====== Digul River ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ … ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of Digul River is as follows:\\ \\ Digul River Sawi North Digul River Awbono-Bayono Becking and Dawi Rivers Central Digul River Awyu Ndeiram River Dumut ===== Sources ===== **[under construction]** ===== History of classification ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Drabbe (1950, 1957, 1059) Awju group Healey (1970) proto-Awyu-Dumut Voorhoeve (1971) adds Sawuj. Voorhoeve (2000) adds Kombai Voorhoeve (2005) … de Vries (2012) … van den Heuvel, de Vries et al. (CITE) independently propose the inclusion of Becking-Dawi with Awyu-Dumut in a Greater Awyu family upon the basis of shared morphology. ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Proto-Digul River had perhaps 15 consonants and 8 vowels as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | | | *p | *t | *s | *k | *kʷ | | *mb | *nd | *ndz | *ŋg | *ŋgʷ | | *w | *ɾ | *j | | | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | | *u | | *e̝ | | *o̝ | | *ɛ | | *ɔ | | | *a | *ɒ | ….\\ \\ Digul River neutralized the distinction between Digul River-Ok’s plain and prenasalized final stops, leaving only a restricted subset of consonants which occur finally: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | | *p | *t | *s | *k | | | *ɾ | | | …\\ \\ Initial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Digul | Sawuy | North | Central | | *m- | m | *m | *m | | *n- | n | *n | *n | | *p- | | | | | *t- | t | *t | *t | | *t-/i e̝_ | s | *t | *t | | *s- | | | | | *k- | x | *k | *k | | *kʷ- | | | | | *mb- | b | *mb | *mb | | *nd- | d | *d | *nd | | *ndz- | | | | | *ŋg- | g | *g | *ŋg | | *ŋgʷ- | | | *ŋgʷ | | *w- | | *w | *w | | *ɾ- | | *j | *ɾ | | *j- | | | | Medial consonants correpsond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Digul | Sawuy | North | Central | | *-m- | | | | | *-n- | | | | | *-p- | | | | | *-t- | | | | | *-s- | | | | | *-k- | | | | | *-mb- | | | | | *-nd- | | | | | *-ŋg- | | | | | *-w- | | | | | *-ɾ- | | | | | *-j- | | | | Final consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Digul | Sawuy | North | Central | | *-m | m | *m | *m | | *-n | n | *n | *n | | *-p | p | *p | *p | | *-t | r | *t | *t | | *-s | | | | | *-k | x | *k | *k | | *-ɾ | r | *r | *ɾ | These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Sawuy forms drawn from Voorhoeve (1971: 88-92, 110-114) unless otherwise indicated; those drawn from unpublished vocabularies by Dietz and Richardson are designated as [xd] and [dr] respectively.\\ \\ \\ … |< - Nonepx Nonepx Nonepx Nonepx Nonepx >| ||Digul River|North Digul|Central Digul|Sawuy| ||**** |**** |**** |**** | || | | | | || | | | | Only a restricted set of consonants /*m *n *p *t *s *k *ɾ/ occurs finally. These are generally stable in all three subgroups.\\ \\ Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |***-m** |**m** |***m** |***m** | |breast |*… |aːm |*am |*ɒm | |men's house|*kaⁱm |xaⁱm [dr]|*kaⁱm |*kaⁱm | |knee/elbow |*ŋgambum | |*gabum |*ŋgambum | |jungle fowl|*wako̝m | |*wako̝m |*wako̝m | Final apical nasal /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River |Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |***-n** |**n** |***n** |***n** | |laughter |*ambɛn | | |*ambɛn | |thorn |*aɾun | |*aɾun |*aɾun | |hot |*mamun | |*mamun |*mamun | |rattan/rope|*… | |*nan | | |rope |*ke̝ke̝n |kegeːn| |*ke̝₂ke̝₂n | |head |*kamb[e̝]jan| |*kabe̝jan |*kambijan | |sweat |*kʷate̝₁n | | |*kʷate̝₁n | |calf |*… | | |*wan | Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |***-p** |**p [p ɸ]** |***p** |***p** | |house |*… |ap ~ aːp ~ aɸ|*ɔp |*ap | |sun/day |*[a]tap |ataːp | | | |day/yesterday |*aɾup | | |*aɾup | |turtle/tortoise|*mbiɾip | |*biɾip |*mbiɾip | |village |*… | |*bɔ[t]up |*mbɔᵘtup | |tongue |*te̝p |seːp ~ seɸ |*te̝p | | |hole |*… |taːp |*tɔp |*tɔp | |banana |*ndzo̝p | |*dzo̝p | | |inside |*… | |*kaɾo̝p |*kaɾɔᵘp | |fruit/seed |*ɾɔp | |*jɔp |*ɾɔp | Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |***-t** |**r** |***t** |***t** | |mouth |*maŋgɔt | | |*maŋgɔt | |dog |*tit |siːr |*tit |*tit | |root |*ndit |dir [dr]|*dit |*ndit | |hear |*ndat |dar |*… |*ndat | |bird |*ndzeːt |eːr |*dze̝t |*je̝t | |flower |*ke̝t | |*ke̝t |*ke̝₂t | |skin/bark |*… | |*kat |*kat | |cloud/sky |*… |xaᵘr |*k[o̝]t |*kɔᵘt | |bamboo pipe|*ŋge̝t | |*ge̝t | | |breadfruit |*[ɾ/j]awɔt | |*jawɔt |*[ɾ/j]awɔt | Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy|North Digul|Central Digul| | |***-k** |**x**|***k** |***k** | |water |*… |aːx |*[a/ɔ]k |*ɔk | |leaf/hair|*mo̝k |moːx |*mo̝k |*mo̝k | |voice |*ɾo̝k |roːx |*jo̝k |*ɾo̝k | Final apical non-stop /*ɾ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy|North Digul|Central Digul| | |***-ɾ** |**r**|***ɾ** |***ɾ** | |excrement|*… |aːr |*[ɔ]ɾ |*ɒɾ | |go up |*to̝ɾ- | |*to̝ɾ- |*to̝ɾ- | |moon |*wakɔɾ |oxaːr|*wakɔɾ |*wakɔɾ | Vowels /*i *u *e̝ *o̝ *ɛ *ɔ *a *ɒ/ …\\ \\ High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in all thee subgroups: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |***i** |***i** |***i** |**i** | |sneeze |*asin | | |*asin | |drink |*mi | |*mi |*mi | |star |*min | |*min |*min | |turtle/tortoise|*mbiɾip | |*biɾip |*mbiɾip | |mother |*ni | |*ni |*ni | |dog |*tit |siːr |*tit |*tit | |root |*ndit |dir [dr]|*dit |*ndit | High back rounded vowel /*u/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |***u** |***u** |***u** |**u** | |yesterday |*aɾup | | |*aɾup | |thorn |*aɾu[n] |arug [dr]|*aɾun |*aɾun | |egg |*mug… |mugo | |*mugɔ | |cook/burn |*(a-)ndu | |*adu |*(a-)ndu | |village |*… | |*bɔ[t]ʉp |*mbɔᵘtup | |die (present)|*kum | | |*kum | |knee/elbow |*ŋgambum | |*gabum |*ŋgambum | High mid front vowel /*e̝/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |**** |**i** |***e̝** |***e̝₁** | |ashes|*te̝na | |*te̝n[a] |*te̝₁na | |sweat|*kʷate̝n | | |*kʷate̝₁n | |foot |*ke̝nɔp |kiːnib| |*ke̝₁nɔp | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |***e̝** |**e** |***e̝** |***e̝₂** | |be |*ke̝ | | |*ke̝₂ | |flower |*ke̝t | |*ke̝t |*ke̝₂t | |rope |*ke̝ke̝n |kegeːn| |*ke̝₂ke̝₂n | |bamboo pipe|*ŋge̝t | |*ge̝t | | High mid back vowel /o̝/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |***o̝** |**o** |***o̝** |***o̝** | |leaf/hair |*mo̝k |moːx |*mo̝k |*mo̝k | |black |*mbo̝ko̝n |bokoːn | |*mbo̝ko̝n | |1 sg. |*no̝p | |*no̝p |*no̝p | |go up |*to̝ɾ- | |*to̝ɾ- |*to̝ɾ- | |2 sg. |*ŋgo̝p |go ~ gop|*go̝p |*ŋgo̝p | |voice/speech|*ɾo̝k |roːx |*jo̝k |*ɾo̝k | |jungle fowl |*wako̝m | |*wako̝m |*wako̝m | Low mid front vowel /*ɛ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy|North Digul|Central Digul| | |***ɛ** |**e**|***e̝** |***ɛ** | |laughter |*… | | |*ambɛn | |vein/tendon|*mɛt | |*me̝t |*mɛt | |rib(s)/side|*mɛɾɛn | |*me̝ɾe̝n |*mɛɾɛn | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy|North Digul|Central Digul| | |***…** |**o**|**** |***ɔ** | |egg |*… |mugo | |*mugɔ | |father |*… |bo | |*mbɔ | |die (non-pres.)|*… |xom- |*kɔmi- |*kɔm- | … is lowered to /a/ in Sawuy: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy|North Digul|Central Digul| | |***…** |**a**|***ɔ** |***ɔ** | |hole|*… |taːp |*tɔp |*tɔp | |moon|*… |oxaːr|*wakor |*wakɔɾ | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy|North Digul|Central Digul| | |***…** |**a**|***[a/ɔ]** |***ɔ** | |water|*… |aːx |*[a/ɔ]k |*ɔk | … : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy|North Digul|Central Digul| | |***…** |**a**|***…** |***ɒ** | |breast |… |aːm |*am |*ɒm | |excrement|*… |aːr |*ɔɾ |*ɒɾ | |chin |*… | |*bɔn |*mbɒn | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy|North Digul|Central Digul| | |***…** |**** |***ɔ** |***ɔ** | |mouth |*… | | |*maŋgɔt | |do |*… | |*-mɔ |*-mɔ | |mother's br.|*… | |*mɔm |*mɔm | |short/blunt |*… | |*baŋgɔ |*mbaŋgɔ | |burn (intr.)|*… | |*ndɔ |*ndɔ | |white |*… | |*kajɔ |*kajɔ | |song |*… | |*gɔm |*ŋgɔm | |fruit/seed |*… | |*jɔp |*ɾɔp | |breadfruit |*… | |*jawɔt |*[ɾ/j]awɔt | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |***…** |**a** |***ɔ** |**** | |elbow|*… |baŋkut [xd]|*bɔŋgo̝p | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River |Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |***…** |**a** |***a** |***a** | |laughter |*… | | |*ambɛn | |day/yesterday|*aɾup | | |*aɾup | |thorn |*… |arug [dr]|*aɾun |*aɾun | |mouth |*… | | |*maŋgɔt | |sit |*… | |*ba- |*mba- | |short/blunt |*… | |*baŋgɔ |*mbaŋgɔ | |rattan/rope | | |*nan | | |hear |*ndat |dar |*… |*ndat | |head |*kamb[e̝]jan| |*kabe̝jan |*kambijan | |skin/bark |*… | |*kat |*kat | |inside |*… | |*kaɾo̝p |*kaɾɔᵘp | |white |*… | |*kajɔ |*kajɔ | |knee/elbow |*ŋgambum | |*gabum |*ŋgambum | |breadfruit |*… | |*jawɔt |*[ɾ/j]awɔt | |calf |*… | | |*wan | |jungle fowl |*wako̝m | |*wako̝m |*wako̝m | Diphthongs … : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Digul River|Sawuy |North Digul|Central Digul| | |***aⁱ** |**aⁱ** |***aⁱ** |***aⁱ** | |men's house|*kaⁱm |xaⁱm [dr]|*kaⁱm |*kaⁱm | | |***…** |**aᵘ** |***o̝** |***ɔᵘ** | |inside |*… | |*kaɾo̝p |*kaɾɔᵘp | |cloud/sky |*… |xaᵘr |*ko̝t |*kɔᵘt | | |***…** |**** |***ɔᵘ** |***ɔᵘ** | |liver |*ɔᵘm | |*ɔᵘm |*wɔᵘm | | |***…** |**u** |***aᶶ** |***ɔᵘ** | |sago |*… |du |*… |*ndɔᵘ | ===== Pronouns ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ …\\ ===== Verbal morphology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ …\\ \\ \\