a monosyllable; presumably Sempan would have retained it too had the root not been suffixed: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro|Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve| | |***j-/_i** |**j** |**ø** |***j**|**** | |urine|*ji |ji |ˈi-takə|*ji |*ji | Any consonant can occur medially/\\ \\ Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all three subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***-m-** |**m** |**m** |***m** |***m** | |same |*imini |imiri [CV]- |inim [CV] |*inim[i] |*inim(i) | |do/make |*[i/e]m[i/e]-|imi- |eme- |*em[e]- |*em- | |throw away |*iwi-aso-mo |ˈj-aɔtɔ-mɔ- |ˈiw-ahɔ-mɔ- |*iwi-asom[o]- |*iwi-asom- | |drum |*eme |eme |eme |*eme |*eme | |stand |*eme- | | |*em[e]- |*em- | |husband |*[e]mao |mjaɔ |'maɔ |*… |*omo- | |wife |*eamo |eamɔ |amɔ |*eamo |*-emo | |bone |*emake |eˈmae |emaˈkɛ |*emake |*emake | |fish |*enamo | | |*enamo |*enamo | |top of tree |*amisi | |amihi [CV] |*amis[i] |*amis(i) | |lie down |*[a]mese- | |mehe- |*[a]mes[e]- |*[a]mes- | |snake sp. |*amerV |'amerea [CV]| |*… |*amer | |hot |*amam[a] |a'mam-uru | |*amam[a] |*amam | |hot |*amapo | |a'mapɔ-tɔ |*amapo |*amapo | |owner |*[a]mato |amako [CV] |mato [CV] |*amat[o] |*amat(o) | |louse |*amo |ˈmamɔ |ˈw-amɔ |*ufu-amo |*wamo | |bow |*amoine |'amɔrə |'amene |*amoine |*amu'ine | |sago |*amosa |amuˈta |amaˈha |*amosa |*amosa | |story |*amok[a/o] |'amɔkɔ- |'amɔka- | |--- | |smoke |*amuini |ˈimini |ˈamini |*amuini |*-amini~*amuni | |sago pulp |*apimi |apimi [CV] | |*apim[i] |*apim(i) | |voice/speech |*ata-kom[o] | |'atamɔ |*at[a]-kom[o] |*atakom,\\ *atamo | |nipa palm |*akamo | |ˈakamɔ |*akamo |*akamo | |rub |*are-me- | |are-me- [CV] |*are-m[e]- |*aram(e)- | |younger sister|*[o]m[a/o]sV | |ma'hae | |*-omosi | |sky |*onamo | |'ɔnamɔ |*onamo |*wonamo | |steal |*oso-mo- |'ɔtɔ-mɔ |'ɔhɔ-mɔ |*oso-mo- |*wosom- | |straighten |*oro-mo- |oro-mo- [CV]| |*oro-mo- |*orom- | |ashes |*umit[i/u] | | |*jawo-umiti |*jowomiTi | |beneath |*mimane |'mimarə |'mimanə | |--- | |orphan |*manima |ma'nima-rə |'manima- |*man[i]ma |*manema | |knowledge |*mas[a/o]mo |'matamɔ |'mahamɔ |*mas[o]m[o] |*masom(o) | |root |*mumu |nuˈmu [sic] |miˈmi |*mimi |*mimi | |edge |*pima |pim-ini [CV]|pima [CV] |*pima |*pima | |smell |*pinVmo |ni'mu |pinumɔ |*pinVm[o] |*pinum | |break (tr.) |*piki-mi- |piki-mi- |piki-mi- |*piki-m[i]- |--- | |boil (n.). |*pem[e/a] |ˈpema [CV] | |*pem[e] |*peme | |termite sp. |*penamo | |ˈpenamo [CV] |*penam[o] |*penam(o) | |plant (v.) |*po-mo |pe-me- [CV] |po-mo-[CV] |*po-m[o]- |*pom(o)- | |side |*p[o]mane | |pamane [CV] |*poman[e] |*poman | |vein/tendon |*fima |ima [CV] |'fumapi [CV] |*fima |*fima(-pir) | |neck |*f[e/o]mak[e]|eˈma | |*fomak[e] |*femak ~ *fomak | |widow/widower |*fuisama | |ˈfiama |*fuisam[a] |--- | |slow |*namese | |namehe [CV] |*names[e] |*namese | |hide |*nawoma |'naɔ'ma |'naɔ'ma | |--- | |rattan |*tema |kɛˈma |taˈma |*tema |*tama ~ *tema | |give |*tema- |kɛmə- |tea-tamɔ- |*te-tema- (sg.)\\ *ta-tema- (pl.)|*tetam- (sg.)\\ *tatam- (pl.) | |split (tr.) |*tere-me- | |tere-me- [CV]|*tere-m[e]- |*terem- | |morning |*tamusija |ˈkaɔmutja |taməˈhɛ | |--- | |house |*came |kame |tame |*cane |*Tame | |penis |*camane |ˈkamarə |ˈtamanə |*camane |*Tamane | |sand |*simako |'timakɔ | | | | | | | | | | | |extinguish |*sapu-mu- |/td> |hapi-m- |*sapi-m[i]- |*sapim- | |rope |*somane |ˈtɛma |'hɔmanə |*somane |*somane | |eyebrows |*kimini |-kimiri |-himiri | |--- | |two/double |*kapoma |apoma [CV] | |*kapoma |*kapom | |enough |*kawa-namo |'a-namɔ |'awa-namɔ | |--- | |tongue |*komane |mare |ˈɔmane |*komane |*(k)omane | |push away |*ko-mo- |ko-mo- [CV] | |*ko-mo- |*kom-asom- | |fish net |*jim[i/e] |ˈimi |ˈimi |*jim[i/e] |*jime | |nape |*jimas[i] | |ˈimahi |*jimas[i] |--- | |pull |*jifi-mi- |ii-mi- [CV] |i-mi- [CV] |*jifi-m[i]- |*jim- | |bamboo |*jis[u]m[i/u]| |ihimi |*jisim[i] |*jisim(i) | |command |*jiri-mi- |iri-mi- | |*jiri-m[i]- |*jirim- | |salt/salty |*jame |jame [CV] | |*j[a]me |*jeme | |two |*jam[i/u]nV |jamane |ja'mina |*jamin[o]ko |*jaminuk | |crooked |*jamerV |jamer [CV] |jame [CV] (?)|*jamerV |*jamer | |shield |*jamase | |jamahe [CV] |*j[a]m[a]se |*jemese | |armpit |*jamopu |ˈjamɔpu |jamapi [CV] |*jamopi |*jamopi | |rib(s)/side |*jawimi |ˈjajmi |jajmi |*jawimi |*jawimi | |door |*jumasapu |ˈimapu |ˈimahapi |*jumasapi |*jimasapi(ne)\\ ~ jimasapu(ne)| |sago leaf |*[j]unVmo | |inimo [CV] |*junVm[o] |*junumu | |night |*jurama | |ˈirama |*jurama |*jirama | Medial apical nasal /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***-n-** |**n** |**n** |***n** |***n** | |mother (add.)|*en[ai]wa |enea [CV] |enaj [CV] |*en[e]wa |*enewa | |fish |*enamo | | |*enamo |*enamo | |come |*[e]naw[a]- |naɔ- |naɔ- |*enaw[a]- |*enaw- | |smoke |*amuini |ˈimini |ˈamini |*amuini |*-amini~*amuni | |sky |*onamo | |'ɔnamɔ |*onamo |*wonamo | |chin |*okone |'ɔkɔnə |ɔ'kɔn |*okone |*wokone | |jungle fowl |*owane | | |*owane |*owo-(ne/to) | |spear |*uruna |ˈuruna |ˈuruna | |--- | |mucus |*mini |miˈni | | |--- | |python |*minewe | |menewe [CV] |*min[i]w |*miniw | |orphan |*manima |ma'nima-rə |'manima- |*man[i]ma |*manema | |eye |*mana |ma-me |ma'nakə |*mana |*mana(-ka) | |forehead |*mana-pun[i/u]| |maˈna-pini |*mana-pini |*manapin | |sugarcane |*monefV |mɔne | | |--- | |not/none |*muna |-ˈmuna |-ˈmɔna (?) |*.mina. |*min(a) | |smell |*pinVmo |ni'mu |pinumɔ |*pinVm[o] |*pinum | |termite sp. |*penamo | |ˈpenamo [CV]|*penam[o] |*penam(o) | |wallaby |*painaro |'pajnarə |'pajnarɔ | |--- | |dirty |*p… |panawa [CV]|pana-ko [CV]|*p… |*ponow(a) | |side |*p[o]mane | |pamane [CV] |*poman[e] |*poman | |go upriver |*tini- |kini- [CV] |tini- [CV] |*tin[i]- |*Tin- | |front |*topVne |kopane [CV]|topene [CV] |*… |*Topon(e) | |on top |*tone | |tone [CV] |*tone |*tom(e) | |vagina |*cani | |ta'ni |*cani |*Tani | |low/below |*can[a]s[a] | |ta'naha |*can[a]s[a]|*Tenes- | |pawpaw sp. |*sena |tena [CV] |hena [CV] |*sen[a] |*sen(a) | |murder |*s[a]nao |taˈnao [V] |hanaɔ |*… |*soˈnao | |afraid |*sonV |tono [CV] |honae [CV] |*sone |*sone | |enough |*kawa-namo |'a-namɔ |'awa-namɔ | |--- | |other/another|*wen[i/u] | |weni [CV] |*wen[i] |*ˈwen | |two |*jam[i/u]nV |jamane |ja'mina |*jamin[o]ko|*jaminuk | |ear |*jafane |ˈiini |ˈianə |*jafane |*jafane\\ ~ jane(-maka)| |sago leaf |*[j]unVmo | |inimo [CV] |*junVm[o] |*junumu | One example shows an seeminglyirregular loss of medial /*n/ in Kamoro and Sempan: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro|Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve| |**** |***-n-** |**ø** |**ø** |***n** |***n** | |thought|*minipV |mipi |mipo (?)|*minipV|*minip | Many examples of medial /*n/ in subfinal position are reflecrted as /r/ in Kamoro, though this is not an exceptionaless rule as seen above. Perhaps the answer lies in borrowing across Kamoro dialects, for example Robidé van der Aa's (1879) Lakahia shows /n/ in this position (q.v. Ray 1912: 327): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***-n(-)** |**-r-** |**-n-** |***-n-** |***n** | |same |*imini |imiri [CV]-|inim [CV] |*inim[i] |*inim(i) | |lip(s) |*iwin[i/e] |ˈiiri |ˈiwini |*jw[i]n[e] |*iwene | |bow |*amoine |'amɔrə |'amene |*amoine |*amu'ine | |centipede |*anu |aru [CV] | |*ani |*ani | |groin |*apini |apiri [CV] | |*apin[i] |*apin(i) | |hip/thigh |*asini |ˈatiri |ˈahini |*asini |*asini | |coconut |*usini |ˈutiri |ˈihini |*jusini |*jusini | |beneath |*mimane |'mimarə |'mimanə | |--- | |armband sp.|*metane |makare [CV]|metane [CV}|*metane |*metan(e) | |tip/point |*m[e/a]n[e] |-mare | |*m[e/a]n[e]|*aw men(e) | |hand/arm |*mafane |maarə |ˈmafanə |*mafane |*mafane,\\ *mane| |trunk/nase |*mopane |mapare [CV]|mopane [CV]|*mopane |*mopane | |war |*mo[t/c]ane |ˈmokarə |ˈmatanə | |--- | |skin/bark |*pitini |ˈpikiri |ˈpitini |*pitini |*piTini | |just/only |*nasane |natare [CV]|nahana [CV]|*nasane |*nesen | |with (com.)|*tini |kiri [CV] | |*tin[i]- |*Tin(i) | |jaw |*tVpane |kepare [CV]| |*… |*topane | |penis |*camane |ˈkamarə |ˈtamanə |*camane |*Tamane | |outside |*casane | |ˈtahanə |*casane |*Tasane | |rope |*somane |ˈtɛma (?) |'hɔmanə |*somane |*somane | |elbow |*sonane |ˈtɔra-pɔ |ˈhɔnanə |*sonane |*sonane | |eyebrow(s) |*kimini |-kimiri |-himini | |--- | |tongue |*komane |mare |ˈɔmane |*komane |*(k)omane | |hair |*fini |ˈwiri |fiˈni |*fini |*(u-)fini | |bamboo sp. |*wakane | |wakane [CV]|*wakan[e] |*wakan(e) | |sand |*sini |tiˈri |hiˈni |*mi-sini |*misini | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve| |**** |***-n-** |**r** |**n** |***n** |***n** | |elbow|*sonane |ˈtɔra-pɔ|ˈhɔnanə|*sonane|*sonane | |knee |*jinifa |ˈiri-pɔ |ˈini-pɔ|*jinifa|*jina | Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all three subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***-p-** |**p** |**p** |***p** |***p** | |older brother |*[e]poca |pɔka |*pɔta |*epoc[a] |*-epoT | |tail |*epe | | |*epe |*epe(-mak) | |hot |*amapo | |a'mapɔ-tɔ |*amapo |*amapo | |sago pulp |*apimi |apimi [CV] | |*apim[i] |*apim(i) | |groin |*apini |apiri [CV] | |*apin[i] |*apin(i) | |daughter |*[a]pija |pja |apja | | | |sit |*ape- |epə- |apə- |*ape- |*ape- ~ *jape- | |sago palm stem |*apapi |ˈapapi |ˈapapi | |--- | |pronged spear |*ap[a/o]to |apoko [CV] | |*ap[a]to |*apa-(ne/to) | |kernel/core |*apoke |apeke\\ ~ apoko [CV]| |*apok[e] |*apok(e) | |behind |*asapu |a'tapu |-ahapi |*asap[i] |*asap(e) | |high/above |*ope |ɔpə |ɔpe |*ope |*ope | |fly (n.) |*opoto |ˈkɔpɔkɔ [sic] | |*opoto |*opoto | |man/male |*upuc[i/a] |ˈupuka |ˈipita |*j[u]pit[i] |*jipiTi | |older sister |*upuca |ˈupuka |ˈupita |*upica |*-ipiTa ~ *-upiTa | |sweat |*uwaputi |'waputi |'jɔpiti | |--- | |thought |*minipV |mipi |mipo (?) |*minipV |*minip | |tail |*m[i/e]p[i/e]|ˈmipi |ˈmɛpə |*mep[e] |*mepe(-mak) | |trunk/nase |*mopane |mapare [CV] |mopane [CV]|*mopane |*mopane | |tight/firm |*pepe | |pepe [CV] |*pepe>/td> |*pepe | |white |*napu |napu [CV] | |*napi |*napi | |go up |*tepe- | |tepe- [CV] |*tepe- |*tepe- | |jaw |*tVpane |kepare [CV] | |*… |*topane | |front |*topVne |kopane [CV] |topene [CV]|*… |*Topon(e) | |sap |*capi |kapi [CV] | |*capi |*Tapi | |death |*sapo |tapɔ- |hapɔ | |--- | |be extinguished|*sapu-(mu)- |taˈpu- |hapi-(m)- |*sapi-(m[i])-|*sapim- | |larynx |*kapo |-kapu |-kaˈpɔ | |--- | |two/double |*kapoma |apoma [CV] | |*kapoma |*kapom | |follow |*kap[u]- |kapu- [CV] |kapo- [CV] |*kapu- |*kapu- | |door |*jimasapu |ˈimapu |ˈimahapi |*jimasapi |*jimasapi(ne)\\ ~ jimasapu(ne)| |cave/cavity |*jipa/td> |'ipa |ipa [CV] |*jipa |*jip(a) | |shadow |*jipu[ru] |ipu [CV] |ipi [CV] |*jipir[u] |*jipuru | |armpit |*jamopu |ˈjamapu |jamapi [CV]|*jamopi |*jamopi | One example shows an apparently irregular alternation between /*p/ and /*f/ (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorheove| |**** |***-[p/f]-**|**ø [f]**|**p** |***p** |***p** | |saliva|*mesa[p/f]u |maˈtaɔ |ˈmahapi|*masapi|*masap | Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is like intiial /*t/ (above) backed to velar /k/ in Kamoro, where it merges with the reflexes of /*k/ (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***-t-** |**k** |**t** |***t** |***t** | |owner |*[a]mato |amako [CV] |mato [CV] |*amat[o] |*amat(o) | |pronged spear |*ap[a/o]to |apoko [CV] | |*ap[a]to |*apa-(ne/to) | |voice/speech |*ata |ak-werə |'ata-mɔ |*ata- |*atakom\\ *atamo | |fly (n.) |*opoto |ˈkɔpɔkɔ [sic]| |*opoto |*opoto | |thumb |*m[i/u]-tewu| |ˈmitiwi |*mitiwitV|*mitit | |armband sp. |*metane |makare [CV] |metane [CV} |*metane |*metan(e) | |path |*mato |mako [CV] |moto [CV] |*mato |*matot | |star |*mawuto |ˈmaakɔ |ˈmawətɔ |*mawito |*mawito | |tail feather(s)|*m[a/o]to |-makɔ |mɔ'tɔ ~ -mɔkɔ (?)|*-mot[o] |--- | |tie/fasten |*mot[e/a]- |mɔke- |mota- [CV] |*motV- |*mot- | |ghost |*nato | |'natɔ |*nato |*nat(o) | |sawfish sp. |*sa[w]ate |tawake [CV] | |*sawate |*sawote | |dry |*soso[to] |totoko [CV] | |*soso[tV]|*sosot | |call |*j[a]te- |jeke- | |*j[a]te- |-*jate- | |heavy |*jutoro | | |*jutoro |*juturu ~ *jitoro| When medial /*t/ is followed by high front vowel /*i/, it is merged with palatal /*c/ (below) in Asmat. It would be just as possible to recontruct these examples with /*c/ since the distinction between /*t *c/ is neutralized in Kamoro and Sempan, but we choose /*t/ because it assumed to be the less marked sound: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve| | |***-t-/_i** |**k** |**t** |***t** |**** | |thorn |*iti |iki [CV] |iti [CV] |*iti |*(j)iTi | |nape |*ititi |ˈikiki | |*itit[i] |--- | |nettle leaves|*atiwi |aki [CV] |atiwi [CV]|*atiwi |*aTuw(i) | |platform |*atiri |akiri [CV]| |*atir(i) |*aTir(i) | |ashes |*umit[i/u] | | |*jawo-umiti|*jowomiTi| |sweat |*uwaputi |'waputi |'jɔpiti | |--- | |skin/bark |*pitini |ˈpikiri |ˈpitini |*pitini |*piTini | |nail |*f[i]ti | |fiti |*fiti |*fiTi | |raw/unripe |*nati |naˈki |naˈti |*nati |*naTi | |dark |*juwiti |ˈiiki |ˈiwiti |*jiwiti |*jiwiTi | When /*t/ is followed by /*u/, it is also palatalized in Asmat.: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro|Sempan|Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***-t-/_u** |**k** |**t** |***c**|***T** | |father|*witu |iku |wɔti |*witi |*-wiT, *-ote| Because the reflexes of /*t/ and /*c/ have merged in Kamoro and in Sempan (below,) it is sometimes impossible to distringuish the two where there is no Asmat attestation: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat|Voorhoeve | | |***-[t/c]-**|**k** |**t** |**?**|**---** | |jungle fowl|*owo[t/c]o |ˈɔkɔ |ˈɔwɔtɔ | |*owo-(ne/to)| |war |*mo[t/c]ane |ˈmokarə|ˈmatanə| |--- | |turtle |*fiwa[t/c]o |ˈiɔkɔ |ˈfiwatɔ| |--- | |sour |*si[t/c]are |tikaɾə |'hitaj | |--- | Medial palatal voiceless stop /*c/ is found before low central and low mid back rounded vowels /*a *o/, where it contrasts with the reflexes of /*t/ (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***-c-** |**k** |**t** |***c** |***T** | |older brother |*[e]poca |pɔka |pɔta |*epoc[a] |*-epoT | |frog |*eco |ekɔ |etɔ |*eto |*eTo | |younger brother|*[e]waoca |aɔka |ɔta |*ewaoc[a] |*-ewaoc | |where? |*ocare |okare [CV]| |*ocar[e] |*uTar(e) | |man/male |*upuc[i/a] |ˈupuka |ˈipita |*j[u]pit[i]|*jipiTi | |older sister |*upuca |ˈupuka |ˈupita |*upica |*-ipiTa ~ *-upiTa| |wet |*mocofo |mɔkɔ |ˈmɔtɔ-kɔ |*moco(-ko) |*moTo(k) | |carry |*noco- |noko- [CV]| |*noco]- |*noT- | |woman/female |*cawoca |'kaɔka | |*tawota |*TawoTa | |light (color) |*s[a]reco | |hereto [CV]|*… |*sareT ~ *saroT | Unlike intiial /*c/ which is always followed by low central vowel /*a/, medial /*c/ is found also followed by mid front /*e/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***-c-/_e** |**k** |**t** |***c** |***T** | |goanna sp.|*[o]ce |oke [CV] |ote [CV] |*… |*wuTi | |laugh |*[o]ce |ɔkɔ kɔ- |ɔtə ɔtɔ- |*… |*wuTi woTi-| |cry/weep |*mace |makə makə-|matə matə-|*mace mace-|*maTi | |cuscus |*face |ˈwakə |fatə |*face |*faTi | Media velar voicless stop /*k/, including root-initial /*k/ in compounds, is generally retained as such in all three subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***-k-** |**k** |**k** |***k** |***k** | |eyebrow(s) |*-kimini |-ˈkimiri |-ˈhimini [sic]| | ---; | |larynx |*-kapo |-kapu |-kaˈpɔ | |--- | |fruit/seed |*eake |-ekə |-ɛˈkɛ |*eake |*eake | |story |*amok[a/o] |'amɔkɔ- |'amɔka- | |--- | |kernel/core |*apoke |apeke\\ ~ apoko [CV] | |*apok[e] |*apok(e) | |bitter/pain |*asako |'atakɔ |a'hakɔ |*… |--- | |nipa palm |*akamo | |ˈakamɔ |*akamo |*akamo | |egg |*oka | |ɔˈka |*oka |*oka | |chin |*okone |'ɔkɔnə |ɔ'kɔn |*okone |*wokone | |back |*maeke | |mekə |*maeke |*ma(e)ke | |wasp sp. |*m[a]ko |moko [CV] | |*mako |*mako | |break |*piki-(mi)- |piki-(mi)- |piki-(mi)- |*piki-(m[i])- |--- | |wide |*paj[a/o]ko |pa'jɔkɔ |pa'jakɔ | |--- | |hard/strong |*feak[e] | |ˈfakə |*feak[e] |*feak | |neck |*f[e/o]mak[e]|eˈma | |*f[e/o]mak[e] |*femak ~ *fomak| |carry |*nek[e/a]- |neke- |neka- | |--- | |belly |*tejake | |teakə |*tejake |*tia(-ke) | |sand |*simako |'timakɔ | | | | | | | | | | | |split |*sakai- |takaj-\\ takai-imi- [CV]|heke-me- [CV] |*sakai-/*saka-m-|*sakam- | |white |*sako |takɔ |ha'kɔ | |--- | |heart |*soke |toke [CV] |ˈhɔkə |*sok |*sok(-Tan) | |bamboo sp. |*wakane | |wakane [CV] |*wakan[e] |*wakan(e) | |sheet lightning|*w[a]raki |ˈuraki | |*waraki |*warakaj | |tie up |*j[i/e]ka- | |eka- |*j[i]k[a]- |*jik- | |stone |*j[e]ka | |jaka |*j[e]ka |*jeka | |charcoal |*jaka | | |*jaka |*jaka | |snake |*[j]akas[ij]a|ˈakatja |ˈjakəha | |--- | |midday/noon |*joka | |joka [CV] |*joka |*joka | Likewise, root-initial /*k/ is retained in verbs, which are typically prefixed: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***(-)k-** |**k** |**k** |***k** |***k** | |tear/loosn|*kai- |kaj- [CV] |kaj- [CV] |*kaj- |*kaj- | |follow |*kap[u]- |kapu- [CV] |kapo- [CV]|*kapu- |*kapu- | |push away |*ko-mo- |ko-mo- [CV]| |*ko-mo-|*kom-asom-| |go down |*koro- |kɔrɔ-naw- |kɔrɔ-nafi-|*koro- |*kor(a)- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| |**** |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve| |**** |***-k** |**ø** |**k** |**k** |***k** | |bone |*emake |eˈmae |emaˈkɛ |*emake |*emake | |testicle(s)|*musa(-eake)|muta\\ muˈta-eke [CV]|ˈmihakə |*misakV |*misaka | |wet |*mocofo-ko | |ˈmɔtɔ-kɔ |*moco-ko|*moTo(k) | |one |*cawak[e/a] |eˈna-kɔa |taˈwahɛ [sic]|*cawaka |*Towaka | |black |*sosak[e] |tate |ˈhɔakɛ |*sosakV |*sosaka | |sneeze |*jaki |jaje |ja'hi [sic] |*jaki |--- | Medial bilabial or labiodental voiceless fricative /*f/ is, like the medial reflexes of bilabial non-stop/*w/ (below,) dropped completely in Tarya Kamoro; however it is retained as [f h] in Kamoro's Wania dialects (Drabbe 1953: 85.) It is retained only sporadically in Sempan. Because medial /*f/ is not reliably attested in any of our main sources, some examples can be inferred only indirectly from vowel length in Tarya Kamoro or from outcomparison to Kamrau Bay cognates: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***-f-** |**ø** |**f ~ ø** |***f** |***f *w *ø** | |wasp sp. |*ifi |ii [CV] |ifi [CV] |*ifi |*i(f)i | |leaf |*efe |ee |je |*efe |*ee | |near |*afarV |a'warɔ- |'afarə | |--- | |pig |*ofo |ɔɔ [ˈɔfɔ] |ˈɔfɔ |*ofo |*ofo | |goura pigeon|*ufo |ˈuu |'ifɔ |*jufo |*jofo | |head |*ufu |u- [ufu] |u- |*ufu |*u- | |head louse |*ufu-amo | |ˈw-amɔ |*ufu-amo |*wamo | |hand/arm |*mafane |ˈmaarə |mafanə |*mafane |*mafane,\\ *mane | |sugarcane |*monefV |mɔne | | |--- | |wet |*mocofo |mɔkɔ |ˈmɔtɔ-kɔ |*moco(-ko) |*moTo(k) | |pigeon sp. |*parufa |parua [CV] | |*parif[i] |*pari | |go down |*nafu- |-naw- |-nafi- |*nafi-- |*naj-, *now- | |leech |*tifi |kii | |*tifi |*Ti | |rain |*tefe |kee [kefe] |te |*tefe |*te(e) | |banana |*tafu |kaw [kafu] | |*tafi |--- | |kill |*cafa- | |ta- [CV] |*cafa- |*Ta- | |earth/mud |*sefe |tee |he |*sefe |*se | |lung(s) |*sofo | | |*sofo |--- | |upper arm |*sofo |tɔɔ |hɔfɔ |*sofo-ope |*sope | |forest |*wafo(-asane)|ˈwaɔ |wasane [CV]|*waf[o](-asane)|*wa, *wasane | |pull |*jifi-mi- |ii-mi- [CV]|i-mi- [CV] |*jifi-m[i]- |*jim- | |knee |*jinifa |ˈiri-pɔ |ˈini-pɔ |*jinifa |*jina | |ear |*jafane |ˈiini |ˈianə |*jafane |*jafane\\ ~ jane(-maka)| |men's house |*jafawe |jafa [CV] | |*jafawe |*jawe | |wing |*jaf[a]ro |jaˈru | |*jaf[a]ro |*jaoro | |fat/grease |*jaf… | | |*jaf… |--- | … /*F/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***-F-** |**ø** |**f ~ ø**|***F** |***f** | |finger |*eFe |ee | |*eFe |*efe | |rotten |*oF[o] | | |*oF[o] |*ofa(k) | |hit/beat|*tawaFo |kaɔ- [kafɔ]|tafɔ- |*tawaF[o]-|*toaf- | |hole |*j[a/o]Fa | |ja'fa |*j[a/o]Fa |*jofa | |cold |*juFoko | |ˈifakɔ |*jFfoko |*jufo(-to/ko)| Medial apical voiceless fricative /*s/, like intiial /*s/ (above), is occluded to /t/ in Kamoro and deoccluded to /h/ in Drabbe's Sempan, though Drabbe (1953: 88) states that this varies between [h s] by dialect: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***-s-** |**t** |**h [h s]** |***s** |***s** | |mosquito |*isi |iˈti |iˈhi |*isi |*isi | |throw away |*iwi-aso-mo |ˈj-aɔtɔ-mɔ- |ˈiw-ahɔ-mɔ- |*iwi-asom[o]-|*iwi-asom- | |blood/red |*ese |ete |ehe |*ese |*ese | |sleep |*ese |ete |ehe |*ese |*esi (es-) | |plaited bag |*esae |e'tae [CV] |'ehae [CV] |*es[ae] |*esa(-ke)/td> | |top of tree |*amisi | |amihi [CV] |*amis[i] |*amis(i) | |lie down |*amese- | |mehe |*ames[e]- |*[a]mes- | |sago |*amosa |amuˈta |amaˈha |*amosa |*amosa | |afternoon |*jawu-asi |ew-ati [CV] |jaw-ahi [CV] | | | |hip/thigh |*asini |ˈatiri |ˈahini |*asini |*asini | |excrement |*asa |aˈta |aˈha |*asa |*asa | |grandmother |*asao[k] |a'taɔ |a'haɔ-ro |*… |*-asok | |behind |*asapu |a'tapu |-ahapi |*asapi |*asap(e) | |bitter/pain |*asako |'atakɔ |a'hakɔ |*… |--- | |big |*as[o]wa |atɔ'a | |*… |*asuw | |new |*ajasa | |'ajha |*ajas[a] |--- | |younger sister |*[o]m[a/o]sV | |ma'hae | |*-omosi | |tree/wood |*ose |ɔtə |ˈɔhɔ |*ose |*wose | |cough/phlegm |*osV |ɔ'taj |ɔ'hɔ |*osV |*os(e) | |steal |*oso-mo- |'ɔtɔ-mɔ |'ɔhɔ-mɔ |*oso-mo- |*wosom- | |coconut |*usini |ˈutiri |ˈihini |*jusini |*jusini | |firewood/fire |*usa |uta |juˈha |*jusa |*jusa | |name |*uwase |'u-nata |ˈiwahɛ |*juwas[e] |*juwas | |husband |*miwisi | |miwihi [CV] |*miwisi |*-miwis(i) | |termite sp. |*mese | |meˈsɛ |*mes[e] |*mes(e) | |saliva |*mesa[p/f]u |maˈtaɔ |ˈmahapi |*masapi |*masap | |knowledge |*mas[a/o]mo |'matamɔ |'mahamɔ |*mas[o]m[o] |*masom(o) | |testicle(s) |*musa(-eake) |muta\\ muˈta-eke [CV]|ˈmihakə |*misakV |*misaka | |mouse |*musu |muˈtu |miˈhi- | |--- | |bamboo sp. |*muwisi |ˈmuiti | |*muwis[i] |*muis | |blackpalm sp. |*pisi |piti [CV] |pihi [CV] |*pisi |*pise | |shy/shame |*paisi |ˈpajti |ˈpajhi | |--- | |itch/scabies |*pa… |pateta [CV] |pajhi [CV] |*… |*pases | |ironwood sp. |*posa |pota [CV] |poha [CV] |*posa |*posa | |girl |*… | |ˈparaha- [CV] |*… |*-porawis | |slow |*namese | |namehe [CV] |*names[e] |*namese | |flesh/meat |*nasa |naˈta |naˈha |*nasa |*nasa | |just/only |*nasane |natare [CV] |nahana [CV] |*nasane |*nesen | |wound |*nas[o/u] |naˈtu |naˈhi |*nas[o/u] |*naso | |morning |*tamusija |ˈkaɔmutja |taməˈhɛ | |--- | |taboo |*tasa |kaˈta |taˈha |*tasa |*tas(a) | |arrow |*c[ai]sa | |teha |*c[ai]sa |*Taisa ~ *Tiasa | |low/below |*can[a]s[a] | |ta'naha |*can[a]s[a] |*Tenes- | |outside |*casane | |ˈtahanə |*casane |*Tasane | |charcoal/black |*sosV | | |*sosV |*sos | |black |*sosak[e] |tate |ˈhɔakɛ |*sosakV |*sosaka | |dry |*soso[to] |totoko [CV] | |*soso[tV] |*sosot | |brain(s) |*kuisi |iˈti |ihi |*kuisi |*kuisi | |clearing/garden|*wasa |wata [CV] |waˈha |*wasa |*was(a) | |red ochre |*wasae |watae [CV] |wahe- ~ waha [CV]|*was[ae] |*wasa | |mother (ref.) |*w[o]se |ɔtə |'wɛhɛ |*wose |*wose | |nape |*jimas[i] | |ˈimahi |*jimas[i] |--- | |go outside |*jisi- |iti- [CV] |ihi- [CV] |*jis[i]- |*jis- | |bamboo |*jis[u]m[i/u]| |ihimi |*jisim[i] |*jisim(i) | |shield |*jamase | |jamahe [CV] |*j[a]m[a]se |*jemese | |snake |*[j]akas[i]a |ˈakatja |ˈjakəha | |--- | |door |*jumasapu |ˈimapu (?) |ˈimahapi |*jumasapi |*jimasapi(ne)\\ ~ jimasapu(ne)| Where medial /*s/ follows another fricative /*f *s/, it is dropped in Sempan: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat | | | |***-s-/fV_** |**t** |**ø** |***s** |**---**| |widow/widower|*fuisama | |ˈfiama |*fuisam[a]|--- | | |***-s-/sV_** |**t** |**ø** |***s** |***s** | |tooth |*sisi |titi |hi |*sisi |*sisi | |thorn |*s[i/e]s[i/e]|tetə |hii | |--- | |black |*sosak[e] |tate |ˈhɔakɛ |*sosakV |*sosaka| |dry |*soso[to] |totoko [CV]| |*soso[tV] |*sosot | |itch/scabies |*pa… |pateta [CV]|pajhi [CV]|*… |*pases | Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is dropped in Tarya Kamoro. It is retained in the Kamoro's Wania dialects (q.v. Drabbe 1953: 84): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***-w-** |**ø** |**w** |***w** |***w** | |throw away |*iwi-aso-mo |ˈj-aɔtɔ-mɔ-|ˈiw-ahɔ-mɔ-|*iwi-asom[o]-|*iwi-asom- | |lip(s) |*iwin[i/e] |ˈiiri |ˈiwini |*iw[i]n[e] |*iwene | |crocodile |*ewV | |ewe |*ewo |*ewo | |nettle leaves|*atiwi |aki [CV] |atiwi [CV] |*atiwi |*aTuw(i) | |big |*as[o]wa |atɔ'a | |*… |*asuw | |cheek |*aware |'awarə (?) |'awarə | |--- | |branch |*awa[k] | |a'wakə |*awa |*awa | |breast |*awo |ˈaɔ |ˈawɔ |*awo |*awo | |banana |*owV | |ɔ'wae |*owV |*oo ~ *uu | |jungle fowl |*owane | | |*owane |*owo-(ne/to) | |jungle fowl |*owo[t/c]o |ˈɔkɔ |ˈɔwɔtɔ | |*owo-(ne/to) | |name |*uwase |'u-nata |ˈiwahɛ |*juwase |*juwas | |long |*urawa | |i'rawa-kɔ |*… |*jurao | |ghost sp. |*miwi |mii [miwi] | |*miwi |*miwi | |husband |*miwisi | |miwihi [CV]|*miwisi |*-miwis(i) | |thumb |*m[i/u]-tewu | |ˈmitiwi |*mitiwitV |*mitit | |Venus |*mawor[a] | | |*mawor[a] |*ma(i)wor | |foot/leg |*mawu |maw |maˈwi |*mawi |*maji ~ *mawi| |star |*mawuto |ˈmaakɔ |ˈmawətɔ |*mawito |*mawito | |bamboo sp. |*muwisi |ˈmuiti | |*muwis[i] |*muis | |mangrove |*pawe |paˈe [CV] |pawe [CV] |*paw[e] |*paw(e) | |breadfruit |*pawo | |pawo [CV] |*pawo |*pawo | |ripe |*puwu |puu |piˈwi |*piwi |*piwi | |turtle |*fiwa[t/c]o |ˈiɔkɔ |ˈfiwatɔ | |--- | |secret |*t[i/u]r[i/u]wa| |tiriwa [CV]|*tiriw[a] |*Tiruw(a) | |take |*tewa- |ke- |tewa- |*tew[a]- |*tew- | |child/son |*tewu | |tiˈwi |*t[i]wi |*tiwi | |say/speak |*tawe- | |tawə- |*tawe- |--- | |one |*cawak[e/a] |eˈna-kɔa |taˈwahɛ |*cawaka |*Towaka | |sago palm |*cawo | | |*cawo |*Tawo ~ *Towo| |woman/female |*cawoca |'kaɔka | |*cawoca |*TawoTa | |dried/smoked |*saewa | |hawa |*saewa |*saiwa (?) | |person |*k[a]we |we-nata |ɔwe-naha |*kawe |*kawej | |enough |*kawa |'a-namɔ |'awa-namɔ |*kawa |--- | |liver |*waw[a/o] |waɔ |wawa |*waw[a/o] |*wao | |enter |*jiwi- |ii- [CV] |iwi- [CV] |*jiwi- |*jiw(i)- | |hear/sense |*jiwV- |i- | |*jiwV- |--- | |casuarina |*jiw… | |iiwi [CV] |*jiwase |*jiwase | |small |*j[i/u]wu | | |*jiwi |*jiwi | |enemy |*jewawe | |jewawe |*jewawe |--- | |men's house |*jafawe |jafa [CV] | |*jafawe |*jawe | |cook/burn |*jawi- |jaj-mi- |-jwi- |*jawi- | | |black ashes |*jawo |eˈaɔ | |*jawo |*jowomiTi | |sun |*jawu |jaw |jɔˈwi |*jawi |*jowe ~ *jowi| |dark |*juwiti |ˈiiki |ˈiwiti |*jiwiti |*jiwiTi | |kunai grass |*juwa | | |*juwa |--- | |dog |*juwuri |uˈuri |iwiri |*juw[i]ri |*juwuri | … medial /*w/ … dropped in Sempan as well as in Tarya Kamoro: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***-w-** |**ø** |**ø** |***w** |***w *ø** | |mother (add.) |*en[ai]wa |enea [CV] |enaj [CV] (?)|*en[e]wa |*enewa | |come |*[e]naw[a]- |naɔ- |naɔ- |*enaw[a]- |*enaw- | |younger brother|*[e]waoca |aɔka |ɔta |*ewaoc[a] |*-ewaoc | |sweat |*uwaputi |'waputi |'jɔpiti | |--- | |seek |*paw[a/o]- |paɔ- |paɔ- |*paw[a/o]-|*powa-~*pawo-| |girl |*… | |ˈparaha- [CV]|*… |*-porawis | |hit/beat |*tawaFo |kaɔ- |tafɔ- |*tawaF[o]-|*toaf- | |hide |*nawoma |'naɔ'ma |'naɔ'ma | |--- | |sago grub |*tawV | | |*tawV |*tow | |old |*tarawu |akaˈraw-tə|tarai-ha [CV]|*tarawi |*tarej | |yesterday |*towa |kɔˈa |tɔˈa |*towa |*to(a) | |nest |*cawa |ˈkao |ˈtao |*cawa |*Towa ~ *Tawa| |song |*sawo |taɔ |haɔ |*sawo |*so | |rib(s)/side |*jawimi |ˈjajmi |jajmi |*jawimi |*jawimi | |river |*jow[a/o] |jɔ |jɔ |*jowa |*joa(k) | One example in which Kamoro unexpectedly retains medial /*w/ is probably a redupication, at least in Kamoro where the expected form would otherwise be [waa]: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro|Sempan|Asmat |Voorhoeve| | |***-w-** |**w** |**w** |***w**|***w *ø**| |now/today|*wawa |wa-'wa|wa'wa |*wawa |*wawa | Medial apical non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in all three subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***-r-** |**r** |**r** |***r** |***r** | |snake sp. |*amerV |'amerea [CV] | |*… |*amer | |near |*afarV |a'warɔ- |'afarə | |--- | |platform |*atiri |akiri [CV] | |*atir(i) |*aTir(i) | |cheek |*aware |'awarə (?) |'awarə | |--- | |rub |*are-me- | |are-me- [CV] |*are-m[e]- |*aram(e)- | |3 sg./this |*are |arɛ |arɔ |*are |*ara | |where? |*ocare |okare [CV] | |*ocar[e] |*uTar(e) | |2 sg. |*ore |ɔrɔ |ɔrɔ |*ore |*woro | |straight |*oro |'ɔrɔ | |*oro- |*orom- | |long |*urawa | |i'rawa-kɔ |*… |*jurao | |spear |*uruna |ˈuruna |ˈuruna | |--- | |day |*mare |mara-tja [CV]|mare [CV] |*mar[e]- |*mar(e) | |lightning |*mVro |ma'ra-pəta |maarɔ |*… |*(masa-)maro | |Venus |*mawor[a] | | |*mawor[a] |*ma(i)wor | |navel |*mok[o]per[e] |'mɔɔrə (?) |meperə |*mokpere |*mokopere,\\ *mopere| |blister |*moro |moro [CV] | |*mor[o] |*mor(o) | |vagina |*pere |pere-ta |pere [CV] |*pere |*per(e) | |wallaby |*painaro |'pajnarə |'pajnarɔ | |--- | |girl |*… | |ˈparaha- [CV]|*… |*-porawis | |pigeon sp. |*parufa |parua [CV] | |*parif[i] |*pari | |see/look |*por[a]- |poro- [CV] |pora- [CV] |*por[a]- |*por- | |ask |*poro- |-pɔrɔ- |-pɔrɔ- |*por[o]- |--- | |cassowary |*pu | |pi |*pi |*pi | |moon |*pura |puˈra |piˈra |*pira |*pira | |sea/coast |*puru |puru [CV] |piri [CV] |*piri |*piri | |sharp |*f[e/a]ro | |feroko [CV] |*f[e/a]ro |*faro(t) | |1 pl. |*nare |narɛ |narɔ |*nare |*naro | |1 sg. |*nore |nɔrɔ |nɔrɔ |*nore |*nor | |secret |*t[i/u]r[i/u]wa| |tiriwa [CV] |*tiriw[a] |*Tiruw(a) | |split (tr.) |*tere-me- | |tere-me- [CV]|*tere-m[e]-|*terem- | |flying fox |*tare | |tare [CV] |*tare |*tare | |old |*tarawu |akaˈraw-tə |tarai-ha [CV]|*tarawi |*tarej | |who? |*carV |-kare [CV] | |*carV |*Tar | |2 pl. |*care |karɛ |tarɔ |*care |*Tara | |sour |*si[t/c]are |tikaɾə |'hitaj (?) | |--- | |shoulder |*sairi |ˈtairi |ˈhiari |*sairi |*saji | |light (color) |*s[a]reco | |hereto [CV] |*… |*sareT ~ *saroT | |go down |*koro- |kɔrɔ-naw- |kɔrɔ-nafi- |*koro- |*kor(a)- | |sheet lightning|*w[a]raki |ˈuraki | |*waraki |*warakaj | |thunder |*wuru | |wuru |*wiri |*wuru | |rainbow |*jiri |'iri | |*jir[i] |*jir(i) | |gall/bile |*jiri |i'ri |i'ri |*jiri |*jiri | |command |*jiri-mi- |iri-mi- | |*jiri-m[i]-|*jirim- | |cross river |*jira |ira- [CV] | |*jirV- |*jir- | |hornbill |*jiro | |iiri [CV] |*jir[o] |*jiru | |crooked |*jamerV |jamer [CV] |jame [CV] (?)|*jamerV |*jamer | |wing |*jaf[a]ro |jaˈru | |*jaf[a]ro |*jaoro | |go/walk |*jar[e]- | |jare- [CV] |*jar[e]- |*jar- | |heavy |*jutoro | | |*jutoro |*juturu ~ *jitoro | |dog |*juwuri |uˈuri |iwiri |*juw[i]ri |*juwuri | |w. cockatoo |*[j]urV | | |*jurV |*jur | |night |*jurama | |ˈirama |*jurama |*jirama | Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve| | |***-j-** |**j** |**j** |***j** |***j** | |new |*aji |'aj-ku | | |*aji | |new |*ajasa | |'ajha |*ajas[a]|--- | |daughter |*[a]pija |pja |apja | | | |wide |*paj[a/o]ko |pa'jɔkɔ |pa'jakɔ| |--- | |morning |*tamusija |ˈkaɔmutja|taməˈhɛ| |--- | |palm cabbage|*wuija |wia [CV] | |*… |*ˈwui | … compounds …\\ \\ \\ … vowels …\\ \\ Initial high back rounded vowel /*u/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve| | |***u/#_** |**u** |**ju i** |***ju** |***ju** | |man/male |*upuc[i/a] |ˈupuka |ˈipita |*j[u]pit[i]|*jipiTi | |goura pigeon |*ufo |ˈuu |i'ifɔ |*jufo |*jofo | |coconut |*usini |ˈutiri |ˈihini |*jusini |*jusini | |firewood/fire|*usa |uta |juˈha |*jusa |*jusa | |kunai grass |*uwa | | |*juwa |--- | |sweat |*uwaputi |'waputi|'jɔpiti | |--- | |name |*uwase |'u-nata|ˈiwahɛ |*juwase |*juwas | |long |*urawa | |i'rawa-kɔ|*… |*jurao | Three seeming exceptions to this rule …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan|Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***u/-_** |**u** |**u** |***u** |***u** | |head |*ufu |u- [ufu]|u- |*ufu |*u- | |ashes |*umit[i/u] | | |*jawo-umiti|*jowomiTi | |older sister|*upuca |ˈupuka |ˈupita|*upica |*-ipiTa ~ *-upiTa| One exception is probably a loan from Kamoro into Sempan: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro|Sempan|Asmat |Voorhoeve| | |***u/-_** |**u** |**u** |** ?**|**---*u**| |spear|*uruna |ˈuruna|ˈuruna| |--- | Following initial palatal non-stop /*j/, /*u/ merges with /i/ in Kamoro and Sempan but remains /*u/ in Asmat: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro|Sempan|Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***u/j_** |**i** |**i** |***u** |***u** | |cold |*juFoko | |ˈifakɔ|*juFoko|*jufo(-to/ko) | |heavy|*jutoro | | |*jutoro|*juturu ~ *jitoro| |dark |*juwiti |ˈiiki |ˈiwiti|*juwiti|*jiwiTi | |night|*jurama | |ˈirama|*jurama|*jirama | One exception …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro|Sempan|Asmat |Voorhoeve| | |***u/j_** |**u** |**i** |***u** |***u** | |dog|*juwuri |uˈuri |iwiri |*juw[i]ri|*juwuri | Voorhoeve (1980: 56) observes that clear examples of /*u/ are uncommon in his data. |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro |Kamoro |Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve | |**** |***u** |**u** |**i** |***i** |***i** | |centipede |*anu |aru [CV] | |*ani |*ani | |man/male |*uputa |ˈupuka |ˈipita |*j[u]pit[i]|*jipiTi | |lime |*mu | | |*mi |*mi | |root |*mumu |nuˈmu |miˈmi |*mimi |*mimi | |not/none |*muna |-ˈmuna |-ˈmɔna (?) |*.mina. |*min(a) | |mouse |*musu |muˈtu |miˈhi- | |--- | |testicle(s) |*musa(-eake) |muta\\ muˈta-eke [CV]|ˈmihakə |*misakV |*misaka | |pigeon sp. |*parufa |parua [CV] | |*parif[a] |*pari | |cassowary |*pu | |pi |*pi |*pi | |forehead |*mana-pun[i/u]| |maˈna-pini |*mana-pini |*manapin | |ripe |*puwu |puu |piˈwi |*piwi |*piwi | |moon |*pura |puˈra |piˈra |*pira |*pira | |sea/coast |*puru |puru [CV] |piri [CV] |*piri |*piri | |behind |*asapu |a'tapu |-ahapi |*asap[i] |*asap(e) | |man/male |*upuc[i/a] |ˈupuka |ˈipita |*j[u]pit[i]|*jipiTi | |older sister |*upuca |ˈupuka |ˈupita |*upica |*-ipiTa ~ *-upiTa | |white |*napu |napu [CV] | |*napi |*napi | |be extinguished|*sapu- |taˈpu- |hapi- |*sapi- |*sapim- | |door |*jumasapu |ˈimapu |ˈimahapi |*jumasapi |*jimasapi(ne)\\ ~ jimasapu(ne)| |shadow |*jipu[ru] |ipu [CV] |ipi [CV] |*jipir[u] |*jipuru | |armpit |*jamopu |ˈjamapu |jamapi [CV] |*jamopi |*jamopi | |go down |*nafu- |-naw- |-nafi- |*nafi- |*naj-, *now- | |banana |*tafu |kaw | |*tafi |--- | |foot/leg |*mawu |maw |maˈwi |*mawi |*maji ~ *mawi | |star |*mawuto |ˈmaakɔ |ˈmawətɔ |*mawito |*mawito | |child/son |*tewu | |tiˈwi |*t[i]wi |*tiwi | |old |*tarawu |akaˈraw-tə |tarai-ha [CV]|*tarawi |*tarej | |father |*witu |iku |wɔti |*witi |*-wiT, *-ote | |small |*j[i/u]wu | | |*jiwi |*jiwi | |sun |*jawu |jaw |jɔˈwi |*jawi |*jowe ~ *jowi | Sequence /*ui/ (below) is not affected.\\ \\ Oneapparent exception to this rule might be explained as onomatopoeic, but even so, /*u/ is fronted in several Asmat varieties (q.v. Drabbe 1963: 224-225, Voorhoeve 1980: 116) and should probably be reconstructed with /*i/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro|Sempan|Asmat | | | |***u/w_** |**** |**u** |***i**|***u**| |thunder|*wuru | |wuru |*wiri |*wuru | A more intractable example …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro|Sempan |Asmat |Voorhoeve| | |***u/w_** |**** |**u** |***u** |***u** | |flatulate|*pu-m | |ˈahama pumu|*as pu-m|*asa pum-| Sequences of high vowels /*iu *ui/ are reduced to /u/ and /i/ respectively in Kamoro and Sempan. Note that the reflexes of /*iu/ differ from those of /*ju/ (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Asmat-Kamoro|Kamoro |Sempan|Asmat |Voorhoeve | | |***iu** |**u** |**u** |***iu** |***iu** | |canoe |*tiu |ku |tu |*tiu |*Tiˈu | | |***ui** |**i** |**i** |***ui** |***ui** | |smoke |*amuini |ˈimini |ˈamini|*amuini |*-amini~*amuni| |water |*mui |mi |mi |*mui |*muˈi | |bathe |*mui- | |mi- |*mui- |*mui- | |widow/widower|*fuisama | |ˈfiama|*fuisam[a]|--- | |brain(s) |*kuisi |iˈti |isi |*kuisi |*kuisi | |palm cabbage |*wuija |wia [CV]| |*… |*ˈwui | ===== Pronouns ===== **[under construction]** ===== Verbal morphology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Asmat-Kamoro languages have a complicated system of verbal desinences which indicate not only subjects but also objects as well as tense, mood and aspect.\\ \\ …\\ \\ \\