====== Timor-Alor-Pantar ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== The Timor-Alor-Pantar family consists of perhaps twenty one languages spoken on the islands Timor, Alor and Pantar of the Lesser Sunda chain in Indonesia's East Nusa Tenggara province and in the independent state of East Timor (q.v. Schapper 2012: 194, 2014: 1, Holton, Klamer, Kratochvíl, Robinson and Schapper 2012: 87.) ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of Timor-Alor-Pantar is as follows:\\ \\ Timor-Alor-Pantar Bunaq East Timor Alor-Pantar\\ \\ Contra Greenberg (1971: 810) and Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven (2012, 2014,) it is not obvious that Bunaq and East Timor form a subgroup against Alor-Pantar. Stokhof (1975: 23-24) presents lexicostatistical figures which show Makasae to be significantly more similar to Alor-Pantar than is Bunaq, with figures ranging from 30-42% between individual Alor-Pantar languages and Makasae against 16-30% with Bunaq. ===== Sources ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ … ===== History of classification ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ … ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar had perhaps 17 consonants and … vowels as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | | | *p | *t | *ts | *k | *kʷ | | *b | *d | *dz | *g | *gʷ | | | | *s | | | | | *l | | | | | *w | *r | *j | | | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | | *u | | [*e] | | [*o] | | | *a | *ɒ | In addition to the simple vowels given above, … found as follows: |< - 60px >| | *aⁱ | …\\ \\ Neither lateral non-stop /*l/ nor rhotic /*r/ occur initially in native words.\\ \\ …\\ \\ Initial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Timor-Alor | Bunaq | East Timor | Alor-Pantar | Schapper | | *m- | m | *m | *m | *m | | *n- | n | *n | *n | *n | | *p- | p | *p | *p | *p | | *t- | t | *t | *t | *t | | *ts- | s | *ts | ? | --- | | *b- | b | *b | | *b | | *d- | t | *d | *d | *d | | *dz- | z | *dz | *d | *d | | *g- | g | *g | *g | *g | | *s- | s | *s | *s | *s | | *w- | | | | | | *j- | z | *j | *j | *d | Medial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Timor-Alor | Bunaq | East Timor | Alor-Pantar | Schapper | | *-m- | m | *m | *m | *m | | *-n- | n | *n | *n | *n | | *-p- | w | *p | *p | *p | | *-t- | z | *t | *t | *t | | *-ts- | ø | *ts | *s | *s | | *-k- | ø | *k | *k | *Q | | *-kʷ- | ? | ? | ? | --- | | *-b- | p | *b | *b | *b | | *-d- | t | *d | *d | *d | | *-dz- | | *dz | *d | *d | | *-g- | g | *g | *g | *g | | *-gʷ- | | | | | | *-s- | ø | *s | *s | *s | | *-w- | | | | | | *-l- | l | *l | *r | *R | | *-r- | l | *r | *r | *r | | *-j- | | | | | Subfinal consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Timor-Alor | Bunaq | East Timor | Alor-Pantar | Schapper | | *-m- | n | *m | *m | *m | | *-n- | n | *n | *n | *n | | *-p- | w | *p | *p | *p | | *-t- | t | *t | *t | *t | | *-ts- | ø | *ts | *s | *s | | *-k- | ? | *k | *k | *Q | | *-kʷ- | ? | ? | ? | --- | | *-b- | p | *b | *b | *b | | *-d- | t | *d | *d | *d | | *-dz- | s | *dz | *d | *d | | *-g- | k | *g | *g | *g | | *-gʷ- | k | | | | | *-s- | ø | *s | *s | *s | | *-w- | | | | | | *-l- | l | *l | *r | *R | | *-r- | l | *r | *r | *r | | *-j- | | | | | Final consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Timor-Alor | Bunaq | East Timor | Alor-Pantar | Schapper | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Timor-Alor | Bunaq | East Timor | Alor-Pantar | Schapper | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | | *… | | | | | These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Bunaq attestations drawn from Bele (2009) and Schapper (2009, Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven's 2012: 234-239, 2014: 32-34, Schapper p.c.) with Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven's (2014) proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar or (2012) proto-Timor (given in brackets) forms presented for comparison.\\ \\ \\ Initial consonants …:\\ \\ Initial biliabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 218-219, 2014: 12): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor |Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***m-** |**m** |***m** |***m** |***m** | |beside |*min[i] | |*mini |*min[i] |--- | |sit |*mit |mit |*mit |*mis |*mit | |go up |*midza | |*midza |*mida |--- | |come |*ma[…] |man/male|*magu |*ma |--- | |neck/throat |*mani | |*mani |*mani |--- | |snake |*manu | | |*manu |--- | |rosewood |*matari |mazoʔ |*… |*… |*matar | |flying fox |*madel | |*mada |*madel |*madel | |hear |*ˈmag[i/e]n|mak |*magen |*mag[i]n |*ma[k/g]e(n) | |voice |*mag[a] | |*mag[a] |*mag[a] |--- | |walk/go |*ˈmara |mal |*mara |*mar[a] |[*mara] | |smell |*mu[n] | |*mu |*mu[n] |--- | |nose |*muni[k] | |*muni[k] |*muni |--- | |earth/ground|*ˈmuga |muk |*muga |*muga |[*muka] | |banana |*ˈmugʷol |mok |*mugu |*mugol |*mugul | Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 219-220, 2014: 12-13): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor |Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***n-** |**n**|***n** |***n** |***n** | |1 pl. bound |*ni- |nV- | |*ni- |--- | |1 sg. bound |*na- |nV- | |*na- |*na- | |name |*naⁱ |-ni |*naⁱ |*naⁱ |[*nei] | |man/male |*nami | |*nami | |--- | |older sibling |*naˈna |nana |*nana |*nana |--- | |stand (sg.) |*nat | |*nat |*nat |*nat(er) | |stand (pl.) |*ˈna[t/s]er|net |*naser |*nater |*nat(er) | |eat/drink |*nawa | |*nawa |*na: |*nVa | |younger sibling|*n[o]k[o] | |*noko | |--- | One example of East Timor initial /*n/ is irregular and unexplained. Outcomparison to both Mbahaam-Iha and South Bird's Head show this root to have descended most immediately from /*kikin/, with initial /*k/ regularly lost in Timor-Alor-Pantar; perhaps the Eest Timor form has been influenced by (e.g.) Tetun /ninik/ (Morris 1984: 154): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***ø-** |**?**|***n** |***ø** |**---** | |mosquito|*ikin | |*nikin |*ikin |--- | Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all three subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***p-** |**p**|***p** |***p** |***p** | |delicious |*pani | |*pani | |--- | |female |*paˈnar |pana |*panar | |*pan(a) | |face |*panu | |*panu |*panu |*panu | |thigh |*patu | |*patu |*patu |--- | |sneeze |*paˈsin |pen |*pasin |*pasin |--- | |skin of fruit|*pasu | |*pasu |*pasu |--- | |spittle |*pulum |puluk|*pulum |*purum |*puRV(n) | Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven (2012: 203-204, 2014: 3-4) give proto-Timor /*f/ rather than /*p/ due to confusion introduced by the acceptance of Austronesian loans (e.g. “mat”, “pig,” “price”) as native words, necessitating a third bilabial correspondence (below.)\\ \\ Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is generally retained as such in three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 204-205, 2014: 4-5): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***t-** |**t** |***t** |***t** |***t** | |drum |*tiˈtir |titil |*titir | |--- | |heavy |*ˈtVgir |tuek ~ -utek|*tigir |*tigVr |--- | |mountain |*t[e]b[e]r| |*teber | |--- | |reciprocal |*ta- |t- |*ta- |*ta- |[*ta] | |hand/arm |*ˈtana |ton |*tana |*tan[a] |*-tan(a) | |pound |*tapa |tau |*tapa |*tapa |*tapa(i) | |true/correct |*taˈbir |tepel |*tabir |*tabi |--- | |count |*ˈtaga |tak |*taga |*taga |--- | |coconut shell|*tawu | |*t[owo] |*tawu |--- | |woman |*tubur | |*tubur | |--- | When followed by high front vowel /*i/ in multisyllabic roots, initial /*t/ is patatalized and fricated to /tʃ/ [tʃ s] in Bunaq (Schapper 2009: 44, Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 204-205, 2014: 4-5): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***t-/_i**|**tʃ [tʃ s]**|***t** |***t** |***t** | |run|*tiˈpar |tʃiwal |*tipar | |*tipar | Initial laminal voiceless affricate /*ts/ is uncommon. It is merged with fricative /s/ in Bunaq; its reflex in Alor-Pantar is unknown: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***ts-** |**s**|***ts** |**?** |**---** | |cut/carve |*tsets[e] |se |*tsets[e] | |--- | |withered/dry|*tsatsak |saʔ |*tsatsak | |[*sasar] | Rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ is not found initially, West Bomberai initial /*kʷ/ having been merged with /*w/ (below.)\\ \\ Initial bilabial voiced stops /*b *d *dz *g/, while common in both proto-East Timor and proto-Alor-Pantar, cannot in most instances be traced back to proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar. This is because original prenasalized stops /*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg/, from which Timor-Alor-Pantar's voiced stops derive, were merged with their voiceless counterparts in proto-West Bomberai in initial but not medial position.\\ \\ Initial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ and its variants, East Timor /*b/ and Alor-Pantar /*b *ɓ/, have been found primarily in loans from Austronesian languages (q.v. Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 203-204, 2014: 3-4.) While absent from proto-West Bomberai, it is far and away the most common initial consonant in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (Blust n.d.) resulting in a relatively large number of borrowed terms with initial /*b./ (below.) There is one example of initial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ which might not be a loan: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***b-** |**b**|***b** |**** |***b** | |wind|*ˈbari |bel |*bari | |[*beri] | Initial apical voiced stop /*d/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***d-** |**t**|***d** |***d** |***d** | |Eucalyptus sp.|*da[ga]ran|tal |*dara |*dagar |[*daraʔ] | Initial laminal voiced /*dz /is uncommon. It is realized as /z/ [z ʒ dʒ] in Bunaq and merged with apical voiced stop /*d/ in Alor-Pantar: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***dz-** |**z [z ʒ dʒ]**|***dz** |***d** |***d** | |fry |*ˈdzigar |ziek | |*digar |--- | |rat/mouse|*ˈdzur[a] |zul |*dzura |*dur |*dur(a) | Initial velar voiced stop /*g/ is found in native terms only in the base of the third person pronouns (Schapper, Huber and Engelenhoven 2012: 212-214, 2014: 7): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***g-** |**g**|***g** |***g** |***g** | |3 sg.|*ga |g- | |*ga |*g(a,i) | |3 pl.|*gi |g- |*gi |*gi |*g(a,i) | The reason for this limited distribution is that initial velars /*k *ŋg/ were merged to /*k/ in proto-West Bomberai, which was then dropped in proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar. In this instance, a demonstrative form /*VŋgV/ dropped its initial vowel following the merger of initial velars and /*g/ is thus retained as such, remaining as /*g/ in proto-East Timor rather than being deoccluded to glottal stop [*ʔ] as is medial /*g/ (below.)\\ \\ Rounded velar voiced stop /*gʷ/ is not found initially.\\ \\ Initial laminal voiceless fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2014: 7-8): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***s-** |**s**|***s** |***s** |***s** | |shark |*… | |*… |*… |*sibar | |snake |*sVbVl | |*saba |*… |--- | |plait/weave|*ˈsina |sien |*sina |*sina |*sine(N) | Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***w-/_i**|**** |**** |**** |**** | |carry/fetch|*ˈwita |wit | |*wita |--- | When followed by low central vowel /*a/ or diphthong /*aⁱ/ (below,) initial /*w/ is dropped in Bunaq. Unlike Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven, we assume both Bunaq's change of /*a/ to /o/ and prosthesis of initial /h/ to be secondary rather than directly reflecting /*w/ (q.v. 2012: 215-216, 2014: 9): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor |Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***w-/_aⁱ**|**ø [h]** |***w** |***w** |***w** | |blood |*waⁱ[s] |ho |*waⁱ[s] |*waⁱ |*waj | | |***w-/_a** |**ø [h ø]**|***w** |***w** |***w** | |coconut |*waˈta |hoza |*wata |*wata |*wata | |sun |*ˈwadu |hot |*wadu |*wadu |*wad(i,u) | |child |*waˈkal |-ol | |*wakal |*-uaQal | |bean |*wasa |ho |*wasa | |[*wa] | |now/today|*wag[a]dzi | |*wagadzi | |--- | |ear |*ˈwali[k] |hol |*wali[k] |*wari |*-waRi | |stone |*war |hol |*war |*w[o]r |*war | |nest |*ˈwari |-el |*wari |*wari |--- | |paddle |*waj[a]n | |*wajin |*wajan |--- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***w-/…** |**w**|***w** |***w** |***w** | |tooth|*ˈwasin |-we |*wasin |*wasin |*-wasin | One example …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| ||***w-/_o**|**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | Initial lateral non-stop /*l/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| ||***l-** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | Rhotic non-stop /*r/ does not occur initially (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2014: 9-10.)\\ \\ Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor |Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***j-** |**z**|**** |***j** |***d** | |dog|*ˈj[a]bar |zap |*[dz/j]ebar|*jabar |*dibar | … /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***jV-** |**hi**|**i** |***ja** |***je *ja** | |path |*ˈ[ja]gal |hik |*iga[r] |*jagal |*jega | |laugh|*[ja]ˈgar |higal |*[i]gar |*jagar |*jagir | Any consonant can occur medially.\\ \\ Medial biliabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 218-219, 2014: 12): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-m-** |**m**|***m** |***m** |***m** | |die |*[i]m[u] |-ume |*umu |*imu[n] |*mV(n) | |breast |*ami |-omoʔ|*ami |*ami |*hami | |louse |*amin | |*amin |*amin |--- | |wing |*ami[r] | |*amir | |--- | |body |*amu | |*amu |*amu |--- | |man/male|*nami | |*nami | |--- | Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 219-220, 2014: 12-13): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-n-** |**n**|***n** |***n** |***n** | |do/make |*[i]ˈni |-ini |*-ini | |[*-inV] | |eye |*ina | |*ina |*ina |--- | |give |*[i/e]na |-ini |*ina |*ena |*-(e, i)na | |see |*ena | |*ena |*ena |--- | |person |*ˈanin |en | |*anin |--- | |one |*uˈkani |uen |*ukani | |--- | |beside |*min[i] | |*mini |*min[i] |--- | |neck/throat |*mani | |*mani |*mani |--- | |snake |*manu | | |*manu |--- | |nose |*muni[k] | |*muni[k] |*muni |--- | |delicious |*pani | |*pani | |--- | |female |*paˈnar |pana |*panar | |*pan(a) | |face |*panu | |*panu |*panu |*panu | |older sibling|*naˈna |nana |*nana |*nana |--- | |hand/arm |*ˈtana |ton |*tana |*tan[a] |*-tan(a) | Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is deoccluded to bilabial non-stop /w/ [w u] in Bunaq: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-p-** |**w [w u]**|***p** |***p** |***p** | |worm/grub|*ˈipi |iu |*ipi |*ipi |--- | |go down |*ipa | |*ipa |*ipa |--- | |dream |*[u]p[a]r | |*upar |*VpVr |*ipar | |run |*tiˈpar |tʃiwal |*tipar | |*tipar | |pound |*ˈtapa |tau |*tapa |*tapa |*tapa(i) | In one example … /*p/ has become zero in Bunaq: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-p-** |**ø**|***p** |***p** |***p** | |1 pl. incl.|*… | |*… |*… |*… | Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-t-** |**z** |***t** |***t** |***t** | |three |*itug | |*itu[g] |*itug |--- | |tree |*at[eⁱ] | |*ate |*at[eⁱ] |*hate | |excrement|*aˈtu |ozoʔ ~ ozo|*atu |*atu |*(h)at(V) | |rosewood |*matari |mazoʔ |*… |*… |*matar | |thigh |*patu | |*patu |*patu |--- | |coconut |*waˈta |hoza |*wata |*wata |*wata | … /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| ||***-t-** |**t**|***t** |***t** |***t** | ||*… | | | | | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-t-** |**t**|***t** |**** |**---** | |drum|*tiˈtir |titil|*titir | |--- | Medial laminal voiceless fricative /*s/ is lost in Bunaq, as it is in Oirata of the East Timor subgroup: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-s-** |**ø**|***s** |***s** |***s** | |fruit/seed |*is[u] | |*isu |*isV |--- | |sneeze |*paˈsin |pen |*pasin |*pasin |--- | |skin of fruit|*pasu | |*pasu |*pasu |--- | |tooth |*ˈwasin |-we |*wasin |*wasin |*-wasin | |bean |*wasa |ho |*wasa | |[*wa] | Medial laminal voiceless affricate /*ts/ is lost in Bunaq and merged with fricative /*s/ in Alor-Pantar: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-ts-** |**ø**|***ts** |***s** |**[*s]** | |bite |*itsa[k] | |*itsa[k] |*isa |--- | |go down |*itsa[r] | |*itsa |*isa[r] |--- | |prawn |*atsi |o |*atsi |*asi |--- | |leaf |*atsa[p] | |*atsa[p] |*asa |[*asa] | |withered/dry|*tsatsak |saʔ |*tsatsak | |[*sasar] | Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is uncommon, but its quality is confirmed by outcomparison to Mbahaam-Iha. It is lost in Bunaq: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-k-** |**ø**|***k** |***k** |***Q** | |mosquito |*ikin | |*nikin |*ikin |--- | |one |*uˈkani |uen |*ukani | |--- | |younger sibling|*n[o]k[o] | |*noko | |--- | |child |*waˈkal |-ol | |*wakal |*-uaQal | Medial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| ||***-kʷ-** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | Medial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is devoiced to /p/ in Bunaq. This fact, along with confusion introduced by Austronesian loans (below,) leads Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven to wrongly interpret Timor /*b/ as /*p/, although the problem is fixed at the proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar level (2012: 203-204, 2014: 3-4): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor |Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-b-** |**p**|***b** |***b** |***b** | |star |*ibi | |*ibi |*ibi |*jibV | |fish |*abuⁱ | |*abi |*abuⁱ |*abi | |sugarcane |*ˈuba |up |*uba |*uba |*ub(a) | |fly (n.) |*ubur | |*ubur |*ubur |--- | |tongue |*ˈ… |-up |*ibul |*lebur |*-lebuR | |rock |*ˈaba |op |*aba | |[*apa] | |not |*… | |*ube |*… |--- | |mountain |*t[e]b[e]r| |*teber | |--- | |true/correct|*taˈbir |tepel|*tabir |*tabi |--- | |woman |*tubur | |*tubur | |--- | |new |*… | |*subar |*… |*(t,s)iba(r) | |shark |*… | |*… |*… |*sibar | |snake |*sVbVl | |*saba |*… |--- | |dog |*ˈj[a]bar |zap |*[dz/j]ebar|*jabar |*dibar | Medial apical voiced stop /*d/ is devoiced to /t/ in Bunaq. Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven wrongly interpret Timor /*d/ as /*T/, although the problem is fixed at the proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar level (2012: 204-209, 2014: 4-6): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-d-** |**t**|***d** |***d** |***d** | |dust/ashes|*adur | |*adur |*adur |--- | |flying fox|*madel | |*mada |*madel |*madel | |fire |*aˈda |hoto |*ada |*ada |*ada | In one example …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-d-** |**r**|***d** |**** |**** | |foot/leg|*iˈdi |-iri |*idi | |--- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-d-** |**t**|***d** |***d** |***d** | |egg|*ˈudu |-ut |*udu | |[*uTa] | |sun|*ˈwadu |hot |*wadu |*wadu |*wad(i,u) | Medial laminal voiced affricate /*dz/ is devoiced to fricative /s/ in Bunaq and merged with the reflexes of voiced apical stop /*d/ in Alor-Pantar: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-dz-** |**s**|***dz** |***d** |***d** | |chest/heart|*idza[r] | |*idza |*idar |--- | |wrap/cover |*ˈedze |es |*edze | |--- | |bird |*ˈadz[o]l |hos |*adza |*adol |*(h)adul | |wax |*udzu | |*udzu |*udu |[*wiDu(n)] | |go up |*midza | |*midza |*mida |--- | |now/today |*wag[a]dzi| |*wagadzi | |--- | One example of Alor-Pantar /*d/ corresponds irregularly to East Timor voiceless /*ts/ (above) rather than to /*dz/. However these are distinguished in East Timor only by Fataluku /s/ where /c/ is expected, so this example might be explained as a loan immediately from neighboring Makasae or Makalero /isa/, perhaps replacing a native /ica/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor |Bunaq|East Timor |Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-[dz]-**|**?**|***ts (?)**|***d** |**---** | |roast/grill|*i[dz]a[r] | |*itsa (?) |*ida[r] |--- | Medial velar voiced stop /*g/ is realized as glottal stop [*ʔ] in East Timor. Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven at first interpreted Timor /*g/ as /*k/ but have since revised this value to /*g/ (2012: 211-212, 2014: 6-7): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor |Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-g-** |**g**|***g [ʔ]** |***g** |***g *k** | |bite |*aˈg[i/e]l|-agil|*-agel | |*(k)il | |mouth |*aˈga[r] |-agar|*[a/o]g[a/o]|*ag[a] |[*aka(r)] | |raw/green|*uˈg[a]r |ugar |*ugur | |[*ugar] | |laugh |*jVˈgar |higal|*[i]gar |*jagar |*jagir | … devoiced to yield final /k/ in Bunaq: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor |Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-g-** |**k** |***g [ʔ]**|***g** |***g** | |hear |*ˈmag[i/e]n|mak |*magen |*mag[i]n |*ma[k/g]e(n) | |voice |*mag[a] | |*mag[a] |*mag[a] |--- | |earth/ground|*ˈmuga |muk |*muga |*muga |[*muka] | |count |*ˈtaga |tak |*taga |*taga |--- | |heavy |*ˈtVgir |tuek ~ -utek|*tigir |*tigVr |--- | |fry |*ˈdzigar |ziek | |*digar |--- | |now/today |*wag[a]dzi | |*wagadzi | |--- | Medial rounded velar voiced stop /*gʷ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-gʷ-** |**k**|***g** |***g** |***g** | |banana|*ˈmugʷol |mok |*mugu |*mugol |*mugul | Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-w-** |**** |***w** |***ø** |***ø** | |eat/drink|*nawa | |*nawa |*na: |*nVa | Medial lateral non-stop/*l/ is merged with the reflex of rhotic /*r/ in Alor-Pantar: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-l-** |**l**|***l** |***r** |***R** | |bitter |*ˈmalar |mal |*malar | |--- | |spittle|*pulum |puluk|*pulum |*purum |*puRV(n) | |ear |*ˈwali[k] |hol |*wali[k] |*wari |*-waRi | |tail |*w[o]ˈla |-uloʔ|*ula |*ora |*oRa | Medial rhotic non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in East Timor and Alor-Pantar and merged with the reflexes of lateral /l/ in Bunaq: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-r-** |**l**|***r** |***r** |***r** | |water |*ˈira |il |*ira |*ira |*jira | |vagina |*aru | |*aru |*aru |*-ar(u) | |walk/go|*ˈmara |mal |*mara |*mar[a] |[*mara] | |wind |*ˈbari |bel |*bari | |[*beri] | |nest |*ˈwari |-el |*wari |*wari |--- | |urine |*[j]iri | |*iri |*[j]iri | | Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-j-** |**** |***j** |***j** |**** | |rain |*aja | |*aja |*aja |--- | |paddle|*waj[a]n | |*wajin |*wajan |--- | Final consonants …\\ \\ Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-m** |**** |***m** |***m** |***(n)** | |spittle|*pulum |puluk|*pulum |*purum |*puRV(n) | Final apical nasal /*n/ is lost in Bunaq along with the vowel that precedes it: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor |Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-n** |**ø**|***n** |***n** |***n** | |mosquito|*ikin | |*nikin |*ikin |--- | |louse |*amin | |*amin |*amin |--- | |hear |*ˈmag[i/e]n|mak |*magen |*mag[i]n |*ma[k/g]e(n) | |sneeze |*paˈsin |pen |*pasin |*pasin |--- | |tooth |*ˈwasin |-we |*wasin |*wasin |*-wasin | |paddle |*waj[a]n | |*wajin |*wajan |--- | Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-t** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |stand (sg.)|*nat | |*nat |*nat |*nat(er) | One example of final /*t/ when preceded by high front vowel /*i/ is reflected as /*s/ in Alor-Pantar: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-t/i_**|**t**|***t** |***s** |***t** | |sit|*mit |mit |*mit |*mis |*mit | The same change is found in the following loan from local Austronesian languages, which has lost its final vowel in Alor-Pantar: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |… |Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-t-/i_**|**?**|***t** |***s** |***(s,t)** | |mat|[*biti] | |*b₂iti |*bis |*bi(s,t) | Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| ||***-k** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | Final apical non-stop /*l/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-l** |**l**|***l** |**** |***l** | |bite|*aˈg[i/e]l|-agil|*-agel | |*(k)il | … /*l/ … dropped in East Timor: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-l** |**ø**|***ø** |***l** |***l** | |bird |*ˈadz[o]l |hos |*adza |*adol |*(h)adul | |flying fox|*madel | |*mada |*madel |*madel | |banana |*ˈmugʷol |mok |*mugu |*mugol |*mugul | |snake |*sVbVl | |*saba |*… |--- | |path |*ˈ[ja]gal |hik |*iga[r] |*jagal |*jega | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-l** |**l**|**** |***l** |***l** | |child|*waˈkal |-ol | |*wakal |*-uaQal | Final rhotic non-stop /*r/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-r** |**l** |***r** |***r** |***r** | |fly (n.) |*ubur | |*ubur |*ubur |--- | |run |*tiˈpar |tʃiwal|*tipar | |*tipar | |mountain |*t[e]b[e]r| |*teber | |--- | |true/correct|*taˈbir |tepel |*tabir |*tabi |--- | |woman |*tubur | |*tubur | |--- | |shark |*… | |*… |*… |*sibar | |rat/mouse |*ˈdzur[a] |zul |*dzura |*dur |*dur(a) | |stone |*war |hol |*war |*w[o]r |*war | |laugh |*[ja]ˈgar |higal |*[i]gar |*jagar |*jagir | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-r** |**r**|***r** |**** |***r** | |raw/green|*uˈg[a]r |ugar |*ugur | |[*ugar] | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-r** |**ø**|***r** |***ø** |***ø** | |female|*paˈnar |pana |*panar | |*pan(a) | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***-r** |**** |***r** |**** |**** | |drum |*tiˈtir |titil |*titir | |--- | |heavy|*ˈtVgir |tuek ~ -utek|*tigir |*tigVr |--- | |woman|*tubur | |*tubur | |--- | Bunaq /h/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***V-** |**hV**|***V** |***V** |**** | |fire |*aˈda |hoto |*ada |*ada |*ada | |bird |*ˈadz[o]l |hos |*adza |*adol |*(h)adul | |blood |*waⁱ[s] |ho |*waⁱ[s] |*waⁱ |*waj | |coconut|*waˈta |hoza |*wata |*wata |*wata | |sun |*ˈwadu |hot |*wadu |*wadi |*wad(i,u) | |bean |*wasa |ho |*wasa | |[*wa] | |ear |*ˈwali[k] |hol |*wali[k] |*wari |*-waRi | |stone |*war |hol |*war |*w[o]r |*war | |path |*ˈ[ja]gal |hik |*iga[r] |*jagal |*jega | |laugh |*[ja]ˈgar |higal |*[i]gar |*jagar |*jagir | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| ||***V-** |**V**|***V** |***V** |**** | Bunaq loses final vowels … (q.v. Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 221) … stress …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor |Bunaq |East Timor |Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***ˈVCV** |**VC** |***VCV** |**** |**** | |worm/grub |*ˈipi |iu |*ipi |*ipi |--- | |water |*ˈira |il |*ira |*ira |*jira | |wrap/cover |*ˈedze |es |*edze | |--- | |rock |*ˈaba |op |*aba | |[*apa] | |person |*ˈanin |en | |*anin |--- | |sugarcane |*ˈuba |up |*uba |*uba |*ub(a) | |egg |*ˈudu |-ut |*udu | |[*uTa] | |walk/go |*ˈmara |mal |*mara |*mar[a] |[*mara] | |earth/ground|*ˈmuga |muk |*muga |*muga |[*muka] | |wind |*ˈbari |bel |*bari | |[*beri] | |pound |*ˈtapa |tau |*tapa |*tapa |*tapa(i) | |hand/arm |*ˈtana |ton |*tana |*tan[a] |*-tan(a) | |count |*ˈtaga |tak |*taga |*taga |--- | |plait/weave |*ˈsina |sien |*sina |*sina |*sine(N) | |rat/mouse |*ˈdzur[a] |zul |*dzura |*dur |*dur(a) | |carry/fetch |*ˈwita |wit | |*wita |--- | |sun |*ˈwadu |hot |*wadu |*wadi |*wad(i,u) | |one |*uˈkani |uen |*ukani | |--- | | |***ˈVC₁VC₂**|**VC₁** |**** |**** |**** | |bird |*ˈadz[o]l |hos |*adza |*adol |*(h)adul | |hear |*ˈmag[i/e]n |mak |*magen |*mag[i]n |*ma[k/g]e(n) | |bitter |*ˈmalar |mal |*malar | |--- | |banana |*ˈmugʷol |mok |*mugu |*mugol |*mugul | |stand (pl.) |*ˈna[t/s]er |net |*naser |*nater |*nat(er) | |heavy |*ˈtVgir |tuek ~ -utek|*tigir |*tigVr |--- | |fry |*ˈdzigar |ziek | |*digar |--- | |ear |*ˈwali[k] |hol |*wali[k] |*wari |*-waRi | |tooth |*ˈwasin |-we |*wasin |*wasin |*-wasin | |dog |*ˈj[a]bar |zap |*[dz/j]ebar|*jabar |*dibar | |path |*ˈ[ja]gal |hik |*iga[r] |*jagal |*jega | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor |Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***VˈCV** |**VCV** |***VCV** |**** |**** | |do/make |*[i]ˈni |-ini |*-ini | |[*-inV] | |foot/leg |*iˈdi |-iri |*idi | |--- | |excrement |*aˈtu |ozoʔ ~ ozo|*atu |*atu |*(h)at(V) | |fire |*aˈda |hoto |*ada |*ada |*ada | |older sibling|*naˈna |nana |*nana |*nana |--- | |coconut |*waˈta |hoza |*wata |*wata |*wata | |tail |*w[o]ˈla |-uloʔ |*ula |*ora |*oRa | | |***VˈC₁VC₂**|**VC₁VC₂**|***VCVC** |**** |**** | |bite |*aˈg[i/e]l |-agil |*-agel | |*(k)il | |raw/green |*uˈg[a]r |ugar |*ugur | |[*ugar] | |female |*paˈnar |pana |*panar | |*pan(a) | |sneeze |*paˈsin |pen |*pasin |*pasin |--- | |run |*tiˈpar |tʃiwal |*tipar | |*tipar | |drum |*tiˈtir |titil |*titir | |--- | |true/correct |*taˈbir |tepel |*tabir |*tabi |--- | |child |*waˈkal |-ol | |*wakal |*-uaQal | |laugh |*[ja]ˈgar |higal |*[i]gar |*jagar |*jagir | Vowels and diphthongs ….\\ \\ High front vowel /*i/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***i** |**** |***i** |***i** |**** | |1 pl. bound|*ni- |nV- | |*ni- |--- | |3 pl. |*gi |g- |*gi |*gi |*g(a,i) | |sit |*mit |mit |*mit |*mis |*mit | |worm/grub |*ˈipi |iu |*ipi |*ipi |--- | |star |*ibi | |*ibi |*ibi |*jibV | |do/make |*[i]ˈni |-ini |*-ini | |[*-inV] | |foot/leg |*iˈdi |-iri |*idi | |--- | |beside |*min[i] | |*mini |*min[i] |--- | |mosquito |*ikin | |*nikin |*ikin |--- | |drum |*tiˈtir |titil |*titir | |--- | |fruit/seed |*is[u] | |*isu |*isV |--- | |three |*itug | |*itu[g] |*itug |--- | |water |*ˈira |il |*ira |*ira |*jira | |go up |*midza | |*midza |*mida |--- | |plait/weave|*ˈsina |sien |*sina |*sina |*sine(N) | |carry/fetch|*ˈwita |wit | |*wita |--- | |run |*tiˈpar |tʃiwal|*tipar | |*tipar | |neck/throat|*mani | |*mani |*mani |--- | |man/male |*nami | |*nami | |--- | |louse |*amin | |*amin |*amin |--- | |wing |*ami[r] | |*amir | |--- | High back rounded vowel /*u/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***u** |**u**|***u** |***u** |***u** | |egg |*ˈudu |-ut |*udu | |[*uTa] | |wax |*udzu | |*udzu |*udu |[*wiDu(n)] | |fly (n.) |*ubur | |*ubur |*ubur |--- | |spittle |*pulum |puluk|*pulum |*purum |*puRV(n) | |woman |*tubur | |*tubur | |--- | |sugarcane |*ˈuba |up |*uba |*uba |*ub(a) | |earth/ground|*ˈmuga |muk |*muga |*muga |[*muka] | |raw/green |*uˈg[a]r |ugar |*ugur | |[*ugar] | |rat/mouse |*ˈdzur[a] |zul |*dzura |*dur |*dur(a) | |one |*uˈkani |uen |*ukani | |--- | |three |*itug | |*itu[g] |*itug |--- | |snake |*manu | | |*manu |--- | |face |*panu | |*panu |*panu |*panu | |thigh |*patu | |*patu |*patu |--- | |peel/skin |*pasu | |*pasu |*pasu |--- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***u/_Co**|**o**|***u** |***u** |***u** | |banana|*ˈmugʷol |mok |*mugu |*mugol |*mugul | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***u/aC_**|**o** |***u** |***u** |**** | |excrement|*aˈtu |ozoʔ ~ ozo|*atu |*atu |*(h)at(V) | Mid front vowel /*e/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***e** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |wrap/cover|*ˈedze |es |*edze | |--- | |cut/carve |*tsets[e] |se |*tsets[e] | |--- | |mountain |*t[e]b[e]r| |*teber | |--- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***e/aC_**|**** |***e** |***e** |***e** | | |***e/aC_**|**e**|***a** |***e** |***e** | |flying fox|*madel | |*mada |*madel |*madel | Mid back rouded vowel /*o/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***o** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |bird|*ˈadz[o]l |hos |*adza |*adol |*(h)adul | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***o/gʷ_**|**---**|***u** |***o** |***u** | |banana|*ˈmugʷol |mok |*mugu |*mugol |*mugul | Low central vowel /*a/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor |Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***a** |**** |***a** |***a** |**** | |1 sg. bound |*na- |nV- | |*na- |*na- | |3 sg. |*ga |g- | |*ga |*g(a,i) | |stand (sg.) |*nat | |*nat |*nat |*nat(er) | |rain |*aja | |*aja |*aja |--- | |walk/go |*ˈmara |mal |*mara |*mar[a] |[*mara] | |older sibling|*naˈna |nana |*nana |*nana |--- | |eat/drink |*nawa | |*nawa |*na: |*nVa | |pound |*tapa |tau |*tapa |*tapa |*tapa(i) | |count |*ˈtaga |tak |*taga |*taga |--- | |bitter |*ˈmalar |mal |*malar | |--- | |female |*paˈnar |pana |*panar | |*pan(a) | |snake |*sVbVl | |*saba |*… |--- | |paddle |*waj[a]n | |*wajin |*wajan |--- | |neck/throat |*mani | |*mani |*mani |--- | |man/male |*nami | |*nami | |--- | |louse |*amin | |*amin |*amin |--- | |wing |*ami[r] | |*amir | |--- | |snake |*manu | | |*manu |--- | |face |*panu | |*panu |*panu |*panu | |thigh |*patu | |*patu |*patu |--- | |peel/skin |*pasu | |*pasu |*pasu |--- | |hear |*ˈmag[i/e]n|mak |*magen |*mag[i]n |*ma[k/g]e(n) | |tree |*at[eⁱ] | |*ate |*at[eⁱ] |*hate | |flying fox |*madel | |*mada |*madel |*madel | |go up |*midza | |*midza |*mida |--- | |run |*tiˈpar |tʃiwal|*tipar | |*tipar | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***a/_Ci**|**e**|***a** |***a** |***e** | |wind |*ˈbari |bel |*bari | |[*beri] | |nest |*ˈwari |-el |*wari |*wari |--- | |person |*ˈanin |en | |*anin |--- | |true/correct|*taˈbir |tepel|*tabir |*tabi |--- | |one |*uˈkani |uen |*ukani | |--- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***asi** |**e**|***asi** |***asi** |***asi** | |tooth |*ˈwasin |-we |*wasin |*wasin |*-wasin | |sneeze|*paˈsin |pen |*pasin |*pasin |--- | … loans from … likewise affected: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***atsi** |**e**|***atsi** |***asi** |**---** | |salt|*qatsiRa |e |*gatsir |*asir |--- | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor |Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***a/_Ce** |**e**|***a** |***a** |***a** | |stand (pl.)|*ˈna[t/s]er|net |*naser |*nater |*nat(er) | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***ˈiCa** |**ie**|***iCa** |***iCa** |***iCe** | |plait/weave|*ˈsina |sien |*sina |*sina |*sine(N) | |fry |*ˈdzigar |ziek | |*digar |--- | … Low back rounded /*ɒ/ … /o/ in Bunaq …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq |East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***ɒ** |**o** |***a** |***a** |***a** | |stone |*war |hol |*war |*w[o]r |*war | |rock |*ˈaba |op |*aba | |[*apa] | |fire |*aˈda |hoto |*ada |*ada |*ada | |hand/arm |*ˈtana |ton |*tana |*tan[a] |*-tan(a) | |coconut |*waˈta |hoza |*wata |*wata |*wata | |bean |*wasa |ho |*wasa | |[*wa] | |child |*waˈkal |-ol | |*wakal |*-uaQal | |breast |*ami |-omoʔ |*ami |*ami |*hami | |prawn |*atsi |o |*atsi |*asi |--- | |excrement|*aˈtu |ozoʔ ~ ozo|*atu |*atu |*(h)at(V) | |sun |*ˈwadu |hot |*wadu |*wadi |*wad(i,u) | |bird |*ˈadz[o]l |hos |*adza |*adol |*(h)adul | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***ɒtsi** |**o**|***atsi** |***asi** |**---** | |prawn|*atsi |o |*atsi |*asi |--- | … diphthong /*uⁱ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***uⁱ** |**** |***i** |***uⁱ** |***i** | |fish|*abuⁱ | |*abi |*abuⁱ |*abi | … diphthong /*aⁱ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***aⁱ** |**** |***aⁱ** |***aⁱ** |***ei** | |name|*naⁱ |-ni |*naⁱ |*naⁱ |[*nei] | … /*ɒⁱ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| | |***ɒⁱ** |**o**|***aⁱ** |***aⁱ** |***aj** | |blood|*waⁱ[s] |ho |*waⁱ[s] |*waⁱ |*waj | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| ||***…** |**** |**** |**** |**** | ||*… | | | | | ===== Pronouns ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ … free …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar| |1 sg. |*an |--- |*an |*na | |2 sg. |*a |--- |*a |*a | |3 sg. |*ga |--- | |*ga | |1 pl. excl.|*in |--- |*in |*ni | |1 pl. incl.|*ap |--- |*ap |*pi | |2 pl. |*i |--- |*i |*i | |3 pl. |*gi |--- |*gi |*gi | … inalienable possessor and verbal undergoer …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar| |1 sg. |*na- |n- |--- |*na- | |2 sg. |*a- |ø- |--- |*a- | |3 sg. |*ga- |g- |*g- |*ga- | |reciprocal |*ta- |t- |--- |*ta- | |1 pl. excl.|*ni- | |--- |*ni- | |1 pl. incl.|*… | |--- |*pi- | |2 pl. |*i- | |--- |*i- | |3 pl. |*gi- | | |*gi- | … alienable possessor, locative and ergative …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar| |1 sg. |*na-i |ne- | |*na-i | |2 sg. |*a-i |e- | |*a-i | |3 sg. |*ga-i |--- | |*ga-i | |reciprocal |*ta-i |--- | |*ta-i | |1 pl. excl.|*ni-i | | |*ni-i | |1 pl. incl.|*… | | |*pi-i | |2 pl. |*i-i | | |*i-i | |3 pl. |*gi-i | | |*gi-i | … dative …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Timor-Alor|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar| |1 sg. |*na-u |no |--- |*na-u | |2 sg. |*a-u |o |--- |*a-u | |3 sg. |*ga-u |go |--- |*ga-u | |reciprocal |*ta-u |to |--- |*ta-u | |1 pl. excl.|*ni-u | |--- |*ni-u | |1 pl. incl.|*… | |--- |*pi-u | |2 pl. |*i-u | |--- |*i-u | |3 pl. |*gi-u | |--- |*gi-u | … ===== Verbal morphology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ …\\ ===== Loans from Austronesian languages ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ … with proto-Malayo-Polynesian forms drawn from Blust (n.d.) excepting those given in brackets which are local terms not found in his dataset (q.v. Capell 1944: 330-337.) As all three subgroups have a copious number of such loans, only those which appear in several or which are found also in mainland West Bomberai languages are presented here. Because the time depth and immediate sources of these loans differs, their phonological correspondences to proto-Malayo-Polynesian forms aren't always regular; correlating these differences to distinct borrowing events is a worthy topic for future investigation: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |PMP |Bunaq |East Timor |Alor-Pantar |Schapper et al.| |father |*aba | |*ba |*ba |--- | |fat/oil |*miɲak |minaʔ |*mina | |--- | |tide |*ma-qəti |meti |*meti | |--- | |saltwater |*ma-qasin|mo |*magat | |*tam(a) | |loincloth |*malaw | |*mal | |--- | |betel pepper |*… |molo |*malus | |--- | |citrus sp. |*muntaj |mura | |*mudi |--- | |seven |*pitu |hitu |*pitu | |--- | |sandbank |*pasiʁ | | |*ɓasi[r] |--- | |boil (n.) |*bisul |pisul |*wisil | |--- | |hull(ed) rice|*bəʁas |pos | | |--- | |price |*bəli |bol |*b₂ura |*bol |*boL | |price |*bəli | | |*ɓeli |--- | |pig |*babuj | |*b₂aji |*baⁱ |*baj | |trunk/body |*bataŋ | |*b₂ata |*ɓataŋ |--- | |candle |*… |barut |*b₂adu | |--- | |enclosure |*bala | |*bala |*bala; *ɓa: |--- | |widow |*balu |paluk |*b₂a[l/r]u | |--- | |pigeon sp. |*baluɡʲ | |*walur |*walur |--- | |flower |*buŋa |buk | |*[b/ɓ]uŋga |--- | |mountain |*bukigʲ | |*b₂ugu |*[b/ɓ]uku |*buku | |joint |*buku |-uk | |*ɓuk[u] |--- | |crocodile |*buqaja | | |*bagajV |--- | |moon |*bulan |hul |*uru |*ura |*hur(u) | |goat |*… |pip |*b₂ib₂i | |--- | |mat |*… |pil |*b₂iti |*bis |*bi(s,t) | |bamboo sp. |*bətuŋ |betun |*b₂etun |*petun |--- | |areca nut |*buaq |pu |*b₂u[e/a] |*buⁱ |--- | |cat |*… |busa |*b₂u[s]a | |--- | |coconut |*niuʁ |nu | | |--- | |east wind |*timuʁ | | |*sim[o/u]r |--- | |drum sp. |*… | |*tib₂al |*tiba[:] |--- | |collapse |*… |topol | |*taɓ[e/a]l |--- | |year |*taqun |to | |*tun\\ [*tahun]|--- | |rope |*talih | |*taru |*tarV |--- | |palm wine |*… | |*tua |*tuak |--- | |wall |*diŋdiŋ |sirin |*sidin | |--- | |hearth |*dapuʁ | |*lapur\\ *dap₂ur|*dapur |--- | |high caste |*… |rato ~ dato|*ratu | |--- | |nine |*siwa |siwe |*tsiwa | |--- | |seek |*… |sagal |*sag₂a | |[*saga] | |citrus sp. |*… |sabul |*tsab₂uraka | |--- | |spoon/ladle |*sudu |sulu |*sulu |*sudu |*suRa | |bird sp. |*… |koak |*… | |*kaukoa | |cuscus |*kandoʁa |zulo (?) |*adur | |*(a)Dura | |older sibling|[*kaka] |kaʔa |*kaka |*kaka |--- | |skin |*kulit | | |*kuli[t] |--- | |sugar |*… | |*g₂ula |*gula |--- | |lime |*qapuʁ |hau |*a[g]ur |*awur |--- | |salt |*qasiʁa |e |*gatsir |*asir |--- | |slave |*qaʁta |atan |*a[t/k]an | |--- | |heart |*… |huan |*uan | |--- | |mango |*wai | | |*… |--- | |river |*wahiʁ | |*waⁱr |*waⁱr |--- | |honeybee |*wani | |*wani |*wani |--- | |walk |*lakaw |lagor [AS] |*laga |*… |*lak(Vr) | |mortar |*lusuŋ |nis | | |--- | |thousand |*ʁibu |lihur |*ri[h]un |*ribu |--- | … Portuguese given in standard orthography …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Portuguese|Bunaq|East Timor|Alor-Pantar|Schapper et al.| |tobacco |tabaco |bako |*tab₂aku |*tabauk |--- | |raise/care for|criar | |*ria |*ria-n |--- |