====== Kamrau Bay ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== The Kamrau Bay family consists of three closely-related languages, Buruwai, also known as Sabakor (Sebakor,) South Kamrau (Kamberau,) also known as Asienara, and North Kamrau (Kamberau,) also known as Iria, spoken around and to the west of Kamrau Bay at the southeast corner of the Bomberai peninsula in the Kaimana regency of Indonesia's West Papua province. Buruwai and Kamrau are the names of major rivers which flow into Kamrau Bay around which the languages named for them are spoken, since the people seem to have no clearly stablished names for themselves or their languages (Anceaux 1958: 116-117, Voorhoeve 1975: 369-370, Walker and Hesse 1988: 1, 2, 3, Visser 1989: 65-66, 68.) Voorhoeve (2005, 2007) calls this family Sabakor, but this is at best the name of only one of the languages and Sebakor also refers to a bay on the west side of the Bomberai peninsula in which Kalamang and Uruangnirin are spoken. ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of Kamrau Bay is as follows (Walker and Hesse 1988: 2):\\ \\ Kamrau Bay Buruwai Kamrau South Kamrau North Kamrau\\ \\ There has been quite a bit of confusion surrounding the use of the term Asienara, leading to the common misconception that there are only two rather than three languages in the Kamrau Bay family and that Asienara is another name for the Buruwai language. According to Walker and Hesse (1988 2,) Asienara refers to Southhern Kamberau, as spoken in the villages of Esania, Yarona, Edor and Kembala to the east of the lower Buruwai river, a completely different language from Buruwai aross the river to the southwest. Anceaux's (1958: 119-129) brief published vocabulary of Asienara is indeed the same language as South Kamrau. The same is true of Greenberg's (n.d.) lengthier excerpts from Anceaux's (n.d.) notebooks. However, the vocabulary entitled Asienara in Voorhoeve (1975: 1975: 100) is in fact Buruwai, despite the fact that it too was drawn from Anceaux (n.d.) We can offer no easy explanation for this discrepancy besides the possibility that Anceaux may have had several vocabularies alleged to represent Asienara, with Greenberg exerpting from one and Voorhoeve from the other. Indeed, Voorhoeve's (2007) unpublished comparative vocabularies have some words representing Gaka and Guriasa villages attributed in part to Anceaux (n.d.) Anceaux's (1958: 111) map of the region includes inhabited portions of Walker and Hesse's (p. 3) South Kamberau territory, while both South Kamrau and Buruwai-speaking villages are listed as representing two different dialects of Asienara (p. 116, recapitulated in Voorhoeve 1975: 31.) Visser (1989: 38) writes, "It is revealing that the language spoken by the Sabakor people was called 'Asienara' (Anceaux 1958: 116) , which in Kamrau language means: people with curled hair;" however (p. 75) her survey was conducted with Voorhoeve . This incorrect conflation may also explain the seeming contradiction between Voorhoeve's (1975: 369, echoed by Wurm 1982: 138) comment that Iria and Asienara might be dialects of the same language.with his assertion as quoted by Walker and Hesse (1988: 2 after Voorhoeve p.c.) that Buruwai is a distinct language.\\ \\ Walker and Hesse (1988: 2) give lexicostatistical figures between eleven Kamrau Bay villages as follows: |< - 70px 70px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | | | Buruwai | Buruwai | Buruwai | S. Kamr. | S. Kamr. | N. Kamr. | N. Kamr. | N. Kamr. | N. Kamr. | N. Kamr. | N. Kamr. | | | | Gaka | Tairi | Yarona 2 | Yarona 1 | Esania | Ubia | Bahomia | Waho | Wamesa | Koi | Tanngar. | |Buruwai |Gaka | --- | 89 | 83 | 61 | 60 | 52 | 50 | 53 | 55 | 55 | 55 | |Buruwai |Tairi | 89 | --- | 88 | 67 | 63 | 58 | 57 | 59 | 62 | 62 | 60 | |Buruwai |Yarona 2| 83 | 88 | --- | 75 | 73 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 64 | 63 | 65 | |S. Kamrau|Yarona 1| 61 | 67 | 75 | --- | 93 | 78 | 76 | 76 | 79 | 78 | 79 | |S. Kamrau|Esania | 60 | 63 | 73 | 93 | --- | 80 | 79 | 77 | 80 | 79 | 80 | |N. Kamrau|Ubia | 52 | 58 | 59 | 78 | 80 | --- | 94 | 93 | 91 | 91 | 90 | |N. Kamrau|Bahomia | 50 | 57 | 60 | 76 | 79 | 94 | --- | 94 | 93 | 92 | 94 | |N. Kamrau|Waho | 53 | 59 | 61 | 76 | 77 | 93 | 94 | --- | 97 | 94 | 96 | |N. Kamrau|Wamesa | 55 | 62 | 64 | 79 | 80 | 91 | 93 | 97 | --- | 97 | 97 | |N. Kamrau|Koi | 55 | 62 | 63 | 78 | 79 | 91 | 92 | 94 | 97 | --- | 99 | |N. Kamrau|Tanggar.| 55 | 60 | 65 | 79 | 80 | 90 | 94 | 96 | 97 | 99 | --- | (In the chart above, Gaka stands for Gaka-Guriasa, Ubia for Ubia-Sermuku, Tanggar. for Tanggaromi and Kamr. for Kamrau.) ===== Sources ===== Anceaux (n.d.) vocabularies for Asienara and Iria (unobtained) Anceaux (1956) (unobtained,) reprinted in English as (1958) Anceaux (1958: 116-117) brief description of and (pp. 119-120) 10 comparative terms for Asienara (South Kamrau) and Iria Greenberg (n.d.) comparative vocabularies for Iria and Asienara (South Kamrau) following Anceaux (n.d.) Voorhoeve (1975: 100) 40 comparative terms for Iria and Asienara (Buruwai) following Anceaux (n.d.) Voorhoeve (1975: 369-370) phoneme inventories and pronouns for Iria and Asienara Voorhoeve (1980: 661-121) Proto-Asmat includes Iria words from Anceaux (n.d.) Visser (1989) kin and miscellaneous terms for Sabakor (Buruwai) of Gaka village and Kamrau (North Kamrau) of Ubia-Sermuku village Voorhoeve (2007) 227 comparative terms for Buruwai and Kamrau (mix of North Kamrau and South Kamrau) Walker (1978) 110 comparative terms for Gaka village (Buruwai) and Obia-Seramuku, Waho and Wainoma villages (North Kamrau) Walker and Werner (1978) (unobtained) Walker (1983) 49 comparative terms for Kambola village (South Kamrau) Walker and Hesse (1988) 209 comparative terms for Buruwai of Tairi village and Northern Kamberau of Waho village, 127 comparative terms for Buruwai of Yarona and Guriasa/Gaka villages, Southern Kamberau of Esania-Kuna and Yarona villages and Northern Kamberau of Tanggaromi, Bahomia, Ubia-Seramuku and Koi villages and 58 comparative terms for Northern Kamberau of Wamesa village Matsumura (1985) 60 terms for Kamberau of Wanoma village (North Kamrau)\\ \\ In addition to these, three unattributed typewritten vocabularies have been made available to us by SIL Indonesia dating to July and August 1956. They are glossed in Dutch and Indonesian and give 100 comparative terms for Gaka village (Buruwai,) Esania/Kuna village (South Kamrau) and Koi village (North Kamrau).\\ \\ Voorhoeve's (2007) unattributed Buruwai and Kamrau vocabularies are not specified by location, but most likely largely largely represent the villages of Gaka and Ubia-Sermuku, since these are the Buruwai and (North) Kamrau villages that Visser and Voorhoeve had visited in 1986 (Visser 1989: 66, 75.) Walker and Hesse's Ubia-Seramuku vocabulary is North Kamrau but contains some unambiguously South Kamrau words, which may at least partly explain Voorhoeve's mix of the two varieites in his Kamrau vocabulary as the village itself probably includes some South Kamrau speakers. ===== History of classification ===== The first to mention Kamrau Bay languages in the taxonomic literature was probably Anceaux (1956, 1958: 118-119, ) who wrote “Of some languages it is very clear that they are related, in some cases even closely related, e.g. Iria to Asienara…It is quite possible that further inquiries will prove that all these Papuan languages are related. There are many indications of such a relationship but a definite proof has not yet been given. Of all the Papuan languages of the Bomberai Peninsula Asienara and Iria are the most dissimilar, at least in their vocabulary, but even they have words that may be common with other languages." Voorhoeve's (1968: 4) Kamoro-Sempan-Asmat group does not include Anceaux's Asienara and Iria. The discovery of the special relationship between these families fell to Greenberg (1971: 840), who wrote, "It has not been previously noted that these two languages [Asienara and Iria] are to be connected with the Kamoro group to the east from which they are separated both by the Etna Bay subgroup of the Western New Guinea subfamily and by Irarutu, an AN language. Voorhoeve (1975: 369) then includes Iria and Asienara in the Asmat-Kamoro family, but fails to credit Greenberg for this discovery, although Greeenberg's proposed placement of the Etna Bay (a.k.a. Mairasi) family is debunked in detail (pp. 425-431.) Of Kamrau Bay's position within Amsat-Kamoro, Voorhoeve writes, "Iria and Asienara share nearly 80% cognates, the other percentages within the family range from 50 % to 70 %. There is no clear subgrouping; Iria and Asienara seem to be somewhat closer related to Asmat than to Kamoro." By Voorhoeve (2005) he appears to have abandoned the notion of a special relationship between Kamrau Bay, which he labels Sabakor, and Asmat in particular, treating Sabakor, Kamoro, Sempan and Asmat as four co-equal members of the Asmat-Kamoro family. ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Proto-Kamrau Bay had perhaps13 or 14 consonants and 5 vowels as follows:: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | | *p | *t | | *k | | *b | [*d] | *ɟ | *g | | *ɸ | *s | | | | *w | *ɾ | *j | | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | | *u | | *e | | *o | | | *a | | Comparison with the inventory proposed in Voorhoeve (1975: 369-370) …\\ \\ …\\ \\ Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ does not occur initially; otherwise any consonant can occur initially or medially. Consonant clusters are found only in compounds.\\ \\ Only a restricted set of consonants occur root-finally. These are discernible when suffixed with the article /*-ɾa/, where [ɾ] is modified or dropped following a consonant: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | | | *t | | *k | | | | *ɟ | | | | *ɾ | | | The combinations of final consonants and article /*-ɾa/ are analyzed by Voorhoeve (1980: 66) as class markers: "In this language the nouns seem to fall into three classes: those ending in -ra, in -ka or in -ʔa, and in -a or -da." Analogous situations are found in West Kainantu (as well as Goroka) and in Baruya of Kratke Range, where Bee (1963) and Lloyd (1969) interpret a reduced set of finals as nominal class suffixes.\\ \\ Initial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Kamrau Bay | Buruwai | S. Kamrau | N. Kamrau | | *m- | m | m | m | | *n- | n | n | n | | *p- | p | p | p | | *t- | t | t | t | | *k- | k | k | ø | | *b- | b | b | b | | *g- | d | g | g | | *ɸ- | ɸ | h | h | | *s- | s | ø | ø | | *s-/_i u | s | s | s | | *w- | w | w | w | | *W- | gʷ | gʷ | gʷ | | *j- | j | j | j | Medial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Kamrau Bay | Buruwai | S. Kamrau | N. Kamrau | | *-m- | m | m | m | | *-n- | n | n | n | | *-n-/ma_ | ɾ | n | n | | *-p- | p | p | p | | *-t- | t | t | t | | *-k- | k | k | ʔ | | *-b- | b | b | b | | *-d- | d | d | d | | *-ɟ | j | d | d | | *-g- | d | g | g | | *-G- | g | g | g | | *-ɸ- | ɸ | h | h | | *-s- | s | s | s | | *-w- | w | w | w | | *-W- | g | w | g | | *-ɾ- | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | | *-j- | j | j | j | Root-final consonants in combination with article /*-ɾa/ correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Kamrau Bay | Buruwai | S. Kamrau | N. Kamrau | | *-V-ɾa | ø-ɾa | ø-ɾa | ø-ɾa | | *-m-ɾa | ø-da | ø-a | w-a | | *-n-ɾa | ø-da | ø-a | ø-a | | *-t-ɾa | ø-ta | t-a | ʔ-a | | *-k-ɾa | ø-ta | k-a | ʔ-a | | *-ɟ-ɾa | j-a | d-a | d-a | | *-ɾ-ɾa | ø-da | ø-a | ø-a | Vowels correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Kamrau Bay | Buruwai | S. Kamrau | N. Kamrau | | *i | i | i | i | | *u | u | u | u | | *e | e | e | e | | *o | o | o | o | | *a | a | a | a | | *a/_Ci | a | a | e | | *a/_Cu | a | a | o | These correspondences are exempified as follows. Our sources present an unusual situation in which nearly every one is needed to support at least part of the reconstruction, yet none are authoritative. The attestations of Walker (1978, Walker and Hesse 1988) are the best documented and cover most of the villages, but while generally reliable (notably excepting the pronouns) are pre-phonemic and some of the vocabularies are quite brief even by survey standards. Those of Voorhoeve (2007) contain many terms not found in Walker's surveys, however the curation is haphazard, the provinence of individual entries is often unclear and both Buruwai and (North) Kamrau hav been mixed with South Kamrau words, with South Kamrau itself going unrecognized. Greenberg's (n.d.) excerpts from Anceaux (n.d.) are more carefully curated and their source is clear, but represent only Asienara (South Kamrau) and Iria (North Kamrau) nor are all the terms found in other vocabularies included. We are faced, then, with a conundrum inasmuch as it's not possible to fit all columns needed for a structured source-delineated presentation upon the width of a page. On the other hand, the phonological structures of the languages are understood well enough and the attestations are consistent enough for us to present our own phonemic versions of the words in question. Therefore we will depart from Newguineaworld conventions in presenting …, noting that the materials from which we draw are available in spreadsheet form in the Vocabularies section of our site.\\ \\ \\ Any consonant other than apical non-stop /*ɾ/ can occur initially.\\ \\ Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ \is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |mucus |*minik | |mini-ˈta [CV] | |minak-a | |miniʔ-a | |smooth |*minapoC |minaˈpo-də | |mIˈnapu-a | |ˈminopu-a | | |nose |*mik |ˈmiː-tə |mi-ta [CV] |miːk-a |mik-a |ˈmiʔ-a |miʔ-a | |milk |*miɟ | | | |-mid-a | |-amir-a (?) | |cough |*maiɾu |ˈmaⁱɾu-ɾa | | | |ˈmeɾu-ˈɾa | | |hand/arm |*man |ˈmaː-da |ma-da [Gaka] |ˈma- |ma- |ˈma- |ma- | |eye |*manam |ˈmara-də | |ˈməna-ː |man-a |ˈmonow-a |man-ə (?) | |live |*manam- |maɾam-aɾa | | | |manam-ˈara | | |lightning |*mananai |məɾəˈɾai-ɾə\\ [Gaka]| |mananaⁱ-ɾa |mənene-ra |ˈmananai-ra|mananaj-ra | |forehead |*manam-pu | | | |mana-pu-ra | |mana-pu-rə | |path |*matoC |ˈmato-də | | | | | | |wet |*ma[ɟ/s]Vɸok|masaˈɸo-ta | |ˈmadohok-a |modoˈhok-a\\ [CV]|ˈmodohoʔ-a |modoˈhoʔ-a\\ [CV]| |cry/weep |*maɟa[C] |maⁱˈje-daʔ |maja-da [Gaka] |mada-ra |mada-ra | |meda-ra | |spittle/saliva|*masak |maˈsa-ta- |maˈsa-ta [CV] | |masak-a | | | |path |*mak |ˈma-ta [Gaka] | |ˈmaːk-a- |mak-a |ˈmaʔ-a- |maʔ-ə | |foot/leg |*mawu |maˈβu-ɾa\\ [Gaka] |mawu-ra [CV] |ˈmoβu-ra |mabu-ra |ˈmowu-rə |movu-ra | |star |*mawuɾ[a] |ˈmaβuɾə-ɾə | |ˈmaβuɾa-ɾa |mawura-ra |ˈmawur̃-a |omawur-ə | |walk |*maɾ- |ˈmaɾ-aɾa | |ˈmaɾ-əɾə [Kam]| | | | |cut down |*mo- | | | | | |mu-ˈara [CV] | |armpit |*mopuk | | | |mopuk-a | |mopu-a | |sugarcane |*monek | |mone-ta [CV] | | | |moneʔ-a [CV] | |water |*moɟ |ˈmoj-a |moj-a [CV] |ˈmoːd-a |mod-a |ˈmoːd-ə |mod-a | |small root |*mumuɾu[C] | |mumuˈru-ra\\ [CV]|mumuru-a [EK] |mumuru-a | |mumuru-a | |finger |*musi |-musi-ɾa | |musi-ɾa | |ˈmusi-ra | | |testicles |*musa | |musa [CV] | |musa-ra | |musa-ra | Initial apical nasal /*n/ is much less common than initial /*m/ (above.) It is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***n-** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |eat/drink |*n[a]- |ˈn-ara(ʔ)| |n-ara [EK]| |n-aːɾa | | |shame |*napiC |naˈpi-dak| | | |ˈneːpij-ə| | |fish |*nam |ˈna-daʔ |ˈna-da [CV] |ˈna-ː |na |ˈnoːw-a |no-a | |white |*nabu |naˈbu-ra | |ˈnəbu-ɾa |nabu-ra |ˈnobu-ɾa |nobu-ra | |raw/green |*nasi |-nasi-ra | | | |ˈnesi-ɾa |nesi-ra | |wound |*nasuk | |naˈsu-ta [CV]| | | |ˈnosuʔ-a [CV]| |1 pl. |*naɾ |ˈnaː-daʔ |na-da [CV] |n-a- [EK] |n-a |n-a- |n-a | |near |*nom[o/u] | | | |nomo-ra |ˈnoːmu-ɾa|nomo-ra | |1 sg. |*noɾ |ˈnoː-daʔ |no-da [CV] |no-a [EK] |no-a |no- |no-a | |stink/bad smell|*num |ˈnu-da |nu-da [CV] |ˈnuːw-a | |ˈnuːw-a | | Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is uncommon. It is retained as such in al three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***p-** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** | |thick |*papuna | | |ˈpapuna-ɾa| |poˈpuna-r̃a| | |rotten|*pona |ˈpona-rə| |ˈpona-ɾa | |ˈpoːna-ɾa | | |bat |*pupu | |puˈpu-ra [CV]| | | |pupu-ra [CV]| Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is uncommon. None of these examples have known cognates in Asmat-Kamoro except for /*timako/ "crocodile", which is identical to Kamoro /'timakɔ/ Drabbe 1953: 101) and hence must be a loan in one direction or the other as Kamoro /t/ reflects /*s/ while /*t/ has become /k/ (q.v. Voorhoeve 1980.) It is retained as such in al three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***t-** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |crocodile|*timako |tiˈmako-ra\\ [Gaka]| | | |ˈtimoʔo-ɾa| | |dry |*tata |ˈtatə-ɾə | |ˈtata-ɾa |tata-ra |taʔta-ɾa |tatja-ra | |thin |*taɾa |ˈtaɾə-rə | | | |ˈtar̃a-r̃a| | |worm |*toɾe | | |ˈtoɾe-ɾa | |ˈtoɾe-ɾa | | |short |*tuk[awa] |tuˈkoβa-rə | |ˈtuka-ɾa | | | | Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is uncommon because Asmat-Kamoro initial /*k/ has been lost in Kamrau Bay. It is either lost in North Kamrau or simply inaudible as the medial reflex of /*k/ is glottal stop /ʔ/ (below;) this change is shared with Mairasi of the Etna Bay family (Peckham 1991: 152-153): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***k-** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**ø** |**ø** | |many |*kibu | | |ˈkubu-ɾa |kubu-ra |ˈubu-ɾa\\ ibu-ɾa [Tang]|ubu-ra | |this |*kekeC | | | |keke (?) | |eʔe-a | |frog |*koni |ˈkoni-rə [Gaka]| | | |ˈoni-ɾa | | |paradise (f.)|*kowa | |ˈkoa-ra [CV]| | | |ˈoa-ra [CV]| |full |*kuwe[d/ɟ]a| | |kwɛda-ɾa | |weda-ɾa; ueda-ɾa | | |heart |*kuɾu |kuˈru-ɾa | |ˈkuɾu-ɾa | | | | Initial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***b-** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** | |chest |*bi | |bi- [CV] | |bi-ra | |bi-ra | |snake |*bima | | |ˈbima-ɾa |bima-ra |bima-ɾa |bimə-rə | |wash |*biɾi[g]- |birid-aɾaʔ | | | |ˈbiri-arə | | |knife |*bakatu | | | |bakatu-ra| |baʔtu-ra | |hard |*bebe | | | |bebe-ra | |bebe-ra | |heart |*bewe | | |beβe-ɾaʔ [EK] | |ˈbeβe-ɾa | | |man/male |*bewu |beβu-ɾaʔ | |beɸu-ra |bebu-ra |ˈbewu-ɾa |bevu-ra | |vagina |*beɾ | |ˈbe-da [CV] | |be-a |ˈ |be-a | |good |*bae | | |bae-ra [EK] |bae-ra |bai-rah |bae-ra | |mouse/rat |*bam |ˈba-də |ˈba-da [CV] |ˈba-ː |b-a |ˈbaow-a [Koi] |baw-a | |cut (grass)|*bawoɟ- |baˈβoj-arə | |baβod-aɾa | | | | |egg |*baɾusa | | |ˈbarusa-ɾa |barusa-ra|boˈɾusa-ra [US]|borusə-rə | |paddle |*bo | | | | | |bo-ra [CV] | |swollen |*bonam |ˈbonə-də | |ˈboːn-a | |ˈbonow-ə | | |mountain |*bonaC |boˈna-da | |ˈboon-aʔ [EK] | | | | |stick (n.) |*boWa[C] |ˈboga-ɾa | |ˈboːw-a | |ˈbɔːg-a | | |see |*boɾ- |boɾ-ˈaɾa | |bor-ara [EK] | |ˈbor-ara | | |cassowary |*bu |ˈbuː-ɾa |ˈbu-ra [CV] |ˈbuː-ɾa | |buː-ɾa | | |fly (v.) |*buiɾ- |ˈbwir-ara |bᵘir-ara [CV]|ˈbuːɾ-aɾa | |ˈbuɾ-aɾa |bur-ara [CV]| |areca nut |*bueka |ˈβeka-ra\\ [Kai] (?)| |buekə-rə [Kam]| |ˈbweʔa-ɾa | | |tree/wood |*buk |ˈbuː-ta [Gaka] | |ˈbuːk-a | |ˈbuʔ-a | | |buttocks |*buk | | | |buk-a | |buʔ-ə | |moon |*buɾa |ˈbuɾa-ɾa | |ˈbuɾa-ɾa |bura-ra |ˈbur̃a-r̃a |burə-rə | |lake |*buɾuwa |buˈruβa-ra\\ [Gaka] | |buˈɾuwa-ra | | | | |mountain |*bujam | | |ˈbuej-ə [Kam] | |buˈew-a |biaw-e | Apical voiced stop /*d/ does not occur initially in native words. Two apparent examples of initial apical voiced stop /*d/ are loans from Kowiai /domaʔ/ "straight" and /na-dua/ "flood tide" respectively (Walker 1985): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***d-** |**d** |**** |**d** |**d** |**** |**** | |long |[*doma] |ˈdoma-rə| | | | | | |river|[*dua] |ˈdua-ɾa | |ˈdua-ɾa |dua-ra | | | Palatal voiced stop /*ɟ/ does not occur word-intiially because Asmat-Kamrau Bay initial /*ɟ/ has been lenited to non-stop /*j/ (below.)\\ \\ Initial velar voiced stop /*g/is fronted to apical /d/ in Buruwai: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***g-** |**d** |**d** |**g** |**g** |**g** |**g** | |cut up |*giɟ- | |di- [CV] | | | |ki- [CV] (?)| |person |*gisi |diˈsi-ɾa |disi-ra [CV] |gisi-ra [EK]|gisi-rə |giˈsi-ɾa |gisi-rə | |beard |*gemu | | | |gemu-rə | |gəmu-rə | |cheek |*gepam | | | |gep-a | |gepu- | |leech |*geɸi |ˈdeɸi-rə |defi-ra [CV] |gehi-ɾa | |gehi-ɾa |gefi-ra [CV]| |rain |*gek |de-ta |de-ta [CV] |ˈgeːk-a |gek-a |ˈgeːʔ-a |giʔ-a | |child |*gewu |ˈdeβu-ɾa |ˈdewu-ra [CV]| |gevu-ra |ˈgewu-ɾa |gevu-rə | |bird |*geɟ |ˈdɛj-a |deːj-a [CV] |ˈgeːd-a |ged-a |geⁱd-a |ged-ə | |give |*g[e/a]m- |dam-araʔ |dam- [CV] |gam-ara [EK]|gam- [CV]|ˈgem-aɾə |gem- [CV] | |take |*gV- | |da-r- [CV] | | | |ga-r- [CV] | |grandparent|*ga[t/k]a | |ˈdata-ra [CV]| | | |gaʔa-ra [CV]| |push |*go[w]- |ˈdow-aɾaʔ | | | |ˈgow-uhu-ˈarə| | |stab |*gu- |ˈdw-aɾa | | | |gu-ˈaɾa | | |wipe |*guɾu-maɟ-|duˈru-maj-aɾa| | | |ˈguru-mad-arə| | One example in which initial /*g/ is unexpectedly retained as /g/ in Buruwai may indicate a loan from South Kamrau into Buruwai (cf. Asmat-Kamoro /*tarawu/): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***g-** |**g** |**** |**** |**g** |**g** |**g** | |old|*gaɾu |gaɾu-ɾa| | |garu-ra |goɾu-ɾa |goru-ra | Initial bilabial voiceless fricative /*ɸ/ is deoccluded to /h/ in South Kamrau and in North Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***ɸ-** |**ɸ** |**ɸ** |**h** |**h** |**h** |**h** | |hear |*ɸi- |-ɸi-ara [Gaka]|-fi- [CV] |-hi-ara [EK] | |-hi-aɾa |-hi- [CV] | |calf |*ɸima | |fima-ra [CV] | | | |hima-ra [CV]| |hair/feather(s)|*ɸin |ˈɸi-da |fi-da [CV] |ˈhĩːj-ə [Kam]|hi-a |ˈhiː-ə |hi-ə ~ hi-a | |excrement |*ɸa | | |ˈha-ra |ha-ra |haː-ra |ha-ra | |scratch |*ɸa-maɟ- |ˈɸa-maj-eɾa | | | |ˈha-mad-arə| | |wide |*ɸaɸok |ˈɸaβo-ta | |ˈhahok-a | |ˈhaːhoʔ-a | | |sore |*ɸarin |ˈɸari-də | |ˈharij-a | |ˈhaːri-ə | | |cuscus |*ɸaɟ | |ˈpai-ra [CV] (?)| | | |haːd-a [CV] | |cut |*ɸo- | |fo- [CV] | | | |ho- [CV] | |neck |*ɸoma | | |ˈhoma-ɾa |homa-ra |ˈhoma-rə |homa-ra | |skin/bark |*ɸu |ˈɸu-ra |fu-ra [CV] |ˈhuː-ɾa |hu-ra |ˈhuː-ɾa |hu-ra | |blow |*ɸui-maɟ- |ɸuⁱmaj- |fi-ma- [CV] | | | |hu-ma- [CV] | |fat/grease |*ɸueɟ | |fued-a [CV] (?) | |hued-a | |hued-a | Initial apical voiceless fricative /*s/ when followed by mid and low vowels /*e *a *o/ is dropped in South Kamrau and in North Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***s-/_e a o**|**s** |**s** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø** |**ø** | |tooth/sharp |*sik |ˈsiʔ-ta |si-ta- [CV] |ˈsik-a |sik-a |ˈsiʔ-a |siʔ-a | |earth/ground |*sek |ˈseʔ-ta |se-ta [CV] |ˈeːk-a |ek-a |ˈeʔ-a |eʔ-a | |flesh/meat |*sasi |səˈsi-ɾa |ˈsasi-ra [CV]|ˈaːsi-ɾa |asi-rə |ˈaːsi-ra |asi-rə | |dry |*sasok |saso-ta [Gaka]|soso-ta [CV] | | | | | |light (weight)|*soɸo | |sofo-ra [CV] | |oho-ra | |oho-ra | |liver |*soɸo[ɸo] |sofo-ɾa [Gaka]| |ˈohoho-ɾa [US]| |ˈohoha-ɾa | | |forearm |*sonam | |ˈsona-da [CV]| | | | | |upper arm |*sosu | |ˈsosu- [CV] | | |ˈosu-ra [CV]| | When initial /*s/ is followed by high vowels /*i *u/ it is retained in South Kamrau and in North Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***s-/i u**|**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** | |paradise (m.)|*siaga | |ˈsiada-ra [CV]| | | |ˈsiaga-ra [CV]| |sand |*sin | | | | |ˈsiː-a |si-a | |tooth/sharp |*sik |ˈsiʔ-ta |si-ta- [CV] |ˈsik-a |sik-a |ˈsiʔ-a |siʔ-a | |salt |*siɾa |siɾa-ɾa [Gaka] | |ˈsiɾa-ɾa | |ˈsiraʔ-aʔ (?)| | |dig |*siɟ- |ˈsij-araʔ | | | |ˈsid-aɾa | | |sand |*sumake |ˈsumake-ra | |ˈsumaˈke-ɾa |sumake-ra| | | |kunai grass |*suɾuma |suˈruma-ra\\ [Gaka]| |suˈrumə-rə\\ [Kam]| |suˈruma-ɾa | | Several examples have an /*s/ which is not droppped in South Kamrau and North Kamrau despite being followed by /*a/. Excepting "yellow", which has no known Austronesian etymology and may well be a loan from Buruwai into South Kamrau, all of these are known to be loans from from Irarutu or Kowiai (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***S-** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** | |yellow |*Samaɸi |ˈsamaɸi-ra\\ [Yar] | |ˈsamehe-raʔ\\ [EK]| | | | |forked branch|*SaGa |ˈsaga-rə | |ˈsaga-raʔ [EK] | |saˈga-ra | | |fog |*Sawanini[C]|saˈwanini-ɾə\\ [Yar]| |saˈwaniɲj-a | | | | |lake/swamp |*Saɾuwe |saraweˈɛ-rə | | | |ˈsaruwe-rə| | Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***w-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |person |*weɟ | | | |wed-a [CV]|weˈd-a |ued-ə | |sky |*wanam[a] |wəˈnama-rə |wanama-ra\\ [CV]|ˈwənama-ɾa|uanama-ra |ˈoːnaw-a | | |thatch |*wan[i/e]n|waˈnɛ-da | | | |ˈweːni-a | | |forest |*wak |wa-ta |ˈwa-ta [CV] | | |waʔ-a |waʔ-a [CV] | |hornbill|*waɾi | |ˈwari-ra [CV] | | | |weri-ra [CV]| |rope |*waɾak |ˈwara-ta [Yar]| |waɾak-a |uarak-a |waˈɾaʔ-a |uaraʔ-a | |thumb |*wok | |wo-ta [CV] | |-wok-a | |-woʔ-a | … /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***W-** |**gʷ [gʷ gu]**|**gʷ [gʷ gu]**|**gʷ [gʷ gu]** |**gʷ [gʷ gu]**|**gʷ [gʷ gu]**|**gʷ [gʷ gu]**| |vomit |*Waɸin |ˈgwaɸi-daʔ | | | |ˈgwaːj-aʔ |guˈahi-a [CV] | |long |*Waɾu | | |gwaɾu-ɾa |gwaru-ra |ˈgwaɾu-ɾa |gwaru-ra | |thunder|*Wuɾuɟam |gurˈia-da | |ˈgurud-a\\ ~ˈguri-a|guri-e |ˈguruˈdaw-a |gurudaw-a | Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ does not occur initially.\\ \\ Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***j-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |head |*jebin |jɛˈbi-da |jabi-da [CV] |ˈjebij-a | |ˈjeʔbi-a | | |night |*jewak |iβa-ˈtaa |iwa-ta [CV] |ˈjeβak-a |iawak-a |ˈjewa-a |iewa ʔ-a | |penis |*jamam | |jaˈma-da [CV] | |jem-a [CV]| |jemo-a [CV] | |left |*jamo |iˈjamo-ɾa | | |jamoa-ra |ˈjaːmo-ɾa |jamo-ra | |all |*jabasin | | |ˈjaːbasi [EK] |jabasi-a |ˈjeːbasi-a\\ [Wam]|jabasi-a | |all |*jabowa |jaˈboβa-rə | |ˈjeboβa-ɾa | | | | |kill |*jaɸ- |ˈiɸ-araʔ | | | |ˈeːh-aɾa | | |house |*jaɸ[a/o] | | |ˈjaho-ɾə [Kam]|jaha-ra |ˈjaha-ɾa |jaha-ra | |ear |*jaɸ[a/o]m|iːɸo-də |fa-da [CV] |ˈjaːh-a |ja-ha |ˈehow-ə |ehu-a | |nest |*jawa |ˈjo-rə [Gaka]| | | |ˈjawa-ra |jawa-rə | |woman/female|*jawoɟa |jaˈβoa-raʔ |jaˈwoja-ra [CV]|jaɸoda-ra |jewoda-ra | |joˈwoda-ra [CV]| |father |*jaja |ˈjaⁱja-ɾaʔ |jaja [CV] | |jai-ra |ˈjai-ɾa |jai-ra | |river |*joWa | | | | |ˈjoga-ɾə |jogə-ra | |lie down |*joɟ- |joⁱj-aɾa | | | |ˈjod-aɾəʔ | | … /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***[j]-** |**j** |**j** |**ø** |**** |**** |**** | |big|*[j]okak |ˈjokə-tə|joˈka-ta [CV]|ˈoːˈkok-a| | | | Any consonant can occur medially.\\ \\ Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |arrow sp. |*imuC | |iˈmu-da [CV] | | | |imw-a [CV] | |garden |*iduma |iˈdumə-rə | |iˈduma-ɾa [EK] | | | | |stand |*emeɟ- |ˈmej-aɾa | |emed-ara [EK] |emet-ara |ˈɛmed-ara |emet-ara | |count |*emaw- |maᵘw-araʔ | | | |ˈɛmu-aɾa | | |round |*emo[a]ɾa |ˈmoara-r\\ [Gaka] | |emora-ra [anon] | |ˈemoɾa-ɾa | | |tongue |*[a]mam |ˈama-də |ama-da [CV] |ˈma-ː |ma |ˈmoːw-a |mo-ə | |hot |*amam |ˈama-da |aˈma-da [CV] |ˈaːm-a |am-a |ˈaːmow-a |amw-a | |bow |*amon | |aˈmo-da [CV] | |amo-a | |amo-a | |narrow |*amota |aˈmota-ra | |ˈamota-ɾa | |ˈamota-rə | | |husband |*amoɟak |aˈmoⁱja-taʔ |moja-ta [CV] | |amodak-a |ˈamodaʔ-a |amoda (?) | |smoke |*amuni[C] |amuˈni-ɾa | |ˈamonj-a [EK] |amuni-a |ˈamuni-ə |amuni (?) | |two |*aboma |aˈbomə-ra\\ [Gaka] | |ˈaboma |aboma |ˈaboma |aboma | |ashes/dust |*umin |uˈmi-da |umi-da [CV] |ˈuːmij-a |umi-a |ˈuːmij-a |umi-ə | |root |*[u]mam |uma-da [anon] | | | |mo-a [anon] | | |navel |*umabeɾ | |moˈbe-da [CV] | |umabi-a | |umab-e | |live |*manam- |maɾam-aɾa | | | |manam-ˈara | | |small root |*mumuɾu[C]| |mumuˈru-ra\\ [CV]|mumuru-a [EK] |mumuru-a | |mumuru-a | |snake |*bima | | |ˈbima-ɾa |bima-ra |bima-ɾa |bimə-rə | |calf |*ɸima | |fima-ra [CV] | | | |hima-ra [CV]| |scratch |*ɸa-maɟ- |ˈɸa-maj-eɾa | | | |ˈha-mad-arə | | |neck |*ɸoma | | |ˈhoma-ɾa |homa-ra |ˈhoma-rə |homa-ra | |blow |*ɸui-maɟ- |ɸuⁱ-maj- |fi-ma- [CV] | | | |hu-ma- [CV] | |near |*nom[o/u] | | | |nomo-ra |ˈnoːmu-ɾa |nomo-ra | |crocodile |*timako |tiˈmako-ra\\ [Gaka]| | | |ˈtimoʔo-ɾa | | |sand |*sumake |ˈsumake-ra | |ˈsumaˈke-ɾa |sumake-ra | | | |kunai grass|*suɾuma |suˈruma-ra\\ [Gaka]| |suˈrumə-rə\\ [Kam]| |suˈruma-ɾa | | |beard |*gemu | | | |gemu-rə | |gəmu-rə | |give |*g[e/a]m- |dam-araʔ |dam- [CV] |gam-ara [EK] |gam- [CV] |ˈgem-aɾə |gem- [CV] | |wipe |*guɾu-maɟ-|duˈru-maj-aɾa | | | |ˈguru-mad-arə| | |penis |*jamam | |jaˈma-da [CV] | |jem-a [CV]| |jemo-a [CV] | |left |*jamo |iˈjamo-ɾa | | |jamoa-ra |ˈjaːmo-ɾa |jamo-ra | In one word, medial /*m/ has irregularly changed to final /*m/ (below) in north Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-m[a]-ɾa**|**ma-ɾa** |**ma-ɾa** |**ma-ɾa** |**ma-ɾa**|**w-a** |**w-a** | |sky|*wanam[a] |wəˈnama-rə|wanama-ra\\ [CV]|ˈwənama-ɾa|uanama-ra|ˈoːnaw-a | | Medial apical nasal /*n/ is generally retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-n-** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |back |*eɾena(-si) | | |ˈenesa-ɾa |erena-ra |ˈɛr̃nə-si-ɾa|erna-ra | |come |*[e/a]n[e/a]w-|naβ-ˈaraʔ |naw- |anaw-ara |anaw-e |ˈneːw-aɾa |anaw-ara | |smoke |*amuni[C] |amuˈni-ɾa | |ˈamonj-a [EK]|amuni-a |ˈamuni-ə |amuni (?) | |centipede |*anV | | | | | |anə-ra | |jungle fowl|*[owa]nak | |ˈona-te [CV] | | | |ˈwanaʔ-a [CV]| |smooth |*minapoC |minaˈpo-də| |mIˈnapu-a | |ˈminopu-a | | |mucus |*minik | |mini-ˈta [CV] | |minak-a | |miniʔ-a | |sugarcane |*monek | |mone-ta [CV] | | | |moneʔ-a [CV] | |thick |*papuna | | |ˈpapuna-ɾa | |poˈpuna-r̃a | | |rotten |*pona |ˈpona-rə | |ˈpona-ɾa | |ˈpoːna-ɾa | | |swollen |*bonam |ˈbonə-də | |ˈboːn-a | |ˈbonow-ə | | |mountain |*bonaC |boˈna-da | |ˈboon-aʔ [EK]| | | | |forearm |*sonam | |ˈsona-da [CV] | | | | | |thatch |*wan[i/e]n |waˈnɛ-da | | | |ˈweːni-a | | |sky |*wanam[a] |wəˈnama-rə|wanama-ra\\ [CV]|ˈwənama-ɾa |uanama-ra|ˈoːnaw-a | | When following an initial segment /*ma/, medial /*n/ is lenited to non-stop /ɾ/ in Buruwai: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-n-/ma_**|**ɾ** |**ɾ** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |eye |*manam |ˈmara-də | |ˈməna-ː |man-a |ˈmonow-a |man-ə (?) | |live |*manam- |maɾam-aɾa | | | |manam-ˈara | | |lightning|*mananai |məɾəˈɾai-ɾə\\ [Gaka]| |mananaⁱ-ɾa|mənene-ra|ˈmananai-ra|mananaj-ra| Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-p-** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** | |arrow sp. |*ipuC | | | |ipu-a | |ipu (?) | |sago |*apim | | | | |ˈapi-a | | |older brother|*apoɟa | |aˈpoja-ra\\ [CV]| |apuda (?)| |apoda-ra | |fog |*apuki |apuˈki-ra| | | |ˈapuʔiɾa | | |above |*ope | | | |ope-ra | |ope-ra | |armpit |*mopuk | | | |mopuk-a | |mopu-a | |thick |*papuna | | |ˈpapuna-ɾa| |poˈpuna-r̃a| | |bat |*pupu | |puˈpu-ra [CV] | | | |pupu-ra [CV]| |shame |*napiC |naˈpi-dak| | | |ˈneːpij-ə | | |cheek |*gepam | | | |gep-a | |gepu- | Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is uncommon. It si retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-t-** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |tie/bind|*it- |it-ˈara | |ˈit-aɾa | |ˈiːt-araʔ| | |bamboo |*it[a/o]C | |ito-da [CV]| |it-a [CV]| |it-a [CV] | |stone |*eta |ˈeːta-ɾa | |ˈeːta-ɾa |eta-ra |ˈeta-ɾa |etə-rə | |narrow |*amota |aˈmota-ra| |ˈamota-ɾa| |ˈamota-rə| | |path |*matoC |ˈmato-də | | | | | | |knife |*bakatu | | | |bakatu-ra| |baʔtu-ra | |dry |*tata |ˈtatə-ɾə | |ˈtata-ɾa |tata-ra |taʔta-ɾa |tatja-ra (?)| Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is deoccluded to glottal stop /ʔ/ in North Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-k-** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**k** |**ʔ** |**ʔ** | |fruit/seed |*eke |eˈke-ra |jake-ra [CV] |ˈeke--ɾa |-eke-ra |ˈeʔe-ɾa |-eʔe-ra | |bone |*eke |ˈke-ɾa |eke-ra [CV] |ˈeke-ɾa |eke-ra |ˈeʔe-ɾa [US] |eʔe-rə | |fog |*apuki |apuˈki-ra | | | |ˈapuʔiɾa | | |salt/bitter |*akewa |ˈkeβa-ra | |ˈaʔewa-ɾa [US]|akewa-ra |ˈaʔewə-ɾa [Koi]| | |charcoal/black|*aka |ˈaka-ra |ˈaka-ra [CV] |aka-ɾa |aka-ra |aʔa-r̃a |aʔa-ra | |knife |*bakatu | | | |bakatu-ra| |baʔtu-ra | |areca nut |*bueka |ˈβeka-ra [Kai] | |buekə-rə [Kam]| |ˈbweʔa-ɾa | | |crocodile |*timako |tiˈmako-ra\\ [Gaka]| | | |ˈtimoʔo-ɾa | | |short |*tuk[awa] |tuˈkoβa-rə | |ˈtuka-ɾa | | | | |sand |*sumake |ˈsumake-ra | |ˈsumaˈke-ɾa |sumake-ra| | | |this |*kekeC | | | |keke (?) | |eʔe-a | |big |*[j]okak |ˈjokə-tə |joˈka-ta [CV]|ˈoːˈkok-a | | | | Medial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in all three subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-b-** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** |**b** | |two |*aboma |aˈbomə-ra\\ [Gaka]| |ˈaboma |aboma |ˈaboma |aboma | |breadfruit|*obam | |oba-da [CV] | |ob-a [CV]| |obo-a [CV]| |navel |*umabeɾ | |moˈbe-da [CV]| |umabi-a | |umab-e | |blunt/dull|*ubija | | |ˈuːbija-ɾa | |ˈubja-ɾa [Tang] | | |old man |*ubok | | | |ubok-a | |uboʔ-a | |five |*man ibak |ma-da-ˈba-ta | |ˈme-ⁱbak-a | |ˈme-baʔ-a |ma-iba (?)| |hard |*bebe | | | |bebe-ra | |bebe-ra | |white |*nabu |naˈbu-ra | |ˈnəbu-ɾa |nabu-ra |ˈnobu-ɾa |nobu-ra | |many |*kibu | | |ˈkubu-ɾa |kubu-ra |ˈubu-ɾa\\ ibu-ɾa [Tang]|ubu-ra | |head |*jebin |jɛˈbi-da |jabi-da [CV] |ˈjebij-a | |ˈjeʔbi-a | | |all |*jabasin | | |ˈjaːbasi [EK]|jabasi-a |ˈjeːbasi-a\\ [Wam] |jabasi-a | |all |*jabowa |jaˈboβa-rə | |ˈjeboβa-ɾa | | | | Medial apical voiced stop /*d/ is found clearly in only three native roots, where it is retained as such in all three languages. "Heavy" is found in Asmat-Kamoro as /*jutoro/. "Garden" is conceivably a metathesis of North Kamrau /imoj/ [imod-a] loaned into Buruwai from South Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-d-** |**d** |**d** |**d** |**d** |**d** |**d** | |heavy |*id[a/o]ɾoC|idaˈro-da|diro-da [CV]|ˈidaru-a |idoro-a |ˈiːdor̃u-a|idoro-a | |garden|*iduma |iˈdumə-rə| |iˈduma-ɾa [EK]| | | | |know |*ad- |ˈad-aɾa | | | |ˈad-ama | | A third example is a loan from Irarutu /waranda/ "knife" (Voorhoeve 1995, below); see also Matsumara's (1985) North Kamrau [beːda] "machete" which is a loan from Kowiai /beda/ "machete, bushkife" (Walker 1985, below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-d-** |**** |**d** |**** |**** |**d** |**** | |axe|*waɾada | |waraˈda-ra [CV]| | |farada-ra [CV]| | Medial palatal voiced stop/*ɟ/ is occluded to \voiced apical stop /d/ in South Kamrau and in North Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-ɟ-** |**j ø** |**j ø** |**d** |**d** |**d** |**d** | |one |*-ɟawa |-ˈjaβə-ɾa [Gaka]|-ˈawa-ra |-ˈdaβa |-dawa |-dawa | | |husband |*amoɟak |aˈmoⁱja-taʔ |moja-ta [CV] | |amodak-a |ˈamodaʔ-a |amoda (?) | |older brother |*apoɟa | |aˈpo(ja)-ra\\ [CV]| |apuda | |apoda-ra | |younger brother|*awoɟa | |awo(ja)-ra\\ [CV] | |awadeja (?)| |awoda-ra | |cry/weep |*maɟa[C] |maⁱˈje-daʔ |maja-da [Gaka] |mada-ra |mada-ra | |meda-ra | |thunder |*Wuɾuɟam |gurˈia-da | |ˈgurud-a\\ ~ˈguri-a|guri-e |ˈguruˈdaw-a|gurudaw-a | |woman/female |*jawoɟa |jaˈβoa-raʔ |jaˈwoja-ra [CV] |jeˈβoːdə-rə\\ [Kam]|jewoda-ra | |joˈwoda-ra ]CV]| A number of verbs have root-final /*ɟ/. Historically, these reflect either palatal non-stop /*j/ or subphonemic giide [*j] following a front vowel /*i *e/ or a dipthongs /*oi/ etc.; however as they follow the same correspondence as root-medial /*ɟ/ they are presented as such at the proto-Kamrau Bay level: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-ɟ…** |**j** |**j** |**d** |**d** |**d** |**d** | |stand |*emeɟ- |ˈmej-aɾa | |emed-ara [EK] |emet-ara |ˈɛmed-ara |emet-ara | |cook/burn |*aw[i/e]ɟ-|aˈβi-a |awi- [CV]|ˈaβed-aɾa | |ˈaᵘβed-aɾa |ˈawed-ara [CV]| |split (tr.)|*owoɟ- |oˈβoj-arə | |ˈoβod-araʔ [EK}| | | | |bathe |*moɟ- | | | | |-mod-aɾa | | |cut (grass)|*bawoɟ- |baˈβoj-arə | |baβod-aɾa | | | | |scratch |*ɸa-maɟ- |ˈɸa-maj-eɾa | | | |ˈha-mad-arə | | |dig |*siɟ- |ˈsij-araʔ | | | |ˈsid-aɾa | | |wipe |*guɾu-maɟ-|duˈru-maj-aɾa| | | |ˈguru-mad-arə| | |lie down |*joɟ- |joⁱj-aɾa | | | |ˈjod-aɾəʔ | | Medial velar voiced stop /*g/, like intiial /*g/ (above), is fronted to apical /d/ in Buruwai: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-g-** |**d** |**d** |**g** |**g** |**g** |**g** | |speak |*ag- | |ad-ara [CV] | | | |ag-ara [CV] | |bite |*ag- |ad-ˈaɾə|ad- [CV] |ˈag-aɾa | |ˈaːg-ara | | |call |*ag- | |da-r [CV] | | | |aga-r [CV] | |voice/speech |*aga | |ada-ra [CV] | |aga-ra | |aga-rə | |branch |*agaC | |ˈada- [CV] | |ag-a | |ag-a | |paradise (m.)|*siaga | |ˈsiada-ra [CV]| | | |ˈsiaga-ra [CV]| One example in which medial /*g/ is unexpectedly retained as /g/ in Buruwai may indicate a loan from South Kamrau into Buruwai (cf. Asmat-Kamoro /*iti/) or is conditioned by following high front vowel /*i/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-g-** |**g** |**g** |**g** |**g** |**g** |**g** | |thorn|*igi |iˈgi-rə|gi-ra [CV]|igi-ɾa | |igi-ɾa |igi-ra | Medial bilabial voiceless fricative /*ɸ/, like intial /ɸ/ (above,) is deoccluded to /h/ in South Kamrau and in North Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-ɸ-** |**ɸ** |**ɸ** |**h** |**h** |**h** |**h** | |cold |*iɸok |iˈɸo-ta |iˈfo-ta [CV] |ˈihok-a |ihok-a | | | |leaf |*eɸe |-ɸɛ-ɾə |efe-ra [CV] |ˈehe-ɾa |ehe-ra |eˈhe-ɾa |ehe-ra | |tail |*eɸe |ˈɸɛ- |fe- [CV] |ˈehe-raʔ [EK] |ehe-ra |ehe-ɾ- |ehe- | |wind |*aɸe |aˈɸe-ra |afe-ra [CV] |ˈahe-ɾa |ahe-ra |ˈahe-ɾa |ahe-rə | |hole |*aɸa | |afi-ra [CV] | |aha-ra | |aha-rə | |wing |*aɸa-ɸu |aɸa-ˈɸu-ra |afa-ˈfu- [CV] |ˈaha-hu-ɾa |aha-hu-ra |ˈaha-hu-ɾa|ha-hu-ra | |belly |*aɸowa |aˈɸoga-rə [Gaka]|aˈpoga-ra [CV]|ˈahowa-ɾa | |ˈahoga-rə |oho- | |soft |*oɸo | | | | | |oho-ra | |hand/arm |*man ɸek | | |ˈm-a-hek-a |m-a-hek-a |ˈm-a-heʔ-a|m-a-heʔ-a | |wet |*ma[ɟ/s]Vɸok|masaˈɸo-ta | |ˈmadohok-a |modoˈhok-a\\ [CV]|ˈmodohoʔ-a|modoˈhoʔ-a\\ [CV]| |wide |*ɸaɸok |ˈɸaβo-ta | |ˈhahok-a | |ˈhaːhoʔ-a | | |light (weight)|*soɸo | |sofo-ra [CV] | |oho-ra | |oho-ra | |liver |*soɸo |sofo-ɾa [Gaka] | |ˈoh-oho-ɾa [US]| |ˈoh-oha-ɾa| | |leech |*geɸi |ˈdeɸi-rə |defi-ra [CV] |gehi-ɾa | |gehi-ɾa |gefi-ra [CV] | |house |*jaɸ[a/o] | | |ˈjaho-ɾə [Kam] |jaha-ra |ˈjaha-ɾa |jaha-ra | |vomit |*Waɸin |ˈgwaɸi-daʔ | | | |ˈgwaːj-aʔ |guˈahi-a [CV] | |kill |*jaɸ- |ˈiɸ-araʔ | | | |ˈeːh-aɾa | | |ear |*jaɸ[a/o]m |iːɸo-də |fa-da [CV] |ˈjaːh-a |ja-ha |ˈehow-ə |ehu-a | Medial apical voiceless fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all three languages regardless of the following vowel, unlike intial /*s/ which is dropped when folowed by /*e *a *o/ (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-s-** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** |**s** | |mosquito |*isi |iˈsi-rə | |ˈisi-ɾa |isi-ra |ˈisi-ɾa |isi-rə | |sleep |*esa- |sa-ˈmaɾ-aɾa | |ˈes-arə [Kam]| |ˈeːs-aɾə |es-ara [CV] | |net bag |*esak | |iˈsa-ta [CV] | |esek-a | |esa [CV] (?) | |dream |*esoC |ˈeːso-daʔ | | | |ˈeso-a |eso-ˈa [CV] | |sun/day |*asi |aˈsi-ra | |asi-ɾa |asi-ra |ˈaːsi-ra |asi-rə | |egg |*asa |ˈasa-ra |asa-ra [CV] | | | | | |yesterday |*asaɟ (?) | | | |asa-de | |asa-də | |ripe |*asak | |asa-ta [CV] | |ak-a | |aʔ-a | |cough |*os- | |ˈos-ara [CV] | | | | | |coconut |*usin |uˈsi-da [Gaka]|uˈsi-da [CV] | | |ˈusi-a | | |fire |*usa |ˈusa-ɾa | |ˈusa-ɾa |usa-ra |ˈuːsa-ɾa |use-ra | |spittle/saliva|*masak |maˈsa-ta- |maˈsa-ta [CV]| |masak-a | | | |finger |*musi |-musi-ɾa | |musi-ɾa | |ˈmusi-ra | | |testicles |*musa | |musa [CV] | |musa-ra | |musa-ra | |egg |*baɾusa | | |ˈbarusa-ɾa |barusa-ra|boˈɾusa-ra [US] |borusə-rə | |raw/green |*nasi |-nasi-ra | | | |ˈnesi-ɾa |nesi-ra | |wound |*nasuk | |naˈsu-ta [CV]| | | |ˈnosuʔ-a [CV]| |flesh/meat |*sasi |səˈsi-ɾa |ˈsasi-ra [CV]|ˈaːsi-ɾa |asi-rə |ˈaːsi-ra |asi-rə | |dry |*sasok |saso-ta [Gaka]|soso-ta [CV] | | | | | |upper arm |*sosu | |ˈsosu- [CV] | | |ˈosu-ra [CV] | | |all |*jabasin | | |ˈjaːbasi [EK]|jabasi-a |ˈjeːbasi-a\\ [Wam]|jabasi-a | Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-w-** |**w [β w]** |**w** |**w [β ɸ w]** |**w [w ]**|**w [w β]** |**w [w ]**| |lip(s) |*iwin |iˈβi-d- | |ˈiβu- |ivu- |ˈiwu- |ivu- | |dog |*iwuɾ |iˈβu-də |iwu-da [CV] |ˈiβu-a |ibu-a |ˈiːw-a |ib-a | |count |*emaw- |maᵘw-araʔ | | | |ˈɛmu-aɾa | | |come |*[e/a]n[e/a]w-|naβ-ˈaraʔ |naw- |anaw-ara |anaw-e |ˈneːw-aɾa |anaw-ara | |sit |*[e/a]w- |ˈeβ-aɾa | |aɸ-ara [EK] |aw-ara |ˈaw-arə |aw-ara | |salt/bitter |*akewa |ˈkeβa-ra | |ˈaʔewa-ɾa [US] |akewa-ra |ˈaʔewə-ɾa [Koi] | | |rib(s) |*awin | |awin(ə)- [CV] | |abi- | |avi- | |cook/burn |*aw[i/e]ɟ- |aˈβi-a |awi- [CV] |ˈaβed-aɾa | |ˈaᵘβed-aɾa |ˈawed-ara [CV] | |far |*aw[i/a] |aβi-ɾa | | |aua-ra |aˈuːwa-ɾa |aua-ra | |breast |*awo |aˈwo-ra [Gaka] | |aɸo-ra [EK] |avo-ra |ˈawo-ra |avo-rə | |younger brother|*awoɟa | |awo(ja)-ra\\ [CV]| |awadeja (?) | |awoda-ra | |jungle fowl |*[owa]nak | |ˈona-te [CV] | | | |ˈwanaʔ-a [CV] | |split (tr.) |*owoɟ- |oˈβoj-arə | |ˈoβod-araʔ [EK}| | | | |foot/leg |*mawu |maˈβu-ɾa\\ [Gaka] |mawu-ra [CV] |ˈmoβu-ra |mabu-ra |ˈmowu-rə |movu-ra | |star |*mawuɾ[a] |ˈmaβuɾə-ɾə | |ˈmaβuɾa-ɾa |mawura-ra |ˈmawur̃-a |omawur-ə | |man/male |*bewu |beβu-ɾaʔ | |beɸu-ra |bebu-ra |ˈbewu-ɾa |bevu-ra | |cut (grass) |*bawoɟ- |baˈβoj-arə | |baβod-aɾa | | | | |lake |*buɾuwa |buˈruβa-ra\\ [Gaka]| |buˈɾuwa-ra | | | | |one |*-ɟawa |-ˈjaβə-ɾa [Gaka] |-ˈawa-ra |-ˈdaβa |-dawa |-dawa | | |full |*kuwe[d/ɟ]a | | |kwɛda-ɾa | |weda-ɾa; ueda-ɾa| | |child |*gewu |ˈdeβu-ɾa |ˈdewu-ra [CV] | |gevu-ra |ˈgewu-ɾa |gevu-rə | |push |*go[w]- |ˈdow-aɾaʔ | | | |ˈgow-uhu-ˈarə | | |night |*jewak |iβa-ˈtaa |iwa-ta [CV] |ˈjeβak-a |iawak-a |ˈjewa-a |iewa ʔ-a | |all |*jabowa |jaˈboβa-rə | |ˈjeboβa-ɾa | | | | |nest |*jawa |ˈjo-rə [Gaka] | | | |ˈjawa-ra |jawa-rə | |woman/female |*jawoɟa |jaˈβoa-raʔ |jaˈwoja-ra [CV] |jaɸoda-ra |jewoda-ra | |joˈwoda-ra [CV]| … /*W/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-W-** |**g** |**** |**w** |**** |**g** |**** | |stick (n.)|*boWa[C] |ˈboga-ɾa| |ˈboːw-a | |ˈbɔːg-a | | |river |*joWa | | | | |ˈjoga-ɾə |jogə-ra | Medial apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-ɾ-** |**ɾ** |**ɾ** |**ɾ** |**ɾ** |**ɾ** |**ɾ** | |heavy |*id[a/o]ɾoC|idaˈro-da |diro-da [CV] |ˈidaru-a |idoro-a |ˈiːdor̃u-a |idoro-a | |shoot |*iɾ- |iɾ-ˈaɾə | |ˈiɾ-aɾa | |ˈiɾ-aɾa [US] | | |round |*emo[a]ɾa |ˈmoara-r\\ [Gaka] | |emora-ra [anon] | |ˈemoɾa-ɾa | | |back |*eɾena(-si)| | |ˈenesa-ɾa |erena-ra |ˈɛr̃nə-si-ɾa |erna-ra | |2 pl.. |*eɾeɾ | | |ere-a [EK] |eri-a |eraj-a [anon] |eri-a | |today |*asi-ɾek | | | |asi-rik-a-| |asi-reʔ-a | |3 sg. |*aɾaɾ | | |ar-a [EK] |ar-a |aːˈr-a |ar-a | |fly (n.) |*oɸoɾoboC | | |ˈohoˈrobo-a |ohorobu-a |ˈoho bu-a |ohobu-a | |cloud |*oɾeC | |oˈre-da- [CV] |ˈor̃e- [EK] | |ˈore-a [Tang] |ore- [CV] | |2 sg. |*oɾoɾ |oˈroː-da |oro-da [CV] |oro-a [EK] |oro-a |woɾu-ˈə |oro-a | |cough |*maiɾu |ˈmaⁱɾu-ɾa | | | |ˈmeɾu-ˈɾa | | |walk |*maɾ- |ˈmaɾ-aɾa | |ˈmaɾ-əɾə [Kam] | | | | |small root |*mumuɾu[C] | |mumuˈru-ra\\ [CV]|mumuru-a [EK] |mumuru-a | |mumuru-a | |wash |*biɾi[g]- |birid-aɾaʔ | | | |ˈbiri-arə | | |egg |*baɾusa | | |ˈbarusa-ɾa |barusa-ra |boˈɾusa-ra [US]|borusə-rə | |see |*boɾ- |boɾ-ˈaɾa | |bor-ara [EK] | |ˈbor-ara | | |fly (v.) |*buiɾ- |ˈbwir-ara |bᵘir-ara [CV] |ˈbuːɾ-aɾa | |ˈbuɾ-aɾa |bur-ara [CV]| |moon |*buɾa |ˈbuɾa-ɾa | |ˈbuɾa-ɾa |bura-ra |ˈbur̃a-r̃a |burə-rə | |lake |*buɾuwa |buˈruβa-ra\\ [Gaka]| |buˈɾuwa-ra | | | | |sore |*ɸarin |ˈɸari-də | |ˈharij-a | |ˈhaːri-ə | | |thin |*taɾa |ˈtaɾə-rə | | | |ˈtar̃a-r̃a | | |worm |*toɾe | | |ˈtoɾe-ɾa | |ˈtoɾe-ɾa | | |kunai grass|*suɾuma |suˈruma-ra\\ [Gaka]| |suˈrumə-rə\\ [Kam] | |suˈruma-ɾa | | |heart |*kuɾu |kuˈru-ɾa | |ˈkuɾu-ɾa | | | | |old |*gaɾu |gaɾu-ɾa | | |garu-ra |goɾu-ɾa |goru-ra | |wipe |*guɾu-maɟ- |duˈru-maj-aɾa | | | |ˈguru-mad-arə | | |hornbill |*waɾi | |ˈwari-ra [CV] | | | |weri-ra [CV]| |rope |*waɾak |ˈwara-ta [Yar] | |waɾak-a |uarak-a |waˈɾaʔ-a |uaraʔ-a | |long |*Waɾu | | |gwaɾu-ɾa |gwaru-ra |ˈgwaɾu-ɾa |gwaru-ra | |thunder |*Wuɾuɟam |gurˈia-da | |ˈgurud-a\\ ~ˈguri-a|guri-e |ˈguruˈdaw-a |gurudaw-a | Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-j-** |**j** |**j** |**j** |**j** |**j** |**j** | |wife |*ajam |aˈja-da |ja-da- [CV]| |aj-a |ˈajaw-a |ajaw-a | |blunt/dull|*ubija | | |ˈuːbija-ɾa | |ˈubja-ɾa [Tang]| | |father |*jaja |ˈjaⁱja-ɾaʔ|jaja [CV] | |jai-ra |ˈjai-ɾa |jai-ra | |mountain |*bujam | | |ˈbuej-ə [Kam]| |buˈew-a |biaw-e | Only a restricted number of consonants /*m *n *t *k *ɾ *ɟ/ occur word-finally, where they are discernible primarily by the results of their combinations with nominal article /*-ɾa/. First, let us examine the behavior of /*-ɾa/ when it is appended to a vowel-final root and is thus reflected as /-ɾa/ in all three languages : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-V-ɾa** |**V-ɾa** |**V-ɾa** |**V-ɾa** |**V-ɾa** |**V-ɾa** |**V-ɾa** | |mosquito |*isi |iˈsi-rə | |ˈisi-ɾa |isi-ra |ˈisi-ɾa |isi-rə | |thorn |*iGi |iˈgi-rə |gi-ra [CV] |igi-ɾa | |igi-ɾa |igi-ra | |small |*iwu | | |iβu-ɾa |ivu-ra |iwu-ɾa |ivu-ra | |garden |*iduma |iˈdumə-rə | |iˈduma-ɾa [EK] | | | | |round |*emo[a]ɾa |ˈmoara-r\\ [Gaka] | |emora-ra [anon] | |ˈemoɾa-ɾa | | |leaf |*eɸe |-ɸɛ-ɾə |efe-ra [CV] |ˈehe-ɾa |ehe-ra |eˈhe-ɾa |ehe-ra | |tail |*eɸe |ˈɸɛ- |fe- [CV] |ˈehe-raʔ [EK] |ehe-ra |ehe-ɾ- |ehe- | |stone |*eta |ˈeːta-ɾa | |ˈeːta-ɾa |eta-ra |ˈeta-ɾa |etə-rə | |fruit/seed |*eke |eˈke-ra |jake-ra [CV] |ˈeke--ɾa |-eke-ra |ˈeʔe-ɾa |-eʔe-ra | |bone |*eke |ˈke-ɾa |eke-ra [CV] |ˈeke-ɾa |eke-ra |ˈeʔe-ɾa [US] |eʔe-rə | |back |*eɾena(-si)| | |ˈenesa-ɾa |erena-ra |ˈɛr̃nə-si-ɾa |erna-ra | |new |*ai |aⁱ-ɾa | |ai-ra [anon] |ai-ra |ai-ra |ai-ra | |narrow |*amota |aˈmota-ra | |ˈamota-ɾa | |ˈamota-rə | | |older brother |*apoɟa | |aˈpo(ja)-ra\\ [CV]| |apuda (?) | |apoda-ra | |fog |*apuki |apuˈki-ra | | | |ˈapuʔiɾa | | |crab |*[a]buea | |aˈbwea-ra [CV] | | | |ˈbwe-ra [CV] | |wind |*aɸe |aˈɸe-ra |afe-ra [CV] |ˈahe-ɾa |ahe-ra |ˈahe-ɾa |ahe-rə | |hole |*aɸa | |afi-ra [CV] | |aha-ra | |aha-rə | |wing |*aɸa-ɸu |aɸa-ˈɸu-ra |afa-ˈfu- [CV] |ˈaha-hu-ɾa |aha-hu-ra |ˈaha-hu-ɾa |ha-hu-ra | |belly |*aɸowa |aˈɸoga-rə [Gaka] |aˈpoga-ra [CV] |ˈahowa-ɾa | |ˈahoga-rə |oho- | |centipede |*an[a] | | | | | |anə-ra | |sun/day |*asi |aˈsi-ra | |asi-ɾa |asi-ra |ˈaːsi-ra |asi-rə | |egg |*asa |ˈasa-ra |asa-ra [CV] | | | | | |salt/bitter |*akewa |ˈkeβa-ra | |ˈaʔewa-ɾa [US] |akewa-ra |ˈaʔewə-ɾa [Koi] | | |charcoal/black |*aka |ˈaka-ra |ˈaka-ra [CV] |aka-ɾa |aka-ra |aʔa-r̃a |aʔa-ra | |voice/speech |*aga | |ada-ra [CV] | |aga-ra | |aga-rə | |far |*aw[i/a] |aβi-ɾa | | |aua-ra |aˈuːwa-ɾa |aua-ra | |breast |*awo |aˈwo-ra [Gaka] | |aɸo-ra [EK] |avo-ra |ˈawo-ra |avo-rə | |younger brother|*awoɟa | |awo(ja)-ra\\ [CV] | |awadeja (?)| |awoda-ra | |tree/wood |*o |ˈo-ra | |oː-ɾa |o-ra |ˈoːʔ-ra |o-ra | |above |*ope | | | |ope-ra | |ope-ra | |soft |*oɸo | | | | | |oho-ra | |cough/phlegm |*os[a] | |ˈosa-ra [CV] | | | | | |name |*u |u-ˈɾa | |u-ra [EK] |u-ra |uː-ra |u-ra | |white cockatoo |*u | | | | | |u-rə | |blunt/dull |*ubija | | |ˈuːbija-ɾa | |ˈubja-ɾa [Tang] | | |fire |*usa |ˈusa-ɾa | |ˈusa-ɾa |usa-ra |ˈuːsa-ɾa |use-ra | |sea |*uwa |ˈuβa-rə | |ˈuːwa-ɾa |uva-ra |ˈuwa-ra |uvə-rə | |cough |*maiɾu |ˈmaⁱɾu-ɾa | | | |ˈmeɾu-ˈɾa | | |lightning |*mananai |məɾəˈɾai-ɾə\\ [Gaka]| |mananaⁱ-ɾa |mənene-ra |ˈmananai-ra |mananaj-ra | |forehead |*manam-pu | | | |mana-pu-ra | |mana-pu-rə | |foot/leg |*mawu |maˈβu-ɾa\\ [Gaka] |mawu-ra [CV] |ˈmoβu-ra |mabu-ra |ˈmowu-rə |movu-ra | |star |*mawuɾ[a] |ˈmaβuɾə-ɾə | |ˈmaβuɾa-ɾa |mawura-ra |ˈmawur̃-a |omawur-ə | |finger |*musi |-musi-ɾa | |musi-ɾa | |ˈmusi-ra | | |testicles |*musa | |musa [CV] | |musa-ra | |musa-ra | |thick |*papuna | | |ˈpapuna-ɾa | |poˈpuna-r̃a | | |rotten |*pona |ˈpona-rə | |ˈpona-ɾa | |ˈpoːna-ɾa | | |bat |*pupu | |puˈpu-ra [CV] | | | |pupu-ra [CV] | |chest |*bi | |bi- [CV] | |bi-ra | |bi-ra | |snake |*bima | | |ˈbima-ɾa |bima-ra |bima-ɾa |bimə-rə | |knife |*bakatu | | | |bakatu-ra | |baʔtu-ra | |hard |*bebe | | | |bebe-ra | |bebe-ra | |heart |*bewe | | |beβe-ɾaʔ [EK] | |ˈbeβe-ɾa | | |man/male |*bewu |beβu-ɾaʔ | |beɸu-ra |bebu-ra |ˈbewu-ɾa |bevu-ra | |good |*bae | | |bae-ra [EK] |bae-ra |bai-rah |bae-ra | |egg |*baɾusa | | |ˈbarusa-ɾa |barusa-ra |boˈɾusa-ra [US] |borusə-rə | |paddle |*bo | | | | | |bo-ra [CV] | |cassowary |*bu |ˈbuː-ɾa |ˈbu-ra [CV] |ˈbuː-ɾa | |buː-ɾa | | |areca nut |*bueka |ˈβeka-ra [Kai] | |buekə-rə [Kam] | |ˈbweʔa-ɾa | | |moon |*buɾa |ˈbuɾa-ɾa | |ˈbuɾa-ɾa |bura-ra |ˈbur̃a-r̃a |burə-rə | |lake |*buɾuwa |buˈruβa-ra\\ [Gaka] | |buˈɾuwa-ra | | | | |calf |*ɸima | |fima-ra [CV] | | | |hima-ra [CV] | |excrement |*ɸa | | |ˈha-ra |ha-ra |haː-ra |ha-ra | |neck |*ɸoma | | |ˈhoma-ɾa |homa-ra |ˈhoma-rə |homa-ra | |skin/bark |*ɸu |ˈɸu-ra |fu-ra [CV] |ˈhuː-ɾa |hu-ra |ˈhuː-ɾa |hu-ra | |white |*nabu |naˈbu-ra | |ˈnəbu-ɾa |nabu-ra |ˈnobu-ɾa |nobu-ra | |raw/green |*nasi |-nasi-ra | | | |ˈnesi-ɾa |nesi-ra | |near |*nom[o/u] | | | |nomo-ra |ˈnoːmu-ɾa |nomo-ra | |crocodile |*timako |tiˈmako-ra\\ [Gaka] | | | |ˈtimoʔo-ɾa | | |dry |*tata |ˈtatə-ɾə | |ˈtata-ɾa |tata-ra |taʔta-ɾa |tatja-ra | |thin |*taɾa |ˈtaɾə-rə | | | |ˈtar̃a-r̃a | | |worm |*toɾe | | |ˈtoɾe-ɾa | |ˈtoɾe-ɾa | | |short |*tuk[awa] |tuˈkoβa-rə | |ˈtuka-ɾa | | | | |paradise (m.) |*siaga | |ˈsiada-ra [CV] | | | |ˈsiaga-ra [CV] | |salt |*siɾa |siɾa-ɾa [Gaka] | |ˈsiɾa-ɾa | |ˈsiraʔ-aʔ (?) | | |flesh/meat |*sasi |səˈsi-ɾa |ˈsasi-ra [CV] |ˈaːsi-ɾa |asi-rə |ˈaːsi-ra |asi-rə | |light (weight) |*soɸo | |sofo-ra [CV] | |oho-ra | |oho-ra | |liver |*soɸo |sofo-ɾa [Gaka] | |ˈoh-oho-ɾa [US] | |ˈoh-oha-ɾa | | |upper arm |*sosu | |ˈsosu- [CV] | | |ˈosu-ra [CV] | | |sand |*sumake |ˈsumake-ra | |ˈsumaˈke-ɾa |sumake-ra | | | |kunai grass |*suɾuma |suˈruma-ra\\ [Gaka] | |suˈrumə-rə\\ [Kam]| |suˈruma-ɾa | | |many |*kibu | | |ˈkubu-ɾa |kubu-ra |ˈubu-ɾa\\ ibu-ɾa [Tang]|ubu-ra | |frog |*koni |ˈkoni-rə [Gaka] | | | |ˈoni-ɾa | | |paradise (f.) |*kowa | |ˈkoa-ra [CV] | | | |ˈoa-ra [CV] | |full |*kuwe[d/ɟ]a| | |kwɛda-ɾa | |weda-ɾa; ueda-ɾa | | |heart |*kuɾu |kuˈru-ɾa | |ˈkuɾu-ɾa | | | | |person |*gisi |diˈsi-ɾa |disi-ra [CV] |gisi-ra [EK] |gisi-rə |giˈsi-ɾa |gisi-rə | |beard |*gemu | | | |gemu-rə | |gəmu-rə | |leech |*geɸi |ˈdeɸi-rə |defi-ra [CV] |gehi-ɾa | |gehi-ɾa |gefi-ra [CV] | |child |*gewu |ˈdeβu-ɾa |ˈdewu-ra [CV] | |gevu-ra |ˈgewu-ɾa |gevu-rə | |grandparent |*ga[t/k]a | |ˈdata-ra [CV] | | | |gaʔa-ra [CV] | |old |*gaɾu |gaɾu-ɾa | | |garu-ra |goɾu-ɾa |goru-ra | |hornbill |*waɾi | |ˈwari-ra [CV] | | | |weri-ra [CV] | |left |*jamo |iˈjamo-ɾa | | |jamoa-ra |ˈjaːmo-ɾa |jamo-ra | |all |*jabowa |jaˈboβa-rə | |ˈjeboβa-ɾa | | | | |house |*jaɸ[a/o] | | |ˈjaho-ɾə [Kam] |jaha-ra |ˈjaha-ɾa |jaha-ra | |nest |*jawa |ˈjo-rə [Gaka] | | | |ˈjawa-ra |jawa-rə | |woman/female |*jawoɟa |jaˈβoa-raʔ |jaˈwoja-ra [CV] |jaɸoda-ra |jewoda-ra | |joˈwoda-ra [CV]| |father |*jaja |ˈjaⁱja-ɾaʔ |jaja [CV] | |jai-ra |ˈjai-ɾa |jai-ra | |river |*joWa | | | | |ˈjoga-ɾə |jogə-ra | Numbers take article /*-ɾa/ in Buruwai but not in South Kamrau or North Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-V(-ɾa)**|**V-ɾa** |**V-ɾa**|**V** |**V** |**V** |**V** | |two|*aboma |aˈbomə-ra\\ [Gaka]| |ˈaboma |aboma |ˈaboma |aboma | |one|*-ɟawa |-ˈjaβə-ɾa [Gaka] |-ˈawa-ra|-ˈdaβa |-dawa |-dawa | | Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-m-ɾa**|**ø-da** |**ø-da** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** |**w-a** |**w-a** | |drum |*em | |eː-da [CV] | | | | | |tongue |*[a]mam |ˈama-də |ama-da [CV] |ˈma-ː |ma |ˈmoːw-a |mo-ə | |hot |*amam |ˈama-da |aˈma-da [CV] |ˈaːm-a |am-a |ˈaːmow-a |amw-a | |sago |*apim | | | | |ˈapi-a (?) | | |wife |*ajam |aˈja-da |ja-da- [CV] | |aj-a |ˈajaw-a |ajaw-a | |louse |*om | | |ˈoːw-a | |ˈoow-a | | |breadfruit |*obam | |oba-da [CV] | |ob-a [CV] | |obo-a [CV] | |root |*[u]mam |uma-da [anon]| | | |mo-a [anon] | | |eye |*manam |ˈmara-də | |ˈməna-ː |man-a |ˈmonow-a |man-ə (?) | |mouse/rat |*bam |ˈba-də |ˈba-da [CV] |ˈba-ː |b-a |ˈbaow-a [Koi]|baw-a | |swollen |*bonam |ˈbonə-də | |ˈboːn-a | |ˈbonow-ə | | |mountain |*bujam | | |ˈbuej-ə [Kam] | |buˈew-a |biaw-e | |fish |*nam |ˈna-daʔ |ˈna-da [CV] |ˈna-ː |na |ˈnoːw-a |no-a | |stink/bad smell|*num |ˈnu-da |nu-da [CV] |ˈnuːw-a | |ˈnuːw-a | | |cheek |*gepam | | | |gep-a | |gepu- | |thunder |*Wuɾuɟam |gurˈia-da | |ˈgurud-a\\ ~ˈguri-a|guri-e |ˈguruˈdaw-a |gurudaw-a | |penis |*jamam | |jaˈma-da [CV]| |jem-a [CV]| |jemo-a [CV]| Final apical nasal /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Buruwai |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-n-ɾa**|**ø-da** |**ø-da** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** | |lip(s) |*iwin |iˈβi-d- | |ˈiβu- |ivu- |ˈiwu- |ivu- | |bow |*amon | |aˈmo-da [CV] | |amo-a | |amo-a | |ashes/dust |*umin |uˈmi-da |umi-da [CV] |ˈuːmij-a |umi-a |ˈuːmij-a |umi-ə | |coconut |*usin |uˈsi-da [Gaka]|uˈsi-da [CV] | | |ˈusi-a | | |hand/arm |*man |ˈmaː-da |ma-da [Gaka] |ˈm-a- |m-a- |ˈm-a- |m-a- | |hair/feather(s)|*ɸin |ˈɸi-da |fi-da [CV] |ˈhĩːj-ə [Kam]|hi-a |ˈhiː-ə |hi-ə ~ hi-a | |sore |*ɸarin |ˈɸari-də | |ˈharij-a | |ˈhaːri-ə | | |sand |*sin | | | | |ˈsiː-a |si-a | |forearm |*sonam | |ˈsona-da [CV]| | | | | |thatch |*wan[i/e]n|waˈnɛ-da | | | |ˈweːni-a | | |vomit |*Waɸin |ˈgwaɸi-daʔ | | | |ˈgwaːj-aʔ |guˈahi-a [CV]| |head |*jebin |jɛˈbi-da |jabi-da [CV] |ˈjebij-a | |ˈjeʔbi-a | | |all |*jabasin | | |ˈjaːbasi [EK]|jabasi-a |ˈjeːbasi-a\\ [Wam]|jabasi-a | Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ has been identified in only one example, where it descends from Asmat-Kamrau Bay fricative /*s/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-t-ɾa**|**ø-ta**|**ø-ta** |**t-a** |**t-a** |**ʔ-a** |**ʔ-a** | |blood/red|*et |ˈeː-ta |ˈe-ta [CV]|ˈeːt-a |et-a |ˈeʔ-a |eʔ-a | Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-k-ɾa** |**ø-ta** |**ø-ta** |**k-a** |**k-a** |**ʔ-a** |**ʔ-a** | |cold |*iɸok |iˈɸo-ta |iˈfo-ta [CV] |ˈihok-a |ihok-a | | | |that |*ik | | | |ik-a | |i-a | |knee |*inik | | |ˈinik-ə [Kam]|inik-a |ˈiniʔ-a |iniʔ-a | |net bag |*esak | |iˈsa-ta [CV] | |esek-a | |esa [CV] (?) | |husband |*amoɟak |aˈmoⁱja-taʔ |moja-ta [CV] | |amodak-a |ˈamodaʔ-a |amoda (?) | |today |*asi-ɾek | | | |asi-rik-a- | |asi-reʔ-a | |ripe |*asak | |asa-ta [CV] | |ak-a | |aʔ-a | |thigh |*ak | | | |ak-a | |aʔ-a | |pig |*ok |ˈo-ta |o-ta [CV] |ˈoːk-a |ok-a |ˈoʔ-a |oʔ-a [CV] | |jungle fowl |*[owa]nak | |ˈona-te [CV] | | | |ˈwanaʔ-a [CV] | |goura pigeon |*uk | | | |ˈuk-a [CV] | |uʔ-a [CV] | |old man |*ubok | | | |ubok-a | |uboʔ-a | |mucus |*minik | |mini-ˈta [CV]| |minak-a | |miniʔ-a | |nose |*mik |ˈmiː-tə |mi-ta [CV] |miːk-a |mik-a |ˈmiʔ-a |miʔ-a | |five |*man ibak |ma-da-ˈba-ta | |ˈme-ⁱbak-a | |ˈme-baʔ-a |ma-iba (?) | |hand/arm |*man ɸek | | |ˈm-a-hek-a |m-a-hek-a |ˈm-a-heʔ-a|m-a-heʔ-a | |wet |*ma[ɟ/s]Vɸok|masaˈɸo-ta | |ˈmadohok-a |modoˈhok-a\\ [CV]|ˈmodohoʔ-a|modoˈhoʔ-a\\ [CV]| |spittle/saliva|*masak |maˈsa-ta- |maˈsa-ta [CV]| |masak-a | | | |path |*mak |ˈma-ta [Gaka] | |ˈmaːk-a- |mak-a |ˈmaʔ-a- |maʔ-ə | |armpit |*mopuk | | | |mopuk-a | |mopu-a | |sugarcane |*monek | |mone-ta [CV] | | | |moneʔ-a [CV] | |tree/wood |*buk |ˈbuː-ta [Gaka]| |ˈbuːk-a | |ˈbuʔ-a | | |buttocks |*buk | | | |buk-a | |buʔ-ə | |wide |*ɸaɸok |ˈɸaβo-ta | |ˈhahok-a | |ˈhaːhoʔ-a | | |wound |*nasuk | |naˈsu-ta [CV]| | | |ˈnosuʔ-a [CV] | |tooth/sharp |*sik |ˈsiʔ-ta |si-ta- [CV] |ˈsik-a |sik-a |ˈsiʔ-a |siʔ-a | |earth/ground |*sek |ˈseʔ-ta |se-ta [CV] |ˈeːk-a |ek-a |ˈeʔ-a |eʔ-a | |dry |*sasok |saso-ta [Gaka]|soso-ta [CV] | | | | | |rain |*gek |de-ta |de-ta [CV] |ˈgeːk-a |gek-a |ˈgeːʔ-a |giʔ-a | |forest |*wak |wa-ta |ˈwa-ta [CV] | | |waʔ-a |waʔ-a [CV] | |rope |*waɾak |ˈwara-ta [Yar]| |waɾak-a |uarak-a |waˈɾaʔ-a |uaraʔ-a | |thumb |*wok | |wo-ta [CV] | |-wok-a | |-woʔ-a | |night |*jewak |iβa-ˈtaa |iwa-ta [CV] |ˈjeβak-a |iawak-a |ˈjewa-a |iewa ʔ-a | |big |*[j]okak |ˈjokə-tə |joˈka-ta [CV]|ˈoːˈkok-a | | | | Final palatal voiced stop /*ɟ/ … resulting in a correspondence identical to that of medial /*ɟ/ (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-j-ɾa**|**j-a**|**j-a** |**d-a** |**d-a** |**d-a** |**d-a** | |urine |*eɟ | |ˈeij-a [CV] | |ed-a | |ed-a | |milk |*miɟ | | | |-mid-a | |-amir-a (?)| |water |*moɟ |ˈmoj-a |moj-a [CV] |ˈmoːd-a |mod-a |ˈmoːd-ə |mod-a | |bathe |*moɟ- | | | | |-mod-aɾa | | |cuscus |*ɸaɟ | |ˈpai-ra [CV] (?)| | | |haːd-a [CV]| |fat/grease|*ɸueɟ | |fued-a [CV] (?) | |hued-a | |hued-a | |bird |*geɟ |ˈdɛj-a |deːj-a [CV] |ˈgeːd-a |ged-a |geⁱd-a |ged-ə | |person |*weɟ | | | |wed-a [CV]|weˈd-a |ued-ə | Final apical non-stop /*ɾ/ … It is thus nearly indisiguishable from the reflexes of final /*n/ (above) except through outcomparison to Asmat-Kamoro although the sporadic presence of nasalization in some examples of the latter: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-ɾ-ɾa**|**ø-da**|**ø-da** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** | |dog |*iwuɾ |iˈβu-də |iwu-da [CV] |ˈiβu-a |ibu-a |ˈiːw-a |ib-a | |2 pl..|*eɾeɾ | | |ere-a [EK]|eri-a |eraj-a [anon]|eri-a | |3 sg. |*aɾaɾ | | |ar-a [EK] |ar-a |aːˈr-a |ar-a | |2 sg. |*oɾoɾ |oˈroː-da|oro-da [CV] |oro-a [EK]|oro-a |woɾu-ˈə |oro-a | |navel |*umabeɾ | |moˈbe-da [CV]| |umabi-a | |umab-e | |vagina|*beɾ | |ˈbe-da [CV] | |be-a |ˈ |be-a | |1 pl. |*naɾ |ˈnaː-daʔ|na-da [CV] |n-a- [EK] |n-a |n-a- |n-a | |1 sg. |*noɾ |ˈnoː-daʔ|no-da [CV] |no-a [EK] |no-a |no- |no-a | A number of final consonants are ambiguous between /*m *n *ɾ/ because there is no outocmparison to Asmat-Kamoro or Asmat-Kamoro has lost the final consonant (that is they do not continue a reduced segment /*CV/) and the final vowel is not /*a/, the disposition of which distinguishes /*m/ in North Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-C-ɾa** |**ø-da** |**ø-da** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** | |arrow sp.|*imuC | |iˈmu-da [CV] | | | |imw-a [CV] | |arrow sp.|*ipuC | | | |ipu-a | |ipu (?) | |bamboo |*it[a/o]C | |ito-da [CV] | |it-a [CV]| |it-a [CV] | |heavy |*id[a/o]ɾoC|idaˈro-da |diro-da [CV] |ˈidaru-a |idoro-a |ˈiːdor̃u-a |idoro-a | |dream |*esoC |ˈeːso-daʔ | | | |ˈeso-a |eso-ˈa [CV]| |fly (n.) |*oɸoɾoboC | | |ˈohoˈrobo-a |ohorobu-a|ˈoho bu-a |ohobu-a | |cloud |*oɾeC | |oˈre-da- [CV]|ˈor̃e- [EK] | |ˈore-a [Tang]|ore- [CV] | |smooth |*minapoC |minaˈpo-də | |mIˈnapu-a | |ˈminopu-a | | |path |*matoC |ˈmato-də | | | | | | |mountain |*bonaC |boˈna-da | |ˈboon-aʔ [EK]| | | | |shame |*napiC |naˈpi-dak (?)| | | |ˈneːpij-ə | | |this |*kekeC | | | |keke (?) | |eʔe-a | In four examples, Buruwai indicates a final vowel but South Kamrau and North Kamrau indicate a final consonant /*m *n *ɾ/ (below). This may reflect yet another allowable final consonant the quality of which cannot be identified with the data at hand: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-[C]-ɾa**|**V-ɾa** |**V-ɾa** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** |**ø-a** | |smoke |*amuni[C] |amuˈni-ɾa| |ˈamonj-a [EK]|amuni-a |ˈamuni-ə |amuni (?)| |banana |*o[C] |ˈo-də |o-da [CV] |oːw-a |o-a [CV] |ˈoow-a |o-a | |small root|*mumuɾu[C] | |mumuˈru-ra\\ [CV]|mumuru-a [EK]|mumuru-a | |mumuru-a | |stick (n.)|*boWa[C] |ˈboga-ɾa | |ˈboːw-a | |ˈbɔːg-a | | One word follows the opposite pattern, with Buruwai inicating a final consonant while South Kamrau and North Kamrau indicate a final vowel: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***-[C]-ɾa**|**ø-da** |**ø-da** |**V-ɾa** |**V-ɾa** |**V-ɾa** |**V-ɾa** | |cry/weep|*maɟa[C] |maⁱˈje-daʔ|maja-da [Gaka]|mada-ra |mada-ra | |meda-ra | … vowels ….\\ \\ High front vowel /*i/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| || |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | || |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | ||***i** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | High back rounded vowel /*u/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| || |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | || |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | ||***u** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | Mid front vowel /*e/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| || |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | || |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | ||***e** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | Mid back rounded vowel /*o/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| || |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | || |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | ||***o** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | | | Low central vowel /*a/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| || |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | || |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | ||***a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a [ə]**| ||*… | | | | | | | When /*a/ is followed in the next syllable by high front vowel /*i/ . it is raised and fronted to /e/ in North Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***a/_Ci**|**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**e** |**e** | |raw/green|*nasi |-nasi-ra | | | |ˈnesi-ɾa |nesi-ra | |hornbill |*waɾi | |ˈwari-ra [CV]| | | |weri-ra [CV]| |thatch |*wan[i/e]n|waˈnɛ-da | | | |ˈweːni-a | | |shame |*napiC |naˈpi-dak (?)| | | |ˈneːpij-ə| | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***a/_Ci**|**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** | |sun/day |*asi |aˈsi-ra | |asi-ɾa |asi-ra |ˈaːsi-ra |asi-rə | |flesh/meat|*sasi |səˈsi-ɾa |ˈsasi-ra [CV]|ˈaːsi-ɾa |asi-rə |ˈaːsi-ra |asi-rə | |sago |*apim | | | | |ˈapi-a | | |sore |*ɸarin |ˈɸari-də | |ˈharij-a | |ˈhaːri-ə | | |vomit |*Waɸin |ˈgwaɸi-daʔ | | | |ˈgwaːj-aʔ |guˈahi-a [CV]| |all |*jabasin | | |ˈjaːbasi [EK]|jabasi-a |ˈjeːbasi-a\\ [Wam]|jabasi-a | | |***a/_i** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** | |new |*ai |aⁱ-ɾa | |ai-ra [anon] |ai-ra |ai-ra |ai-ra | |lightning |*mananai |məɾəˈɾai-ɾə\\ [Gaka]| |mananaⁱ-ɾa |mənene-ra|ˈmananai-ra |mananaj-ra | When /*a/ is followed in the next syllable by high back rounded vowel /*u/, it is raised backed and rounded to /o/ in North Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau |N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***a/_Cu**|**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**o** |**o** | |white|*nabu |naˈbu-ra| |ˈnəbu-ɾa |nabu-ra |ˈnobu-ɾa |nobu-ra | |old |*gaɾu |gaɾu-ɾa | | |garu-ra |goɾu-ɾa |goru-ra | |wound|*nasuk | |naˈsu-ta [CV]| | | |ˈnosuʔ-a [CV]| |thick|*papuna | | |ˈpapuna-ɾa| |poˈpuna-r̃a | | |egg |*baɾusa | | |ˈbarusa-ɾa|barusa-ra|boˈɾusa-ra [US]|borusə-rə | One example in which Walker and Hesse's South Kamrau forms also change /*a/ to /o/ probably indicates a loan from North Kamrau into South Kamrau: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara |Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***a/_Cu**|**a** |**a** |**o** |**a** |**o** |**o** | |foot/leg|*mawu |maˈβu-ɾa\\ [Gaka]|mawu-ra [CV]|ˈmoβu-ra |mabu-ra |ˈmowu-rə |movu-ra | One word is not affected because it is a compound with /*manam/ "eye" (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau |N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau | | | |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***a/_-Cu**|**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** | |forehead|*manam-pu | | | |mana-pu-ra| |mana-pu-rə| However there are several unexplained exceptions to this rule: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai |Buruwai |S. Kamrau |S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| | | |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | | | |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | | |***a/_Cu**|**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** | |long |*Waɾu | | |gwaɾu-ɾa |gwaru-ra |ˈgwaɾu-ɾa|gwaru-ra | |smoke|*amuni[C] |amuˈni-ɾa | |ˈamonj-a [EK]|amuni-a |ˈamuni-ə |amuni (?)| |fog |*apuki |apuˈki-ra | | | |ˈapuʔiɾa | | |star |*mawuɾ[a] |ˈmaβuɾə-ɾə| |ˈmaβuɾa-ɾa |mawura-ra|ˈmawur̃-a|omawur-ə | |knife|*bakatu | | | |bakatu-ra| |baʔtu-ra | Buruwai has a tendency to lose initial vowels …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|Buruwai |S. Kamrau|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| || |Tairi |Asienara|Yarona |Asienara |Waho |Iria | || |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux |Walker |Anceaux | ||***VCV** |**CV** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ===== Pronouns ===== Kamrau Bay free pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with attestations drawn from Anceaux (n.d.) via Greenberg (n,d.) and Voorhoeve (1975: 369-370, 2007): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Buruwai|S. Kamrau|N. Kamrau| |1 sg. |*noɾ |no-da |no-a |no-a | |2 sg. |*oɾ-or |oro-da |oro-a |oro-a | |3 sg./pl.|*aɾ-aɾ |? |ar-a |ar-a | |1 pl. |*naɾ |na-da |n-a |n-a | |2 pl. |*eɾ-eɾ |? |eri-a |eri-a | We share Voorhoeve's (1975: 370, 448) doubts about the reliability of Anceaux' Iria third persons plurals ( etc.) and follow his suggestion that, as in the closely-related Asmat-Kamoro languages, there was no number distinction in the third person.\\ \\ Anceaux (n.d.) gives possessives for Asienara as follows, showing the possessive suffix to be underlyingly /-ja/. The postposition of alienable possessors, as is also found in Mor (Hammarström 2010: 10-12,) Iha (Flassey and Animung 1992: 68-69) and Kalamang (Visser 2016: 82-83,) reflects the influence of local Austronesian languages, in this instance most likely Kowiai spoken just off the coast in Kamrau bay: |< - 100px 100px >| | |Asienara| |1 sg.|-n-ea | |2 sg.|-w-ea | |3 sg.|-a-ja | |1 pl.|-na-ja | |2 pl.|-ja-ja | ===== Verbal morphology ===== No information about Kamrau Bay verbal morphology is available to us at this time. ===== Loans from neighboring families ===== While the Kamrau Bay languages are currently separated from Kamoro to the east by the Etna Bay languages, several loans make it evident that they were in contact with them in the fairly recent past, long after the breakup of proto-Asmat-Kamrau Bay. Tarya Kamoro attestations are drawn from Drabbe (1953: 96-104): |< - 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Kamoro | |crocodile|*timako |'timakɔ| Visser (1989) discusses the close social interrelationships between Kamrau Bay languages and Irarutu of the Austronesian family. However, only a few loans from Irarutu have been identified. Others seem to come immediately from Kowiai, spoken on an island off the coast to the south. Here Irarutu attestations aredrawn from Voorhoeve (1995) and Koiwai (Kowiai) from Walker (1985.) Some of these are shared also with Etna Bay family as shown.The graphemes <*S G> represent irregular correspondences in which initial /*s/ is unexpectedly retained in South Kamrau and in North Kamrau while medial /*g/ fails to become apical /d/ in Buruwai (above.): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay |Etna Bay|Irarutu |Koiwai|East Maluku| |machete |*beda |? |? |beda |*mbenda | |areca nut |*bueka |? |? |bueʔa |*mbujaq | |straight/long|*doma |? |--- |domaʔ |--- | |river/bore |*dua |? |--- |na-dua|*ɣuab (?) | |grandparent |*… |? |-tatə ~ -data |-tata |*tata | |salt |*siɾa |*sira |--- |sira |*siɣa | |flesh |*sasi |*sasi |--- |ses |--- | |forked branch|*SaGa |--- |saŋgə |saŋ |*saŋa | |fog |*Sawanini[C]|? |--- |sawana|*sawan[a] | |lake/swamp |*Saɾuwe |--- |saro-wɛrə |--- |*waiɣ | |axe |*waɾada |? |waranda "knife"|--- |--- | |rope |*waɾak |--- |wara |waras |*waɣa[dz] | The word for "moon" looks very much like a loan from an Austronesian language, but, in addition to its cognate in Asmat-Kamoro, it is not found in Irarutu and does not participate in changes which characterize Kowiai, so if it is a loan rather than a coincidence it can only have been introduced at a signficantly earlier date than those listed above: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Asmat-Kamoro|Irarutu|Koiwai|CMP | |moon|*bura |*bura |--- |furan |*bulan| One word of Indonesian origin is also shared with Koiwai: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Kamrau Bay|Koiwai|Indonesian| |dirty|*kotoru |kotor |kotor | Walker and Hesse's (1988) vocabulary of South Kamberau of Yarona village includes two Malay color terms, presumably borrowed very recently. Unlike the loans listed above, they are not suffixed with the article /-ra/ [-ra -a] which accompanies most nominals and adjectives (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px >| | |Yarona |Indonesian| |yellow|kuni-kuni |kuniŋ | |green |hidʒau hidʒau|hidʒaᵘ |