====== North Digul River ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ The North Digul River family is comprised of … languages spoken along northerly tributaries of the Digul and Eilanden Rivers, just southwest of New Guinea's central cordillera, in the Merauke Regency of Indonesia's Papua province. ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of North Digul River is as follows:\\ \\ North Digul River Awbono-Bayono Becking and Dawi Rivers Becking River Dawi River ===== Sources ===== Baas (1981) Tsakwambo (unobtained) Versteeg (1983) Tsawkwambo (unobtained) van Enk and de Vries (1997) grammar and large vocabulary of Korowai and comparative vocabularies of Korowai and Kombai Donohue (n.d.) unpublished survey vocabularies of Awbono and Bayono, provided in comparative spreadsheet form by Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics Wilbrink (2004) 240 comparative terms for Korowai of (pp. 103a-103f) Ajak, Danowage, and Yaniruma villages, (pp. 104a-104f) Mabul and Snimburu, (pp. 105a-105e) Miwagé, (pp. 106a-106f) Burukmakok after de Vries and an unspecified version of Korowai which appears to be the same underlying material as found in Hughes' (2009: 27-37) Abiowage, along with (pp. 105a-105e) 240 comparative terms for Densar and for (pp. 108a-108f) Awbono and Enamesi/Swesu/Bayono after Menanti and for Kovojab after de Vries Hischier (2006: 11) 27 words of Kopayap (thanks to Harald Hammarström for calling our attention to the existence and identity of this attestation) Hughes (2009: 27-37) 239 comparative terms for Korowai of Abiowage village, Komyandaret of Danokit and Tsaukambo of Waiburu de Vries (2012) comparison of Baas' (1981) Tsaukambo and Korowai Veldhuizen unpublished survey vocabularies for two dialects of Korowai, provided in comparative spreadsheet form by Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Proto-North Digul River had perhaps 15 or 16 consonants and 6 vowels as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | | | *p | *t | *s | *k | [*kᵂ] | | *b | *d | *dz | *g | | | | *nd | | *ŋg | | | *w | *ɾ | *j | | | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | | *u | | *e̝ | | *o̝ | | | | *ɔ | | | *a | | …\\ \\ Initial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px >| | North Digul | A-B | B-D | | *m- | *m | *m | | *n- | *n | *n | | *p- | *p | *p | | *t- | *t | *t | | *s- | *s | *s | | *k- | *k | *k | | *b- | *b | *b | | *d- | *d | *d | | *dz- | | *dz | | *g- | *g | *g | | *w- | *w | *w | | *j- | *j | *j | Medial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px >| | North Digul | A-B | B-D | | *-m- | *m | *m | | *-n- | *n | *n | | *-p- | *p | *p | | *-t- | | *t | | *-s- | | | | *-k- | *ø | *k | | *-b- | *b | *b | | *-d- | *ɾ | *l | | *-nd- | *d | *nd | | *-ŋg- | *n | *ŋg | | *-w- | *w | *w | | *-ɾ- | *ɾ | *ø | | *-j- | *j | *j | Final consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px >| | North Digul | A-B | B-D | | *-m | *N | *m | | *-n | *N | *n | | *-p | *C | *p | | *-t | *C | *t | | *-s | | | | *-k | *C | *k | | *-ɾ | *ø | *l | Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px >| | North Digul | A-B | B-D | | *i | *i | *i | | *u | *u | *u | | *e̝ | *e̝ | *e̝ | | *o̝ | *o̝ | *o̝ | | *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | | *a | *a | *a | | *… | | | | *… | | | | *… | | | These correspondences are exemplified as follows. For clarity, our presentation is divided into three sections, beginning with initial and medial consonants, followed by final consonants, then vowels and diphthongs.\\ \\ \\ Initial and medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***m-** |***m** |***m** | |drink |*mi- | |*mi- | |star |*min | |*minɔp | |vein |*me̝t | |*me̝t | |side |*me̝ɾe̝n | |*me̝n | |dog |*me̝jan | |*me̝jan | |hot |*mamun | |*mamun | |ant |*m[a/ɔ]kmuk|*mamuC |*mɔkmuk | |mother's br.|*mɔm | |*mɔm | |body hair |*mo̝k |*mo̝C |*mo̝k | | |***-m-** |***m** |***m** | |do/make |*-mɔ- |*-mɔ- |*-mɔ- | |hot |*mamun | |*mamun | |ant |*m[a/ɔ]kmuk|*mamuC |*mɔkmuk | |blow |*po̝mɔ- |*po̝mɔ- |*po̝mɔ- | |crocodile |*sɔmaⁱ[t/l]|*sɛmi[C]|*sɔmaⁱ[t/l] | |wash/bathe |*sumɔ- |*sumV- |*sumɔ- | |die |*k[a/ɔ]mi- |*kami- |*kɔmi- | |weep/cry |*jamɔ- | |*jamɔ- | Initial and medial apical nasal /*n/ is generally retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul |A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***n-** |***n** |***n** | |mother |*ni | |*ni | |sand |*ne̝nim |*ne̝niN|*ne̝nim | |1 sg. poss.|*na- | |*na- | |rattan/rope|*nan |*naN |*nan | |1 pl. |*nak[i/o̝]p | |*nako̝p | |1 sg. |*no̝p |*n[o̝]C|*no̝p | | |***-n-** |***n** |***n** | |sand |*ne̝nim |*ne̝niN|*ne̝nim | |egg |*t[e̝/a]ne̝t|*tane̝C|*te̝ne̝t | |cassowary |*sanip |*saniC |*sanip | One apparently irregular example …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***n-/nV_**|***N**|***n** | |friend|*ne̝kɔ |*-Nkɔ |*ne̝kɔ | Initial and medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is fricated to [*ɸ] in both subgroups. It is considered here a stop due to its final reflex (below): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul |A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***p-** |***p [ɸ]**|***p [ɸ]** | |name |*pi |*p[ui] |*pi | |blow |*po̝mɔ- |*po̝mɔ- |*po̝mɔ- | |wind |*po̝p | |*po̝p | |sharp|*pu[t/l] |*p[ui]C |*pu[t/l] | | |***-p-** |***p [ɸ]**|***p [ɸ]** | |laugh|*se̝s[i/u]po̝-|*se̝supo̝-|*se̝sipo̝- | Apical voiceless stop /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul |A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***t-** |***t** |***t** | |dog |*tit |*tiC | | |tongue |*te̝p |*te̝bu |*te̝p | |egg |*t[e̝/a]ne̝t|*tane̝C |*te̝ne̝t | |mosquito|*t[e̝/a]tun |*ta[t]uN|*te̝tun | |cuscus |*takip |*taiC |*takip | | |***-t-** |**** |***t** | |hole |*-tɔp | |*-tɔp | |mosquito|*t[e̝/a]tun |*ta[t]uN|*te̝tun | Initial and medial laminal voiceless /*s/ is retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul |A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***s-** |***s** |***s** | |laugh |*se̝s[i/u]po̝-|*se̝supo̝-|*se̝sipo̝- | |crocodile |*sɔmaⁱ[t/l] |*sɛmi[C] |*sɔmaⁱ[t/l] | |cassowary |*sanip |*saniC |*sanip | |tree kangaroo|*sakɔt |*sɔC |*sakɔt | |wash/bathe |*sumɔ- |*sumV- |*sumɔ- | | |***-s-** |***s** |***s** | |laugh |*se̝s[i/u]po̝-|*se̝supo̝-|*se̝sipo̝- | Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***k-** |***k** |***k** | |walk/go |*ka- |*ka- |*kai- | |men's house|*kaⁱm |*kɛN |*kaⁱm | |skin/bark |*kat |*kaC |*kat | |tail |*kande̝p |*kade̝C|*kande̝p | |hornbill |*kawe̝[t/l]| |*kawe̝[t/l] | |inside |*kaɾo̝p |*kaɾo̝C|*kao̝p | |white |*kajɔ | |*kajɔ | |taro |*kaju |*kaju |*kaju | |die |*k[a/ɔ]mi- |*kami- |*kɔmi- | |sky |*ko̝t |*ko̝C |*ko̝t | |bone |*kudɔɾ |*kuɾu |*kɔlɔl | One example is otherwise similar enough to suggest an irregular change in Awbono-Bayono: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***k-/_Vb**|***b** |***k** | |head|*kabe̝jan |*babe̝N|*kabe̝jan | Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is dropped in Awbono-Bayono: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-k-** |***ø**|***k** | |ant |*m[a/ɔ]kmuk|*mamuC|*mɔkmuk | |1 pl. |*nak[i/o̝]p| |*nako̝p | |cuscus |*takip |*taiC |*takip | |tree kangaroo|*sakɔt |*sɔC |*sakɔt | |2 pl. |*gak[i/o̝]p| |*gak[i/o̝]p | |bamboo knife |*waki | |*waki | |left |*wakan |*w[a]N|*wakan | |moon |*wakɔɾ |*wɔ |*wakɔl | |jungle fowl |*wako̝m | |*wako̝m | |3 pl. |*jak[i/o̝]p| |*jak[i/o̝]p | |dig |*jaku- | |*jaku- | In one example, medial /*k/ is preserved in Awbono-Bayono because the root is preceded by a possessive prefix, resulting in syncope: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul |A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***ne̝k/*nV_**|***Nk**|***ne̝k** | |friend|*ne̝kɔ |*-Nkɔ |*ne̝kɔ | Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***b-** |***b** |***b** | |tortoise sp.|*biɾip | |*bip | |leaf |*be̝t |*be̝C |*be̝t | |blunt/dull |*baŋgɔ | |*baŋgɔ | |bow |*baɾi |*baɾi |*bai | |wing |*baɾo̝ɾ | |*bao̝l | |goanna |*bajɔm |*b[a]jɔN|*bajɔm | |chin/jaw |*bɔn |*bɔN |*bɔn | |elbow/eight |*bɔŋgo̝p |*bɔno̝C |*bɔŋgo̝p | | |***-b-** |***b** |***b** | |head |*kabe̝jan |*babe̝N |*kabe̝jan | |knee |*gabum | |*gabum | Initial apical voiced stop /*d/ is retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***d-** |***d**|***d** | |cloud |*de̝p |*de̝C |*de̝p | |burn (intr.)|*dɔ- |*dɔ- |*dɔ- | |sago |*do̝ |*do̝ | | Medial /*d/ appears to have merged with non-stop /*ɾ/ in Awbono-Bayono, but unlike the dropped reflexes of /*ɾ/ (below) it is reflected as /*l/ in Becking and Dawi Rivers: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-d-** |***ɾ**|***l** | |earth/ground|*udaC |*uɾaC |*ulaC | |bone |*kudɔɾ |*kuɾu |*kɔlɔl | |paddle |*wadup |*waɾuC|*walup | Verbs which can be prefixed with irrealis /*a-/ are likewise affected: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul |A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***d-/(a-)_**|***ɾ**|***l** | |eat |*(a-)de̝- |*ɛɾe̝-|*(a-)le̝- | |cook/burn|*(a-)du- |*aɾu- |*alu- | Laminal voiced /*dz/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| ||***dz-** |****|**** | ||*… | | | Velar voiced stop /*g/ occurs only initially, where it is retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***g-** |***g** |***g** | |bamboo pipe|*ge̝t | |*ge̝t | |2 sg. poss.|*ga- | |*ga- | |knee |*gabum | |*gabum | |2 pl. |*gak[i/o̝]p| |*gak[i/o̝]p | |song sp. |*gɔm | |*gɔm | |2 sg. |*go̝p |*g[o̝]C|*go̝p | |louse |*go̝t | |*go̝t | There is no bilabial prenasalized stop /*mb/.\\ \\ Apical prenasalized stop /*nd/ occurs only medially, where it is denasalized to /*d/ in Awbono-Bayono: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-nd-** |***d** |***nd** | |tail|*kande̝p |*kade̝C|*kande̝p | Velar prenasalized stop /*ŋg/ occurs only medially, where it is somewhat unexpectedly reduced to apical nasal /*n/ in Awbono-Bayono: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-ŋg-** |***n** |***ŋg** | |blunt/dull |*baŋgɔ | |*baŋgɔ | |elbow/eight|*bɔŋgo̝p |*bɔno̝C|*bɔŋgo̝p | Bilabial non-stop /*w/ is retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***w-** |***w**|***w** | |paddle |*wadup |*waɾuC|*walup | |bamboo knife|*waki | |*waki | |left |*wakan |*w[a]N|*wakan | |moon |*wakɔɾ |*wɔC |*wakɔl | |jungle fowl |*wako̝m | |*wako̝m | | |***-w-** |***w**|***w** | |hornbill |*kawe̝[t/l]| |*kawe̝[t/l] | |breadfruit |*jawɔt |*jawɔC|*jawɔt | Aapical non-stop /*ɾ/ does not occur initially, because it has been palatalized and deoccluded to merge with /*j/ (below.) Medial /*ɾ/ is retained as such in Awbono-Bayono and dropped in Becking and Dawi Rivers: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-ɾ-** |***ɾ** |***ø** | |side |*me̝ɾe̝n | |*me̝n | |tortoise sp.|*biɾip | |*bip | |bow |*baɾi |*baɾi |*bai | |wing |*baɾo̝ɾ | |*bao̝l | |inside |*kaɾo̝p |*kaɾo̝C|*kao̝p | One exception follows the unexplained loss of initial /*a/ in Awbono-Bayono, such that medial /*ɾ/ is palatalized and deoccluded to merge with /*j/ as was initial /*ɾ/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-ɾ-** |***j**|***ø** | |thorn|*aɾun |*juN |*aun | Another indicates a loan from Becking-Dawi into Awbono-Bayono: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-ɾ-** |***ø**|***ø** | |shoulder/ten|*maɾin |*maiN |*main | Palatal non-stop /*j/ is retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***j-** |***j** |***j** | |3 sg. poss.|*ja- | |*ja- | |weep/cry |*jamɔ- | |*jamɔ- | |3 pl. |*jak[i/o̝]p| |*jak[i/o̝]p | |dig |*jaku- | |*jaku- | |breadfruit |*jawɔt |*jawɔC |*jawɔt | |fruit/seed |*jɔp | |*jɔp | |spouse |*jo̝m |*jo̝N |*jo̝m | |3 sg. |*jo̝p |*jo̝C |*jo̝p | |… |*jo̝k | | | | |***-j-** |***j** |***j** | |dog |*me̝jan | |*me̝jan | |goanna |*bajɔm |*b[a]jɔN|*bajɔm | |white |*kajɔ | |*kajɔ | |taro |*kaju |*kaju |*kaju | Only a restricted set of consonants /*m *n *p *t *s *k *ɾ/ occurs finally. In a regional development shared with Dawi River and Awyu, these are realized as archiphonemes /*N *C/ in Awbono-Bayono.\\ \\ Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-m** |***N** |***m** | |liver |*ɔᵘm |*[u]N |*ɔᵘm | |mother's br.|*mɔm | |*mɔm | |goanna |*bajɔm |*b[a]jɔN|*bajɔm | |sand |*ne̝nim |*ne̝niN |*ne̝nim | |men's house |*kaⁱm |*kɛN |*kaⁱm | |knee |*gabum | |*gabum | |song sp. |*gɔm | |*gɔm | |jungle fowl |*wako̝m | |*wako̝m | |spouse |*jo̝m |*jo̝N |*jo̝m | One Awbono-Bayono form appears to be a reduplication: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-m** |***mVN**|***m** | |breast|*am |*amaN |*am | Final apical nasal /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-n** |***N** |***n** | |thorn |*aɾun |*juN |*aun | |side |*me̝ɾe̝n | |*me̝n | |dog |*me̝jan | |*me̝jan | |hot |*mamun | |*mamun | |chin/jaw |*bɔn |*bɔN |*bɔn | |rattan/rope|*nan |*naN |*nan | |mosquito |*t[e̝/a]tun|*ta[t]uN|*te̝tun | |head |*kabe̝jan |*babe̝N |*kabe̝jan | |left |*wakan |*w[a]N |*wakan | Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-p** |***C** |***p** | |wind |*po̝p | |*po̝p | |tortoise sp.|*biɾip | |*bip | |elbow/eight |*bɔŋgo̝p |*bɔno̝C|*bɔŋgo̝p | |1 pl. |*nak[i/o̝]p| |*nako̝p | |1 sg. |*no̝p |*n[o̝]C|*no̝p | |cuscus |*takip |*taiC |*takip | |hole |*-tɔp | |*-tɔp | |cloud |*de̝p |*de̝C |*de̝p | |cassowary |*sanip |*saniC |*sanip | |tail |*kande̝p |*kade̝C|*kande̝p | |inside |*kaɾo̝p |*kaɾo̝C|*kao̝p | |2 pl. |*gak[i/o̝]p| |*gak[i/o̝]p | |2 sg. |*go̝p |*g[o̝]C|*go̝p | |paddle |*wadup |*waɾuC |*walup | |3 pl. |*jak[i/o̝]p| |*jak[i/o̝]p | |3 sg. |*jo̝p |*j[o̝]C|*jo̝p | One apparent exception may be a compound in Awbono-Bayono (cf. Sawi /sep/): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-p** |***bV**|***p** | |tongue|*te̝p |*te̝bu |*te̝p | Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul |A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-t** |***C** |***t** | |vein |*me̝t | |*me̝t | |leaf |*be̝t |*be̝C |*be̝t | |dog |*tit |*tiC | | |egg |*t[e̝/a]ne̝t|*tane̝C|*te̝ne̝t | |tree kangaroo|*sakɔt |*sɔC |*sakɔt | |skin/bark |*kat |*kaC |*kat | |sky |*ko̝t |*ko̝C |*ko̝t | |bamboo pipe |*ge̝t | |*ge̝t | |louse |*go̝t | |*go̝t | |breadfruit |*jawɔt |*jawɔC |*jawɔt | Final laminal voiceless /*s/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| ||***-s** |****|**** | ||*… | | | Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-k** |***C**|***k** | |water |*[a/ɔ]k |*ɔC |*ak | |ant |*m[a/ɔ]kmuk|*mamuC|*mɔkmuk | |body hair|*mo̝k |*mo̝C |*mo̝k | |… |*jo̝k | | | Final apical non-stop /*ɾ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***-ɾ** |***ø**|***l** | |excrement|*ɔɾ |*o̝ |*ɔl | |wing |*baɾo̝ɾ | |*bao̝l | |bone |*kudɔɾ |*kuɾu |*kɔlɔl | |moon |*wakɔɾ |*wɔ |*wakɔl | Vowels /*i *u *e̝. *o̝ *ɔ *a/ …\\ \\ High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***i** |***i** |***i** | |drink |*mi- | |*mi- | |mother |*ni | |*ni | |star |*min | |*minɔp | |dog |*tit |*tiC | | |tortoise sp.|*biɾip | |*bip | |sand |*ne̝nim |*ne̝niN|*ne̝nim | |die |*k[a/ɔ]mi- |*kami- |*kɔmi- | |bow |*baɾi |*baɾi |*bai | |bamboo knife|*waki | |*waki | |cuscus |*takip |*taiC |*takip | |cassowary |*sanip |*saniC |*sanip | High back vowel /*u/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***u** |***u** |***u** | |earth/ground|*udaC |*uɾaC |*ulaC | |wash/bathe |*sumɔ- |*sumV- |*sumɔ- | |mosquito |*t[e̝/a]tun|*ta[t]uN|*te̝tun | |ant |*m[a/ɔ]kmuk|*mamuC |*mɔkmuk | |cook/burn |*(a-)du- |*aɾu- |*alu- | |taro |*kaju |*kaju |*kaju | |dig |*jaku- | |*jaku- | |thorn |*aɾun |*juN |*aun | |hot |*mamun | |*mamun | |knee |*gabum | |*gabum | |paddle |*wadup |*waɾuC |*walup | High mid front vowel /*e̝./is retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul |A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***e̝.** |***e̝.**|***e̝.** | |vein |*me̝t | |*me̝t | |tongue |*te̝p |*te̝bu |*te̝p | |cloud |*de̝p |*de̝C |*de̝p | |bamboo pipe|*ge̝t | |*ge̝t | |side |*me̝ɾe̝n | |*me̝n | |sand |*ne̝nim |*ne̝niN |*ne̝nim | |dog |*me̝jan | |*me̝jan | |eat |*(a-)de̝- |*ɛɾe̝- |*(a-)le̝- | |egg |*t[e̝/a]ne̝t|*tane̝C |*te̝ne̝t | |tail |*kande̝p |*kade̝C |*kande̝p | |hornbill |*kawe̝[t/l] | |*kawe̝[t/l] | |head |*kabe̝jan |*babe̝N |*kabe̝jan | High mid back vowel /*o̝/…: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul |A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***o̝** |***o̝** |***o̝** | |sago |*do̝ |*do̝ | | |body hair |*mo̝k |*mo̝C |*mo̝k | |wind |*po̝p | |*po̝p | |1 sg. |*no̝p |*n[o̝]C |*no̝p | |sky |*ko̝t |*ko̝C |*ko̝t | |2 sg. |*go̝p |*g[o̝]C |*go̝p | |louse |*go̝t | |*go̝t | |spouse |*jo̝m |*jo̝N |*jo̝m | |3 sg. |*jo̝p |*jo̝C |*jo̝p | |… |*jo̝k | | | |laugh |*se̝s[i/u]po̝-|*se̝supo̝-|*se̝sipo̝- | |elbow/eight|*bɔŋgo̝p |*bɔno̝C |*bɔŋgo̝p | |wing |*baɾo̝ɾ | |*bao̝l | |inside |*kaɾo̝p |*kaɾo̝C |*kao̝p | |jungle fowl|*wako̝m | |*wako̝m | Low mid back vowel /*ɔ/ is generally retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***ɔ** |***ɔ** |***ɔ** | |do/make |*-mɔ- |*-mɔ- |*-mɔ- | |burn (intr.) |*dɔ- |*dɔ- |*dɔ- | |mother's br. |*mɔm | |*mɔm | |chin/jaw |*bɔn |*bɔN |*bɔn | |hole |*-tɔp | |*-tɔp | |song sp. |*gɔm | |*gɔm | |fruit/seed |*jɔp | |*jɔp | |elbow/eight |*bɔŋgo̝p |*bɔno̝C |*bɔŋgo̝p | |wash/bathe |*sumɔ- |*sumV- |*sumɔ- | |blow |*po̝mɔ- |*po̝mɔ- |*po̝mɔ- | |friend |*ne̝kɔ |*-Nkɔ |*ne̝kɔ | |blunt/dull |*baŋgɔ | |*baŋgɔ | |white |*kajɔ | |*kajɔ | |weep/cry |*jamɔ- | |*jamɔ- | |goanna |*bajɔm |*b[a]jɔN|*bajɔm | |tree kangaroo|*sakɔt |*sɔC |*sakɔt | |moon |*wakɔɾ |*wɔ |*wakɔl | |breadfruit |*jawɔt |*jawɔC |*jawɔt | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***ɔ/_…** |***ɛ** |***ɔ** | |crocodile|*sɔmaⁱ[t/l]|*sɛmi[C]|*sɔmaⁱ[t/l] | Low central vowel /*a/ is generally retained as such in both subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***a** |***a** |***a** | |1 sg. poss. |*na- | |*na- | |walk/go |*ka- |*ka- |*kai- (?) | |2 sg. poss. |*ga- | |*ga- | |3 sg. poss. |*ja- | |*ja- | |breast |*am |*amaN |*am | |rattan/rope |*nan |*naN |*nan | |skin/bark |*kat |*kaC |*kat | |left |*wakan |*w[a]N |*wakan | |bow |*baɾi |*baɾi |*bai | |bamboo knife|*waki | |*waki | |cuscus |*takip |*taiC |*takip | |cassowary |*sanip |*saniC |*sanip | |cook/burn |*(a-)du- |*aɾu- |*alu- | |taro |*kaju |*kaju |*kaju | |dig |*jaku- | |*jaku- | |hot |*mamun | |*mamun | |knee |*gabum | |*gabum | |paddle |*wadup |*waɾuC |*walup | |hornbill |*kawe̝[t/l]| |*kawe̝[t/l] | |head |*kabe̝jan |*babe̝N |*kabe̝jan | |wing |*baɾo̝ɾ | |*bao̝l | |inside |*kaɾo̝p |*kaɾo̝C |*kao̝p | |jungle fowl |*wako̝m | |*wako̝m | |blunt/dull |*baŋgɔ | |*baŋgɔ | |white |*kajɔ | |*kajɔ | |weep/cry |*jamɔ- | |*jamɔ- | |goanna |*bajɔm |*b[a]jɔN|*bajɔm | |breadfruit |*jawɔt |*jawɔC |*jawɔt | |earth/ground|*udaC |*uɾaC |*ulaC | |dog |*me̝jan | |*me̝jan | In segments /*akɔ/ where medial /*k/ is regularly dropped, Awbono-Bayono retains only /*ɔ/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***a/_kɔ** |***ø**|***a** | |tree kangaroo|*sakɔt |*sɔC |*sakɔt | |moon |*wakɔɾ |*wɔ |*wakɔl | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| ||***…** |****|**** | ||*… | | | Diphthongs ….\\ \\ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| ||***…** |****|**** | ||*… | | | … /*aⁱ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| | |***aⁱ** |***ɛ**|***aⁱ** | |canoe |*aⁱC |*ɛC |*aⁱC | |men's house|*kaⁱm |*kɛN |*kaⁱm | ===== Pronouns ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ North Digul River free pronouns are reconstructed as follows: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |North Digul|A-B |Becking-Dawi| |1 sg.|*no̝p |*n[o̝]C|*no̝p | |2 sg.|*go̝p |*g[o̝]C|*go̝p | |3 sg.|*jo̝p |*j[o̝]C|*jo̝p | |1 pl.|*nak[i/o̝]p|? |*nako̝p | |2 pl.|*gak[i/o̝]p|? |*gak[i/o̝]p | |3 pl.|*jak[i/o̝]p|? |*jak[i/o̝]p |