====== Gondu River ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== The Gondu River family consists of three languges, Yogo (Jogo, Joggo,) Tamagario (Tamario, Tamaraw) and Kaigir (Kajgir, Kaygir, also known as Kayagar) spoken along the Gondu (Juliana) river and its tributaries and along the upper reaches of the Cook river just inland of the Casuarina coast in the southwest of Indonesia's Papua province. Its nearest relative is Atowhaim, also known as Kaugat, spoken downsteam on the Cook River, with which it forms the Cook River family, also known as the Kayagar (Kajagar) family (Voorhoeve 1971: 79-82, 1975: 366-367.) ===== Subclassification ===== The internal classification of Gondu River is as follows:\\ \\ Gondu River Yogo Central Gondu River Tamagario Kaigir\\ \\ Voorhoeve (1971: 79-82) divides the Kajagar family into three languages , Kaugat, Kajgir and Tamagário. Kaugat (Atohwaim, Atoheim) spoken along the Cook river, is the nearest relative of the Gondu River family and with it constitutes the larger Cook River family. Within the Gondu River family, Voorhoeve follows the Roman Catholic Mission in dividing Tamagário into two dialects, one called Joggo or Jogo and the other designated Tamario in order to distinguish it from the use of Tamagário to refer to both dialects.\\ \\ Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 5): "Some previous researchers have written about the number of speakers and the location of theTamagario language. Voorhoeve (1971) in particular writes that the language is spoken byabout 3,500 people in 13 villages (Taragay, Anit, Kayegai, Kageir, Gaumi, Tereyemu, Makabak, Arare, Topum, Pagai, Xaytox, Yame, and Segere). He also reports that the Roman Catholic mission in the area distinguishes two dialects of this language: Joggo and Tamagario (which he shortens to “Tamario” to distinguish this dialect from the entire language). He states that the Tamario dialect is spoken in the central part of the language area, with Jogo being spoken in two areas—one area to the north and one area to the south-west."\\ \\ Kriens, Lebold and Menanti (2011: 5): "Previous research indicates that Kayagar and Tamagario [tcg] are closely-related languages. In fact, Voorhoeve (1971) states that the dialects of Kayagar and Tamagario may prove to be aberrant dialects of one language. The villages of Arare and Pagai, which were visited during the present survey, have been listed as Tamagario-speaking villages by both Voorhoeve and Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). Voorhoeve states that there are two Tamagario dialects: the Tamario dialect spoken in the center of the language area where Arare and Pagai are located, and the Yogo dialect spoken to the north and to the south-west. While the villages of Arare and Pagai have been considered to be Tamagario-speaking villages in the past, it will be shown in this report that the data gathered during this survey suggests that these two villages are better considered Kayagar-speaking villages."\\ \\ Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen's three villages, Kaitok, Sigare and Yame, are shown as Xajtox (36,) Jame (37) and Segere (38) in Voorhoeve's (1971: 80) list of villages, and constitute the northernmost enclave of Jogo in the accompaying map (p. 79.) ===== Sources ===== Drabbe (n.d.) grammar sktch of Tamagário (unobtained) Anceaux (n.d.) vocabulary of Arare village as excerpted in Greenberg (n.d.) Lommertsen (n.d.) grammar sketches of Joggo and Kaygir (unobtained)     Voorhoeve (1971: 79-88, 110-114) 107 comparative terms for Kajgir of Kawem village and Tamagário of Arare village Voorhoeve (1975: 367-368) sketch phonologies and pronouns for Tamagário and Kaygir Voorhoeve (2007) comparative vocabularies for Kayagar and Tamagario Kim, Clouse and Price (1987) comparative vocabularies for Kayagar (Kaigir) of Amyam (Jamkap,) Kawem (Puayo,) Kumeru (Kundubawa,) and Kaibu (Haibugir) villages (unobtained) Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 44-53) 240 comparative terms for Tamagario (Yogo) of Kaitok, Sigare and Yame villages Kriens, Lebold and Menanti (2011: 44-51) 239 comparative terms for Arare (Tamagario) and Atsipim, Okor and Tsemptaipim (Kaigir) villages and 50 for Pagai (Tamagario) and Gairipim (Kaigir) villages\\ \\ Additionally, we have five survey vocabularies from the Summer Institute of Linguistics, obtained in rekeyed form via Paul Whitehouse. Two represent Kaigir of Kawem and Haipogir villages; these are attributed to "Clouse [SIL]" and presumably originate with the survey of Kim, Clouse and Price (1987.) Three more of Kiworo, Sigare and Yame villages (Yogo,) labeled as Wiyagar, are unattributed; these duplicate the material which was later presented in Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 44-53.) ===== Historical phonology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Proto-Gondu River had 8 or 9 consonants and 6 vowels as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | | *p | *t | | *k | | | *s | | [*x] | | *w | | *j | | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | *i | | *u | | *e | | *o | | | *a | *aː | Fricative [f] is an allophone of /*p/ found before back rounded vowels /*u *o/. Apical non-stop [r] is an allophone of medial and final /*t/\\ \\ This inventory of consonants is somewhat less complicated than the 11 consonants Voorhoeve (1971: 82-85) suggests for proto-Kajagar, including Kaugat (Atohwaim): |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | *m | *n | | | | *p | *t | | *k | | *f | *s | | *x | | *w | *r | *j | | Consonant clusters …\\ \\ Vowels are nasalized when followed by nasals /*m *n/. This absence or presence of nasalization governs the realizations of preceding nasals /*m *n/ and in Yogo also non-stops /*w *j/ (below.)\\ \\ Sequential vowels are quite common. Observed sequences include /*ie *ei *eu *ai *ae *oi *ou *uo/.\\ \\ Stress generally falls on the final syllable of nominals, as Cook and Gondu River unstressed final vowels have been dropped. In Yogo there has been a trend towards initial stress.\\ \\ Initial consonants correspond as follows, where /*N/ is a nasal consonant /*m *n/ and /*C/ is any non-nasal consonant: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Gondu River | Yogo | Tamagario | Kaigir | | *m-/_N | m | m | m | | *m-/_C | b | b | b | | *n-/_N | n | n | n | | *n-/_C | d | d | d | | *p- | p | p | p | | *t- | t | t | t | | *s- | s | t | s | | *k- | | | | | *k- | | | | | *w- | w | w | w | | *w-/_oN | ŋʷ | | | | *w-/_oC | | | | | *j-/_N | ɲ | | | | *j-/_C | | | | Medial consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Gondu River | Yogo | Tamagario | Kaigir | | *-m- | m | m | m | | *-n- | n | n | n | | *-p- | p | p | p | | *-t- | r | r | r | | *-t-/_i u | s | r | r | | *-s- | s | t | s | | *-k- | | | | | *-k- | | | | | *-j- | j | j | j | Final consonants correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Gondu River | Yogo | Tamagario | Kaigir | | *-m | m | m | m | | *-n | n | n | n | | *-n/i_ | ø | n | n | | *-p | p | p | p | | *-t | r | r | r | | *-t/i u_ | s | r | r | | *-s | s | t | s | | *-k | | | | | *-k | | | | Vowels, vowel sequences and diphthongs correspond as follows: |< - 80px 80px 80px 80px >| | Gondu River | Yogo | Tamagario | Kaigir | | *i | | | | | *e | | | | | *a | | | | | *o | | | | | *u | | | | | *… | | | | | *… | | | | | *… | | | | | *… | | | | | *… | | | | These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Yogo attestations drawn from Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 44-53.) Tamagario and Kaigir words from Kriens, Lebold and Menanti (2011: 44-51) and Voorhoeve (1971: 79-88, 110-114) and Kaigir of Kawem and Haipogir villages from Clouse (n.d.)\\ \\ Any consonant can occur initially.\\ \\ Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ when followed by another nasal /m n/ in the onset of the next syllable is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***m-/_N** |**m [m]** |**m [m]** |**m [m]**|**m [m]** |**m [m]**|**m [m]** | |who? |*mein |-mɛⁱ ~ -mɛ |mein | |mein | |men | |neck |*metia-kam | | |biriakam | |beriaxam | | |no/not |*mame |mamɛ | | | |meme | | |blunt/dull|*maːm |mam ~ maːm | | |maˈxam ~ mam | | | |wing |*momu |mɔˈmɔ |ˈmumu | |mumu-:apʰ | |momu-xaːp\\ ~ mumu-xap| |rain |*muane |mɔnɛ |muˈnaː |muna |munaː |muna |muna(ʔ) | … /*m/… |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***m-/_C** |**m [b ᵐb]** |**m [b]** |**m [b]**|**m [b]** |**m [b]**|**m [b]** | |earth/ground|*meip |bɛp̚ ~ bɛp |beⁱpʰ ~ beːp- |mep |bep |mep |pʰeip ~ beip| |stone |*maitn |ᵐbɛi̯dn̩ |baitñ̩ |maitn | | | | |tongue |*maetap |baɾap |baˈrap |marap |baeˈrapʰ |marap |barap̚ | |child |*mapu |ˈbopu ~ -bapu\\ bap-|baˈpʰu ~ -baˈβu\\ ~bapʰ-|map- |bap- |map- |bap- | |lightning |*mati | | | | | |bari | |sago flour |*ma…am |baˈɣam |baˈɣam | |baˈɣam | | | |mouth/door |*moup |boᵘp |bo:upʰ |mowp |boupʰ |mowp |bu:p ~ bop | |good |*mo…ae |boɣoe |boˈɣe |moxae |boːeʔ | |boɣoi | |fly (n.) |*mote | | |more | |more |bore | |river |*mutu |butu ~ buɾu |buːˈru | |buːˈru | |buru ~ bru- | Initial apical nasal /*n/ when followed by another nasal /m n/ in the onset of the next syllable is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***n-/_N** |**n [n]** |**n [n]** |**n [n]**|**n [n]** |**n [n]**|**n [n]** | |male/husband |*nim |nim |ni:m | |nim | |nim | |wind/cold |*namu | | |namu |naˈmu | |namu(ʔ) | |older sibliing|*naːn |nan | | |naˈxan | | | |bone |*nomop |nomɔp |noˈmopʰ |nomop |noːˈmopʰ |namop |nomop̚\\ ~ noːmup| |louse |*num |nũm |nuːm | |nuːm | |nuːm | … /*n/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***n-/_C** |**n [d]** |**n [d]** |**n [d]**|**n [d]** |**n [d]**|**n [d]** | |weep/cry |*neit |dɛs ~ dɛts |deːⁱr |neir |deir |neir |der ~ dir | |1 pl. |*nep |dɛːp |depʰ |nep |depʰ |nep |dep | |fall |*nepe | |depe- | |deˈpe- | |depe- | |know |*nait |dɛⁱɾ ~ dɛɾ |deiːdiʔ- | |dasje- | |naːise- (?)| |friend |*nai[tn/k] |do-tʃi ~ dɛ-tʃu|daitñ̩- | |daːiʔ | | | |1 sg. |*nax |daːq |daχ |nak |dax |nax |dak ~ dɔx | |tree kangaroo|*na[u]wat | |dauˈgʰar | | | | | Reflexes are inconsistent when followed by final /*k/ [ʔ]: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River |Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***n-/_[k]**|**n [d n]** |**n [d n]** |**?** |**n [n]** |**?** |**n [d n]** | |mosquito|*ni[k] |di |di: |ni |niʔ |ni |di:(ʔ) | |name |*na[k] |naʔ ~ na- |naʔ | |naʔ | |naː(ʔ) | |wife |*nuo[k] |doʔ |nᵘoː | |nuː | |doʔ ~ nuː ~ du-| …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |*n-/… |**n [d]** |**?** |**n [n]**|**?** |**?** |**?** | |behind|*nei |dɛi- |deⁱ- | |nei- | | | Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …. |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River |Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***p-/_i e a**|**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** |**p** | |skin/bark |*pip |pip |pipʰ |pip |pipʰ |pip |pip | |kunai grass|*pis |pis |pi:tʰ | | | | | |left |*pi…i |piɣi |piː | |pikʰi | |piː(ʔ) | |mud |*peip |pɛipʰ ~ pɛp | | |peipʰ | | | |bow |*pe[k] |pɛː |peʔ | |peʔ | | | |one |*pa…amo… |pɔɣɔmɔx\\ ~pɔgɔmɔx|paɣamokʰ |pakamok |paɣamokʰ |paxamu |paɣamok̚\\ ~ pamok| …/*p/ … fricated to /f/ in Kaigir if followed by a back vowel /*o *u/. |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River |Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***p-/_o u**|**p [p pʰ]** |**p** |**p** |**f** |**p** |**f** | |cough |*po[k] |pʰɔ ~ pɔ |poʔ | |foʔ | |fɔː ~ foː | |hit |*po…om | |poˈɣom | |foˈɣum | |foɣom | |hole |*po…op | | |pokop | |poxop | | |fly (v.)|*p[o/u]tese | | | |frer- | |frese- | |blow |*pupu |pʰupʰu |puˈpu | |ˈfupʰu | |fubu | Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***t-** |**t** |**t [t tʰ]** |**t** |**t** |**t** |**t** | |sit |*tie | | |tei |tje- |tei- |tijɛ- ~ tije- | |wet |*tip | |tipʰ | |tip | |ti(ː)p | |sand |*tinep |ˈtɛnəp |tiˈnipʰ |tinib- |tiˈnip | |tinip̚ ~ tiːnip| |where? |*tam |tam- ~ (ˈ)tan- |tam- | |tam- | | | |worm |*tatap |ta(ˈ)ɾəp |tʰarːap | |tarapʰ | |tarap | |split |*tatutu | |taruːˈru | |-taruru | |taruru | |dig |*ta…a |taɣa- |taɣa- | |saxa- (?) | |tagə- ~ taɣa- | |bite |*ta…u-sie |toɣo- ~tɔᵘk-dʒɛ| | |tau-ˈte | |taɣu-se | |sun |*taːm |tam |tam |taːm |taɣam |taːm |taʔam | |grandparent|*taːt | |tar | |taˈxar | | | |afraid |*tou |to |toː | |tou | |toː ~ tuː | |two |*tousiki |totʃi |toᵘtiˈgi |totigi |tuskʰi |tosigi |tusəki ~ tusgi | |head |*toxom |toɣɔm ~ tokɔm |toˈɣom |tokom |toˈɣom |toxom |tuɣum ~ toɣom | |rat |*tut |tus ~ tutʃ | | | | | | Initial laminal /*s/ has merged with /*t/ in Tamagario (Voorhoeve 1971: 82-83): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***s-** |**s [s tʃ]** |**t [t tʰ]** |**t [t]**|**s [s]** |**s [s]**|**s [s]** | |shoot/bite|*sie |-tʃɛ ~ -dʒɛ | | |-sie | |-si ~ -se | |scratch |*seisi | |teiˈti | |seˈsi | |sesi | |wallaby |*sepaxai |tʃɛpaɣai | | |seːˈpair | | | |see |*saka |saɣa- ~ tʃaɣa- |taɣa- |taka- |sixa- |saxa- |saɣa- | |eye |*sakam |sakam ~ tʃakam |taˈɣam |sakam (?)|saˈɣam |saxam |saɣam ~ səɣəm | |dry |*sakotaːp |tʃɔkɾɔb |takoˈdap | |sɔˈkrapʰ |sokorap |sakraʔap | |black |*sakum |tʃokum |saˈkʰum (?) |takum |saˈkʰum |sakum |sa(ʔ)kum | |wash |*so…so… |sokosok\\ ~ tʃokᵒtʃok|toɣotox | |soˈxoso | | | |taro |*so…omo… |ˈtʃokᵒmox |toɣoˈmokʰ | |soxomokʰ | | | |bird |*suopam |sɔˈpɔm~tʃɔˈpɔm |tuːpam |towpam |supaːm |səpam |sopam ~ supam | |bamboo |*supo | | |tupu |soːˈpʰo |sopo | | |star |*sup…up |tʃupup(ʰ) |tuːˈpup |tupup |suːpupʰ |supkup |subugup ~ supup| [NOTE: /*k/ vs. /*x/ has not yet been worked out] |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***k-** |**k [k kʰ]** |**k [k kʰ]** |**k** |**k [k kʰ]** |**** |**k [k kʰ]**| |tie |*keke | |keːˈke | |kʰekʰe | |kʰekʰeʔ | |crocodile |*keu |kʰau ~ kʰa |kʰeːo | |kʰoː |xo | | |sago tree |*k[e/a]ipm |kaⁱpm |kʰepːm̩̃ | |kʰeipːm̩̃ | | | |come |*kae |kʰa |ɣai |kae |-kʰai | |-kai | |path |*kamein |kʰami |kʰamein |kame |kʰaˈmin |xami |xamin | |forest |*kaput |kɔpits ~ kɔbits |kaˈpur | | | | | |search |*ka…[a] |kaɣa- | | |kax | |xaː ~ kax | |belly/stomach|*kaːp |kap |kʰap |kaːp |kʰapʰ |kaːp |kaʔap | |cuscus |*kouput |ˈkɔbuɾ ~ kɔpuɾ |kʰoupʰur | |kʰouˈpʰur | | | |root |*koutup |gutup ~ -wuɾup |kʰouːrupʰ | |kuˈrupʰ | | | |white |*koptaːp |kɔˈpːɾɔp |kopˈrap |koprap |kʰoprap |koprap |kobraʔam | |cassowary |*ko[u]je |kʰɔi ~ kʰɔe ~ kɔi|kʰuˈdʒo |kujo |kʰuːje |kue |ku(ːi)je | |lime |*kuo |kɔ |kᵘo | | | | | |elbow/knee |*kup |kup- |kup- ~ kʰup- |kup- |kup- ~ kʰup- |kup- |kup- | |green coconut|*kup |kuːp̚ ~ kuːp | | |kup | | | …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***x-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |banana|*xaet | |χer |kaer |xer |xaer | | |neck |*xam | | |-kam | |-xam |xam- | |leaf |*xap |xap ~ kʰap |-ˈkʰap |kap |-xapʰ ~ -ːapʰ|xap |xaːp ~ -xap| |tail |*xapm | |kʰaːpm̃ |kapm |xaːˈm | |xam | |eat |*xapti | |ɣaˈpri |kapri | |xapri |xabri | |heavy |*xatim | | |karim | |xarim |xarim | |moon |*xa…atam |kaxaɾam\\ ~ kaɣaɾam|χaɣaˈram |kakaram |xaram |xaxaram |xaɣaram | Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ when followed by non-back rounded vowels /*i *e *a/ is retained as such in all three languages/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River |Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***w-/_i e a**|**w** |**w** |**w** |**w** |**w** |**w** | |goanna |*wipVm |wipɔm ~ wiˈpum |wi:ˈpʰam | |wi:ˈpam | | | |3 pl. |*wep |wɛp | |wep | | | | |new/young |*wam |wãm ~ˈwɐ̃m |wam- |wam- |wam- |wam- |waːm- | |above/up |*wapei |wapi ~ wapɛ |ˈwapʰi | |wafe- ~ wapi-|wapi | | |paddle |*watu |ˈwatu ~ wodu |war:u | |waˈru | | | |three |*watn |watn- |wor- | |wan- | |watn | |woman/o. sister|*wasi |watʃi ~ waⁱt- |waˈti | |wasi | | | |kill |*wase |wase ~ wadʒɛ |waˈte | |wase | |waːse ~ wasi | |pig |*wakum |ˈwɔkum\\ ~ waˈkum|waˈɣum |wakum |waːˈkʰum |wakum |wakom\\ ~ wokum| When initial /*w/ is followed by mid back rou nded vowel /*o/, it is occluded to [gʷ g] in Tamagario and Yogo, or to [ŋʷ ŋ] in Yogo if the next consonant is a nasal: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***w-/_oC**|**w [w g]** |**w [gʷ g]** |**** |**w** |**** |**** | |far |*woi |wɔi ~ goj- ~ wui-|-goijʰ | |wo- ~ wij- | |wiːj- | |in front |*woi |wɔⁱ- ~ wɔ- | | |wei- | | | |house |*wou |wu ~ gũ |goːukʰ ~ gougʰ-|wowk |wouː |wuw |wo ~ wu | |fingernail|*wop |wɔp |-gwop |-wop | |-wop |woːpʰ | |fat/grease|*w[o]p | | | | |wuːp | | |long |*wotu |wɔɾu | | |woru |woro |wo(ː)ru | |flesh/meat|*wo…om |-oˈɣom |gʷoˈɣom |wokom |-oˈɣom |-oxom |-oɣ(o)m | … /*w/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***w-/_oN**|**w [ŋʷ ŋ]** |**w [gʷ g]** |**** |**w [w]** |**** |**** | |tree/wood|*wom |ŋuɔm ~ ŋɔm |gʰum ~ gᵘom- |wom |wum |wom |woːm | No examples of the segment /*wu/ have been identified.\\ \\ Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario |Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve |Clouse | | |***j-/_C** |**j [j dʒ]** |**j [j dʒ]** |**** |**j [j dʒ]** |**** |**** | |near |*jitaːp | |iːrapʰ | |jiːˈrapʰ | |jiraʔap ~ girap | |father |*j[i/e]t |dʒiɾ | | | |jet |jir | |hear |*j[i/e]ta…a|jɛtaɣa- ~jɛɾaɣa- |dʒiraɣeˈ- |jiɾəka- |jira- | |ira- ~ gira- | |laugh |*j[i/e][k] |dʒi ~ ji |dʒi | |jeʔ | | | |below |*jei[n] |ɲɛi |dʒe- | |jei- | | | |hand/arm |*jep |dʒɛp ~ jɛp |dʒep |jep |jepʰ |jep |jɛːp̚ ~ jɛp\\ ~ jep- ~ jeɸ-| |blood |*jes |dʒɛs |dʒetʰ |jet |jes |jes |jes | |snake |*jekot |dʒokɔɾ ~ jaˈkɔɾ |eːkˈʰoɾ |ekor |dʒeˈkˈʰoɾ |jekor |jokor ~ jəkor | |netbag |*japi |dʒɛpi |dʒaːˈpi | |jaːˈpʰi | | | |burn/roast|*jati |dʒidʒi- ~ -jetʃɛ | |jair- | | |ja(ː)ri | |grandchild|*jatn | |dʒatːñ̩- | |dʒatʰn- | | | |village |*japu |japu ~ jopu |dʒap:u | |japuh | | | |hold |*ja…a |dʒaka- | |dʒaɣa- |jaɣa- | |jaɣa- | |fruit |*ja…am |-ˈtʃaɣam\\ ~ -iaˈɣam|-ia(ˈ)ɣam |jakam ~ -iakam|-ia(ˈ)ɣam\\ ~ -iakam|-eam ~ -iam\\ -iaxam|-eaɣəm ~ jajam\\ ~ -ia(ɣə)m| |coconut |*jaːp |dʒap ~ jap |dʒap | |jaˈxapʰ | | | |run |*joup |jɔup |dʒoupʰ | |joupʰ | | | |breadfruit|*jot |dʒɔɾ ~ dʒɔt |dʒor | |jor | | | |drink |*joti |dʒutʃu~ˈdʒudʒu |dʒuˈri | |jori | |jori | |man/person|*jo[k] |joʔ ~ joɣ- |dʒo |jo | |jo |joː | |nose |*jup |jup ~ dʒup |dʒup |jup |jup |jup |uːp̚ (?) ~ juw- | |ant |*jutum |jutum ~ dʒuɾum |dʒuːˈrum | |juːˈrum | | | … /*j/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***j-/_N** |**j [ɲ]** |**j [dʒ ø]** |**?** |**j [dʒ ø]** |**?** |**?** | |red |*jimi |ˈɲimi |im:i | | | | | |eat |*j[i/e]n- |ɲɛn- | | |jɪn- | | | |younger sibling|*jenap |ɲap- |dʒenapʰ | |dʒenˈapʰ | | | … medial consonants …\\ \\ Medial bilabial nasal /*m/, unlike intiial /*m/ (above,) is never denasalized: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-m-** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |canoe |*amu |amu |aːˈmuː | |aˈmu | | | |heart/liver|*umu | |umu |umur |umu | |uimu | |no/not |*mame |mamɛ | | | |meme | | |wing |*momu |mɔˈmɔ |ˈmumu | |mumu-:apʰ | |momu-xaːp\\ ~ mumu-xap| |wind/cold |*namu | | |namu |naˈmu | |namu(ʔ) | |bone |*nomop |nomɔp |noˈmopʰ |nomop |noːˈmopʰ |namop |nomop̚\\ ~ noːmup | |taro |*so…omo… |ˈtʃokᵒmox |toɣoˈmokʰ | |soxomokʰ | | | |path |*kamein |kʰami |kʰamein |kame |kʰaˈmin |xami |xamin | |red |*jimi |ˈɲimi |im:i | | | | | Medial apical nasal /*n/, unlike intial /*n/ (above,) is never denasalized : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-n-** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** |**n** | |cold |*inip | |i:ˈnip | |in:ipʰ |inip |inip̚ ~ iniɸ | |betel pepper |*ena |dʒɛna- |ena- | |ena- | | | |woman |*enop |ɲonɔp |oˈnopʰ- | | |onop |onop̚ | |finger |*enop |-ɲenɛp |-ːeˈnopʰ | |-ːenopʰ | |-ɛnop | |excrement |*ane |an:ɛ |aˈna |ana |aˈna | | | |urine |*anu |onːu ~ an:u |aˈnu | |aˈnu | | | |rain |*muane |mɔnɛ |muˈnaː |muna |munaː |muna |muna(ʔ) | |sand |*tinep |ˈtɛnəp |tiˈnipʰ |tinib- |tiˈnip | |tinip̚ ~ tiːnip| |younger sibling|*jenap |ɲap- (?) |dʒenapʰ | |dʒenˈapʰ | | | Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is generally retained as such in all three languages |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-p-** |**p** |**p** |**** |**p** |**** |**** | |verb suffix|*-pe |-pɛ |-pʰe ~ -ˈpe |-pe ~ -p |-(ˈ)pʰe ~ -(ˈ)pe|-pe |-pe~-be~-pi~-bi | |ear |*itipaːm | |ipˈram |ipiram |rəˈpam |iripam |ripam~ripaʔam | |dog |*epe |ˈjɛpə |ep:pe |epe |eːˈpe |epe |epeʔ ~ epːe | |foot/leg |*apit |apis |aˈpir |apir |aˈpir |apir |apir | |roof |*apo |apo |ap:a | |apah | |apaʔ ~ əbʷaː | |bathe |*apu |apu |apʰuː | |aːˈpʰu | |ʔaːpu ~ abu\\ ~ apu| |sleep/tired|*apun |apun |aˈpun |apun |apu(n)- | |abu- | |child |*mapu |ˈbopu ~ -bapu\\ bap-|baˈpʰu ~ -baˈβu\\ ~bapʰ-|map- |bap- |map- |bap- | |blow |*pupu |pʰupʰu |puˈpu | |ˈfupʰu | |fubu | |fall |*nepe | |depe- | |deˈpe- | |depe- | |wallaby |*sepaxai |tʃɛpaɣai | | |seːˈpair | | | |bird |*suopam |sɔˈpɔm~tʃɔˈpɔm |tuːpam |towpam |supaːm |səpam |sopam ~ supam | |bamboo |*supo | | |tupu |soːˈpʰo |sopo | | |star |*sup…up |tʃupup(ʰ) |tuːˈpup |tupup |suːpupʰ |supkup |subugup ~ supup | |eat |*xapti | |ɣaˈpri |kapri | |xapri |xabri | |forest |*kaput |kɔpits ~ kɔbits |kaˈpur | | | | | |cuscus |*kouput |ˈkɔbuɾ ~ kɔpuɾ |kʰoupʰur | |kʰouˈpʰur | | | |white |*koptaːp |kɔˈpːɾɔp |kopˈrap |koprap |kʰoprap |koprap |kobraʔam | |goanna |*wipVm |wipɔm ~ wiˈpum |wi:ˈpʰam | |wi:ˈpam | | | |above/up |*wapei |wapi ~ wapɛ |ˈwapʰi | |wafe- ~ wapi- |wapi | | |netbag |*japi |dʒɛpi |dʒaːˈpi | |jaːˈpʰi | | | |village |*japu |japu ~ jopu |dʒap:u | |japuh | | | Medial /*t/ is lenited to /r/ in Tamagario and Kaigir and varies between [t d ɾ] in Yogo. Final clusters /*tn/ (below) are not affected: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-t-** |**t [t d r]** |**r** |**** |**r** |**** |**** | |get up/stand up|*ete |dʒɛɾ- ~ -jɛɾ- |ere- | |re- |er- |re- | |ashes |*etetep |dʒɛtɛɾɛb\\ ~ dʒɛɾɛɾɛb|ereˈrepʰ |ererep |reːˈrepʰ |ererep |rerep ~ rerɛp | |breast |*etum |jotɔm ~ dʒuɾum |eːˈrem |erem |eːˈrem | |reːm ~ rɛm | |fire |*atu |ɔtu ~ atu ~ aɾu |aˈruː |aru |aˈru |aru |aru | |rattan/rope |*ot[o]p[a]m|wɔˈɾɔpm̩ ~ wɔˈtɔpm̩ |orːˈpʰam | |rʊm ~ rumː |orom | | |speech |*utox | |uːˈroχ | |orox- | |roʔ- | |smooth |*utum | | | | | |ʔurum ~ rum | |neck |*metia-kam | | |biriakam | |beriaxam | | |tongue |*maetap |baɾap |baˈrap |marap |baeˈrapʰ |marap |barap̚ | |fly (n.) |*mote | | |more | |more |bore | |river |*mutu |butu ~ buɾu |buːˈru | |buːˈru | |buru ~ bru- | |fly (v.) |*p[o/u]tese| | | |frer- | |frese- | |worm |*tatap |ta(ˈ)ɾəp |tʰarːap | |tarapʰ | |tarap | |moon |*xa…atam |kaxaɾam\\ ~ kaɣaɾam |χaɣaˈram |kakaram |xaram |xaxaram |xaɣaram | |root |*koutup |gutup ~ wuɾup |kʰouːrupʰ | |kuˈrupʰ | | | |white |*koptaːp |kɔˈpːɾɔp |kopˈrap |koprap |kʰoprap |koprap |kobraʔam | |paddle |*watu |ˈwatu ~ wodu |war:u | |waˈru | | | |long |*wotu |wɔɾu | | |woru |woro |wo(ː)ru | |near |*jitaːp | |iːrapʰ | |jiːˈrapʰ | |jiraʔap ~ girap| |hear |*j[i/e]ta…a|jɛtaɣa- ~jɛɾaɣa- |dʒiraɣeˈ- |jiɾəka- |jira- | |ira- ~ gira- | |ant |*jutum |jutum ~ ˈdʒuɾum |dʒuːˈrum | |juːˈrum | | | In Tamagario, this created a new phoneme /r/, as medial and final /*s/ has become /t/ (below.)\\ \\ The disposition of this loan from Indonesian suggests that Yogo does not distinguish [r] from /t/: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |**r** |**t [t d]** |**r** |**** |**r** |**** |**** | |salt|garam |katəm ~ kadəm|χaːˈram | | | |xaram | When medial /*t/ is followed by high front vowel /*i/ or high back rounded vowel /*u/, it is merged with the reflexes of /*s/ in Yogo: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-t-/_i**|**s [tʃ dʒ]** |**r** |**r** |**r** |**r** |**r** | |ear |*itipaːm | |ipˈram |ipiram |rəˈpam |iripam |ripam~ripaʔam| |leech |*itit |itʃis |i:ˈrir | |ɾir | |irir ~ ərir | |smoke |*atip |atʃip ~ ɛⁱtʃip |-aˈripʰ |-arip |-eripʰ |-erip |-erip ~ -ɛrip| |lightning |*mati | | | | | |bari | |eat |*xapti | |ɣaˈpri |kapri | |xapri |xabri | |heavy |*xatim | | |karim | |xarim |xarim | |burn/roast|*jati |dʒidʒi- ~ -jetʃɛ | |jair- | | |ja(ː)ri | |drink |*joti |dʒutʃu~ˈdʒudʒu |dʒuˈri | |jori | |jori | | |***-t-/_u**|**s [tʃ]** |**r** |**** |**r** |**** |**r** | |seed |*atum |otʃim ~ aˈtʃim\\ ~atʃum|aˈrum | |aˈrum | |arum | |smooth |*utum | | | | | |ʔurum ~ rum | |split |*tatutu | |taruːˈru | |-taruru | |taruru | Besides Tamagario's defrication of /*s/ to /t/, which creates a synchronic contrast between /t r/ medially and finally, another process is creating a contrast between /t r/ in Kaigir initially, where roots with initial vowels followed by /t/ drop the initial vowels such that [r] becomes sn initial consonant. Voorhoeve's (1971) Kajgir does not drop the vowel, suggesting the change to be of very recent origin, and still underway as both Kriens, Lebold and Menanti's (2011) and Clouse's (n.d.) Kaigir retain the vowel in a few instances. The root /*atu/ "fire" (above) is not affected, perhaps because it is two short (/*ete/ "get up/stand up" below is typically suffixed): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River |Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***Vt-** |**Vr** |**Vr** |**Vr** |**Vr [r Vr]**|**Vr** |**Vr [r Vr]**| |ear |*itipaːm | |ipˈram |ipiram |rəˈpam |iripam |ripam~ripaʔam| |get up/stand up|*ete |dʒɛɾ- ~ -jɛɾ- |ere- | |re- |er- |re- | |ashes |*etetep |dʒɛtɛɾɛb\\ ~ dʒɛɾɛɾɛb|ereˈrepʰ |ererep |reːˈrepʰ |ererep |rerep ~ rerɛp| |breast |*etum |jotɔm ~ dʒuɾum |eːˈrem |erem |eːˈrem | |reːm ~ rɛm | |rattan/rope |*ot[o]p[a]m |wɔˈɾɔpm̩ ~ wɔˈtɔpm̩ |orːˈpʰam | |rʊm ~ rumː |orom | | |speech |*utox | |uːˈroχ | |orox- | |roʔ- | | |***Vt-/_i u**|**Vs [Vtʃ]** |**Vr** |**Vr** |**Vr [r Vr]**|**Vr** |**Vr [r Vr]**| |leech |*itit |itʃis |i:ˈrir | |ɾir | |irir ~ ərir | |smooth |*utum | | | | | |ʔurum ~ rum | Medial laminal /*s/ has become apical stop /t/ in Tamagario (Voorhoeve 1971: 82-83,) where it contrasts with the lenited non-stop [r] reflex of /*t/ (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-s-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |thorn |*isot |ɛtʃɛɾ ~ uˈtʃuɾ\\ ~ otʃɔɾ|eːˈtor | |oːˈsor | |o(ː)sor | |night |*esi |itʃ- |et- |ete |iːˈsi |esi |ɛsi ~ isi | |fly (v.) |*p[o/u]tese| | | |frer- | |frese- | |two |*tousiki |totʃi |toᵘtiˈgi |totigi |tuskʰi |tosigi |tusəki ~ tusgi| |scratch |*seisi | |teiˈti | |seˈsi | |sesi | |woman/o. sister|*wasi |watʃi ~ waⁱt- |waˈti | |wasi | | | |kill |*wase |wase ~ wadʒɛ |waˈte | |wase | |waːse ~ wasi | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-k-** |**k [k kʰ]** |**k [k kʰ ɣ]**|**** |**k [k kʰ]** |**** |**** | |fish |*ijakam |i̯jaxam ~ jaˈkam |dʲaˈkʰam |jakam |dʲaˈkʰam |jakam |jakm ~ jaːkum | |two |*tousiki |totʃi |toᵘtiˈgi |totigi |tuskʰi |tosigi |tusəki ~ tusgi | |dry |*sakotaːp |tʃɔkɾɔb |takoˈdap | |sɔˈkrapʰ |sokorap |sakraʔap | |black|*sakum |tʃokum |saˈkʰum |takum |saˈkʰum |sakum |sa(ʔ)kum | |tie |*keke | |keːˈke | |kʰekʰe | |kʰekʰeʔ | |pig |*wakum |ˈwɔkum\\ ~ waˈkum|waˈɣum |wakum |waːˈkʰum |wakum |wakom\\ ~ wokum| |snake|*jekot |dʒokɔɾ ~ jaˈkɔɾ |eːkˈʰoɾ |ekor |dʒeˈkˈʰoɾ |jekor |jokor ~ jəkor | …[ɣ χ]… |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario |Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve |Clouse | | |**** |**k** |**ɣ** |**** |**ɣ** |**** |**** | |good |*mo…ae |boɣoe |boˈɣe |moxae |boːeʔ | |boɣoi | |dig |*ta…a |taɣa- |taɣa- | |saxa- | |tagə- ~ taɣa- | |see |*saka |saɣa- ~ tʃaɣa- |taɣa- |taka- |sixa- |saxa- |saɣa- | |eye |*sakam |sakam ~ tʃakam |taˈɣam |sakam |saˈɣam |saxam |saɣam ~ səɣəm | |head |*toxom |toɣɔm ~ tokɔm |toˈɣom |tokom |toˈɣom |toxom |tuɣum ~ toɣom | |taro |*so…omo… |ˈtʃokᵒmox |toɣoˈmokʰ | |soxomokʰ | | | |wash |*so…so… |sokosok\\ ~ tʃokᵒtʃok|toɣotox | |soˈxoso | | | |search|*ka…[a] |kaɣa- | | |kax | |xaː ~ kax | |hear |*j[i/e]ta…a|jɛtaɣa- ~jɛɾaɣa- |dʒiraɣeˈ- |jiɾəka- |jira- | |ira- ~ gira- | |hold |*ja…a |dʒaka- | |dʒaɣa- |jaɣa- | |jaɣa- | |fruit |*ja…am |-ˈtʃaɣam\\ ~ -iaˈɣam |-ia(ˈ)ɣam |jakam ~ -iakam|-ia(ˈ)ɣam\\ ~ -iakam|-eam ~ -iam\\ -iaxam|-eaɣəm ~ jajam\\ ~ -ia(ɣə)m| … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |**** |**x χ ɣ** |**ɣ** |**** |**ɣ x ø** |**** |**** | |water |*o…om |ɔɣɔm |oˈɣom |okom |oɣʊm |oxom |oɣom | |tooth |*o…om |ɔxɔm ~ ɔχɔm\\ ~ ɔɣɔm|oˈɣom |ukom |oxom |oxom |ɔɣom ~ oɣom| |sago flour|*ma…am |baˈɣam |baˈɣam | |baˈɣam | | | |moon |*xa…atam |kaxaɾam\\ ~ kaɣaɾam |χaɣaˈram |kakaram |xaram |xaxaram |xaɣaram | |flesh/meat|*wo…om |-oˈɣom |gʷoˈɣom |wokom |-oˈɣom |-oxom |-oɣ(o)m | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |bite|*ta…u- |toɣo- ~ tɔᵘk-| | |tau- | |taɣu- | Bilabial non-stop /*w/ has not been observed to occur medially.\\ \\ Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-j-** |**j [j]** |**j [j dʒ]** |**** |**j [j]** |**** |**** | |fish |*ijakam |i̯jaxam ~ jaˈkam |dʲaˈkʰam |jakam |dʲaˈkʰam |jakam |jakm ~ jaːkum| |cassowary|*ko[u]je |kʰɔi ~ kʰɔe ~ kɔi|kʰuˈdʒo |kujo |kʰuːje |kue |ku(ːi)je | … final consonants …\\ \\ Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is very common. It is retained as such in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario |Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve |Clouse | | |***-m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** |**m** | |ear |*itipaːm | |ipˈram |ipiram |rəˈpam |iripam |ripam~ripaʔam | |fish |*ijakam |i̯jaxam ~ jaˈkam |dʲaˈkʰam |jakam |dʲaˈkʰam |jakam |jakm ~ jaːkum | |breast |*etum |jotɔm ~ dʒuɾum |eːˈrem |erem |eːˈrem | |reːm ~ rɛm | |this/here |*am |am(-) |am- | |; aˈm- | |am(-) | |seed |*atum |otʃim ~ aˈtʃim\\ ~atʃum|aˈrum | |aˈrum | |arum | |that/there |*om |ɔm(-) |om- |om- |aˈm- ~ um- | |oːm | |water |*o…om |ɔɣɔm |oˈɣom |okom |oɣʊm |oxom |oɣom | |tooth |*o…om |ɔxɔm ~ ɔχɔm\\ ~ ɔɣɔm |oˈɣom |ukom |oxom |oxom |ɔɣom ~ oɣom | |smooth |*utum | | | | | |ʔurum ~ rum | |blunt/dull |*maːm |mam | | |maˈxam | | | |sago flour |*ma…am |baˈɣam |baˈɣam | |baˈɣam | | | |male/husband|*nim |nim |ni:m | |nim | |nim | |louse |*num |nũm |nuːm | |nuːm | |nuːm | |where? |*tam |tam- ~ (ˈ)tan- |tam- | |tam- | | | |sun |*taːm |tam |tam |taːm |taɣam |taːm |taʔam | |head |*toxom |toɣɔm ~ tokɔm |toˈɣom |tokom |toˈɣom |toxom |tuɣum ~ toɣom | |eye |*sakam |sakam ~ tʃakam |taˈɣam |sakam |saˈɣam |saxam |saɣam ~ səɣəm | |black |*sakum |tʃokum |saˈkʰum |takum |saˈkʰum |sakum |sa(ʔ)kum | |bird |*suopam |sɔˈpɔm~tʃɔˈpɔm |tuːpam |towpam |supaːm |səpam |sopam ~ supam | |neck |*xam | | |-kam | |-xam |xam- | |heavy |*xatim | | |karim | |xarim |xarim | |moon |*xa…atam |kaxaɾam\\ ~ kaɣaɾam |χaɣaˈram |kakaram |xaram |xaxaram |xaɣaram | |goanna |*wipVm |wipɔm ~ wiˈpum |wi:ˈpʰam | |wi:ˈpam | | | |new/young |*wam |wãm ~ˈwɐ̃m |wam- |wam- |wam- |wam- |waːm- | |pig |*wakum |ˈwɔkum\\ ~ waˈkum |waˈɣum |wakum |waːˈkʰum |wakum |wakom\\ ~ wokum | |tree/wood |*wom |ŋuɔm ~ ŋɔm |gʰum ~ gᵘom- |wom |wum |wom |woːm | |flesh/meat |*wo…om |-oˈɣom |gʷoˈɣom |wokom |-oˈɣom |-oxom |-oɣ(o)m | |fruit |*ja…am |-ˈtʃaɣam\\ ~ -iaˈɣam |-ia(ˈ)ɣam |jakam ~ -iakam|-ia(ˈ)ɣam\\ ~ -iakam|-eam ~ -iam\\ -iaxam|-eaɣəm ~ jajam\\ ~ -ia(ɣə)m| |ant |*jutum |jutum ~ dʒuɾum |dʒuːˈrum | |juːˈrum | | | Many instances of final /*m/ reflect an article dating to pre-Cook River. This is discernible internally by the absence of /*m/ in first members of older compounds (below,) by comparisons to Atohwaim in which one descendent has /*m/ which is not present in the other, and by outcomparisons to other subfamilies of Trans-New Guinea in which /*m/ appears only in Cook River. For example, /*oxom/ "water" may or may not be a loan from Awyu /*oxo/ or vice-versa, but there is no final nasal in the Awyu form.\\ \\ Final apical nasal /*n/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-n** |**n** |**n** |**** |**n** |**** |**** | |sleep/tired |*apun |apun |aˈpun |apun |apu(n)- | |abu- | |older sibling|*naːn |nan | | |naːxan | | | When preceded by …, final /*n/ is dropped in Yogo: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-n** |**ø** |**n** |**ø** |**n** |**ø** |**n** | |who?|*mein |-mɛⁱ ~ -mɛ |mein | |mein | |men | |path|*kamein |kʰami |kʰamein |kame |kʰaˈmin |xami |xamin | Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is very common. It is usually aspirated in Tamagario and Kaigir and less frequently so in Yogo: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-p** |**p [p pʰ b]**|**p [p pʰ]** |**** |**p [p pʰ]** |**** |**** | |cold |*inip | |i:ˈnip | |in:ipʰ |inip |inip̚ ~ iniɸ | |liver |*ep |jɛp- | |ep- | | |ep- | |woman |*enop |ɲonɔp |oˈnopʰ- | | |onop |onop̚ | |finger |*enop |-ɲenɛp |-ːeˈnopʰ | |-ːenopʰ | |-ɛnop | |ashes |*etetep |dʒɛtɛɾɛb |ereˈrepʰ | |re:ˈrepʰ | | | |smoke |*atip |atʃip ~ ɛⁱtʃip|-aˈripʰ |-arip |-eripʰ |-erip |-erip ~ -ɛrip | |earth/ground |*meip |bɛp̚ ~ bɛp |beⁱpʰ ~ beːp-|mep |bep |mep |pʰeip ~ beip | |tongue |*maetap |baɾap |baˈrap |marap |baeˈrapʰ |marap |barap̚ | |mouth/door |*moup |boᵘp |bo:upʰ |mowp |boupʰ |mowp |bu:p ~ bop | |skin/bark |*pip |pip |pipʰ |pip |pipʰ |pip |pip | |mud |*peip |pɛipʰ ~ pɛp | | |peipʰ | | | |hole |*po…op | | |pokop | |poxop | | |1 pl. |*nep |dɛːp |depʰ |nep |depʰ |nep |dep | |bone |*nomop |nomɔp |noˈmopʰ |nomop |noːˈmopʰ |namop |nomop̚\\ ~ noːmup | |wet |*tip | |tipʰ | |tip | |ti(ː)p | |sand |*tinep |ˈtɛnəp |tiˈnipʰ |tinib- |tiˈnip | |tinip̚ ~ tiːnip | |worm |*tatap |ta(ˈ)ɾəp |tʰarːap | |tarapʰ | |tarap | |dry |*sakotaːp |tʃɔkɾɔb |takoˈdap | |sɔˈkrapʰ |sokorap |sakraʔap | |star |*sup…up |tʃupup(ʰ) |tuːˈpup |tupup |suːpupʰ |supkup |subugup ~ supup | |leaf |*xap |xap ~ kʰap |-ˈkʰap |kap |-xapʰ ~ -ːapʰ|xap |xaːp ~ -xap | |belly/stomach |*kaːp |kap |kʰap |kaːp |kʰapʰ |kaːp |kaʔap | |root |*koutup |gurup ~ wuɾup |kʰouːrupʰ | |kuˈrupʰ | | | |white |*koptaːp |kɔˈpːɾɔp |kopˈrap |koprap |kʰoprap |koprap |kobraʔam (?) | |elbow/knee |*kup |kup- |kup- ~ kʰup- |kup- |kup- ~ kʰup- |kup- |kup- | |green coconut |*kup |kuːp̚ ~ kuːp | | |kup | | | |3 pl. |*wep |wɛp | |wep | | | | |fingernail |*wop |wɔp |-gwop |-wop | |-wop |woːpʰ | |fat/grease |*w[o]p | | | | |wuːp | | |hand/arm |*jep |dʒɛp ~ jɛp |dʒep |jep |jepʰ |jep |jɛːp̚ ~ jɛp\\ ~ jep- ~ jeɸ-| |younger sibling|*jenap |ɲap- |dʒenapʰ | |dʒenˈapʰ | | | |coconut |*jaːp |dʒap ~ jap |dʒap | |jaˈxapʰ | | | |run |*joup |jɔup |dʒoupʰ | |joupʰ | | | |nose |*jup |jup ~ dʒup |dʒup |jup |jup |jup |uːp̚ ~ juw- | Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ is lenited to non-stop [r ɾ] in all three languages: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-t** |**t [t r]** |**r** |**** |**r** |**** |**** | |thorn |*isot |ɛtʃɛɾ ~ uˈtʃuɾ\\ ~ otʃɔɾ|eːˈtor | |oːˈsor | |o(ː)sor | |emphatic |*-at | | | | | | | |tree kangaroo|*na[u]wat | |dauˈgʰar | | | | | |grandparent |*taːt | |tar | |taˈxar | | | |banana |*xaet | |χer |kaer |xer |xaer | | |cuscus |*kouput |ˈkɔbuɾ ~ kɔpuɾ |kʰoupʰur | |kʰouˈpʰur | | | |father |*j[i/e]t |dʒiɾ | | | |jet |jir | |snake |*jekot |dʒokɔɾ ~ jaˈkɔɾ |eːkˈʰoɾ |ekor |dʒeˈkˈʰoɾ |jekor |jokor ~ jəkor| |breadfruit |*jot |dʒɔɾ ~ dʒɔt |dʒor | |jor | | | In Tamagario, this created a new phoneme /r/, as final /*s/ has become /t/ (below.)\\ \\ When final /*t/ is preceded by high front vowel /*i/, it is merged with the reflexes of /*s/ in Yogo: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-t/i_** |**s [s ts]** |**r** |**** |**r** |**** |**** | |leech |*itit |itʃis |i:ˈrir | |ɾir | |irir ~ ərir| |foot/leg|*apit |apis |aˈpir |apir |aˈpir |apir |apir | |weep/cry|*neit |dɛs ~ dɛts |deːⁱr |neir |deir |neir |der ~ dir | … high back rounded vowel /*u/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-t/u_** |**s [s ts tʃ]**|**r** |**** |**r** |**** |**** | |rat |*tut |tus ~ tutʃ | | | | | | |forest|*kaput |kɔpits ~ kɔbits|kaˈpur | | | | | Final laminal /*s/ has become apical stop /t/ in Tamagario (Voorhoeve 1971: 82-83,) as have initial and medial /*s/ (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-s** |**s** |**t [tʰ]** |**t** |**s** |**s** |**s** | |kunai grass|*pis |pis |pi:tʰ | | | | | |blood |*jes |dʒɛs |dʒetʰ |jet |jes |jes |jes | Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-x** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |2 sg. |*ax |aːq |aχ |ak |ax |ax | | |1 sg. |*nax |daːq |daχ |nak |dax |nax |dak ~ dɔx | |speech|*utox | |uːˈroχ | |orox- | |roʔ- | Final glottal stop [ʔ] in monosyllables |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-[k]** |**ʔ** |**ʔ** |**** |**ʔ** |**** |**** | |bow |*pe[k] |pɛː |peʔ | |peʔ | | | |cough |*po[k] |pʰɔ ~ pɔ |poʔ | |foʔ | |fɔː ~ foː | |mosquito |*ni[k] |di |di: |ni |niʔ |ni |di:(ʔ) | |name |*na[k] |naʔ ~ na- |naʔ | |naʔ | |naː(ʔ) | |wife |*nuo[k] |doʔ |nᵘoː | |nuː | |doʔ ~ nuː ~ du-| |laugh |*j[i/e][k] |dʒi ~ ji |dʒi | |jeʔ | | | |man/person|*jo[k] |joʔ ~ joɣ- |dʒo |jo | |jo |joː | A segmental character for Yogo glottal stop is suggested by the following example, which is comparable to Clouse's (n.d.) Atoheim [dʒoʔom] "person": |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | |man |*jo[k] |joʔ |dʒo | |joː [dc] | | | |woman |*enop |ɲonɔp |oˈnopʰ- | | |onop |onop̚ | |person|*jo[k]-enop|joɣ-ɔˈnop | | | | | | … consonant clusters….\\ \\ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River |Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***-pt-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |white|*koptaːp |kɔˈpːɾɔp |kopˈrap |koprap |kʰoprap |koprap |kobraʔam | | |***-pt-/_i u**|**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |eat |*xapti | |ɣaˈpri |kapri | |xapri |xabri | Finally, two homoorganic stop plus nasal clusters are found, /*pm/ and /*tn/.These nasals are syllabic and can be stressed (Voorhoeve 1971: 85): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario |Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve |Clouse | | |***-pm** |**pm [pm̩]** |**pm [pm̩ pVm]**|**pm [pm̩]**|**pm [pm̩ m]**|**pm [pm̩ m]**|**km [km ɣm m]**| |rattan/rope|*ot[o]p[a]m|wɔˈɾɔpm̩ ~ wɔˈtɔpm̩|orːˈpʰam | |rʊm ~ rumː |orom | | |hair |*upm |upm̩ |u(ː)pũm |upm |upːm̩̃ ~ um |owpm |uːm ~ okm ~ oɣm | |sago tree |*k[e/a]ipm |kaⁱpm |kʰepːm̩̃ | |kʰeipːm̩̃ | | | |tail |*xapm | |kʰaːpm̃ |kapm |xaːˈm | |xam | | |***-tn** |**tn [dn̩ tn]** |**tn [tn̩]** |**tn [tn̩]**|**tn [tʰn n]**|**** |**tn [tn]** | |stone |*maitn |ᵐbɛi̯dn̩ |baitñ̩ |maitn | | | | |three |*watn |watn- |wor- | |wan- | |watn | |grandchild |*jatn | |dʒatːñ̩-tarep | |dʒatʰn-aˈrepʰ | | | … vowels….\\ \\ High front vowel /*i/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***i** |**i** |**i** |**** |**i** |**** |**** | |skin/bark |*pip |pip |pipʰ |pip |pipʰ |pip |pip | |kunai grass |*pis |pis |pi:tʰ | | | | | |male/husband |*nim |nim |ni:m | |nim | |nim | |mosquito |*ni[k] |di |di: |ni |niʔ |ni |di:(ʔ) | |wet |*tip | |tipʰ | |tip | |ti(ː)p | |left |*pi…i |piɣi |piː | |pikʰi | |piː(ʔ) | |red |*jimi |ˈɲimi |im:i | | | | | |cold |*inip | |i:ˈnip | |in:ipʰ |inip |inip̚ ~ iniɸ | |leech |*itit |itʃis |i:ˈrir | |ɾir | |irir ~ ərir | |two |*tousiki |totʃi |toᵘtiˈgi |totigi |tuskʰi |tosigi |tusəki ~ tusgi| |goanna |*wipVm |wipɔm ~ wiˈpum |wi:ˈpʰam | |wi:ˈpam | | | |ear |*itipaːm | |ipˈram |ipiram |rəˈpam |iripam |ripam~ripaʔam | |scratch |*seisi | |teiˈti | |seˈsi | |sesi | |lightning |*mati | | | | | |bari | |woman/o. sister|*wasi |watʃi ~ waⁱt- |waˈti | |wasi | | | |netbag |*japi |dʒɛpi |dʒaːˈpi | |jaːˈpʰi | | | |burn/roast |*jati |dʒidʒi- ~ -jetʃɛ| |jair- | | |ja(ː)ri | |foot/leg |*apit |apis |aˈpir |apir |aˈpir |apir |apir | |smoke |*atip |atʃip ~ ɛⁱtʃip |-aˈripʰ |-arip |-eripʰ |-erip |-erip ~ -ɛrip | |heavy |*xatim | | |karim | |xarim |xarim | When /*i/ is preceded by initial palatal non-stop /*j/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***i/j_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |eat |*j[i/e]n- |ɲɛn- | | |jɪn- | | | |father|*j[i/e]t |dʒiɾ | | | |jet |jir | |laugh |*j[i/e][k] |dʒi ~ ji |dʒi | |jeʔ | | | |hear |*j[i/e]ta…a|jɛtaɣa- ~jɛɾaɣa-|dʒiraɣeˈ- |jiɾəka- |jira- | |ira- ~ gira- | |near |*jitaːp | |iːrapʰ | |jiːˈrapʰ | |jiraʔap ~ girap| …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***iCe** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |sand|*tinep |ˈtɛnəp |tiˈnipʰ |tinib- |tiˈnip | |tinip̚ ~ tiːnip| High back rounded vowel /*u/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***u** |**u** |**u** |**** |**u** |**** |**** | |louse |*num |nũm |nuːm | |nuːm | |nuːm | |rat |*tut |tus ~ tutʃ | | | | | | |elbow/knee |*kup |kup- |kup- ~ kʰup- |kup- |kup- ~ kʰup- |kup- |kup- | |green coconut|*kup |kuːp̚ ~ kuːp | | |kup | | | |nose |*jup |jup ~ dʒup |dʒup |jup |jup |jup |uːp̚ ~ juw- | |hair |*upm |upm̩ |u(ː)pũm |upm |upːm̩̃ ~ um |owpm |uːm ~ okm ~ oɣm | |heart/liver |*umu | |umu |umur |umu | |uimu (?) | |river |*mutu |butu ~ buɾu |buːˈru | |buːˈru | |buru ~ bru- | |blow |*pupu |pʰupʰu |puˈpu | |ˈfupʰu | |fubu | |smooth |*utum | | | | | |ʔurum ~ rum | |ant |*jutum |jutum ~ dʒuɾum |dʒuːˈrum | |juːˈrum | | | |star |*sup…up |tʃupup(ʰ) |tuːˈpup |tupup |suːpupʰ |supkup |subugup ~ supup | |cuscus |*kouput |ˈkɔbuɾ ~ kɔpuɾ |kʰoupʰur | |kʰouˈpʰur | | | |root |*koutup |gutup ~ -wuɾup |kʰouːrupʰ | |kuˈrupʰ | | | |long |*wotu |wɔɾu | | |woru |woro |wo(ː)ru | |canoe |*amu |amu |aːˈmuː | |aˈmu | | | |bathe |*apu |apu |apʰuː | |aːˈpʰu | |ʔaːpu ~ abu\\ ~ apu| |urine |*anu |onːu ~ an:u |aˈnu | |aˈnu | | | |fire |*atu |ɔtu ~ atu ~ aɾu |aˈruː |aru |aˈru |aru |aru | |child |*mapu |ˈbopu ~ -bapu |baˈpʰu ~ -baˈβu| | | | | |wind/cold |*namu | | |namu |naˈmu | |namu(ʔ) | |paddle |*watu |ˈwatu ~ wodu |war:u | |waˈru | | | |village |*japu |japu ~ jopu |dʒap:u | |japuh | | | |sleep/tired |*apun |apun |aˈpun |apun |apu(n)- | |abu- | |black |*sakum |tʃokum |saˈkʰum |takum |saˈkʰum |sakum |sa(ʔ)kum | |pig |*wakum |ˈwɔkum\\ ~ waˈkum|waˈɣum |wakum |waːˈkʰum |wakum |wakom\\ ~ wokum | |split |*tatutu | |taruːˈru | |-taruru | |taruru | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***u/_Co** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |speech|*utox | |uːˈroχ | |orox- | |roʔ- | … | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | | |***u/t_C** |**i u** |**u** |**** |**u** |**** |**u** | | |seed |*atum |*atum |otʃim ~ aˈtʃim\\ ~atʃum|aˈrum | |aˈrum | |arum| | |***u/_t** |**i** |**u** |**** |**** |**** |**** | | |forest|*kaput |kɔpits ~ kɔbits|kaˈpur | | | | | | Mid front vowel /*e/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***e** |**ɛ** |**e** |**** |**e** |**** |**** | |verb suffix |*-pe |-pɛ |-pʰe ~ -ˈpe |-pe ~ -p |-(ˈ)pʰe ~ -(ˈ)pe|-pe |-pe~-be~-pi~-bi | |liver |*ep |jɛp- | |ep- | | |ep- | |bow |*pe[k] |pɛː |peʔ | |peʔ | | | |1 pl. |*nep |dɛːp |depʰ |nep |depʰ |nep |dep | |3 pl. |*wep |wɛp | |wep | | | | |hand/arm |*jep |dʒɛp ~ jɛp |dʒep |jep |jepʰ |jep |jɛːp̚ ~ jɛp\\ ~ jep- ~ jeɸ-| |blood |*jes |dʒɛs |dʒetʰ |jet |jes |jes |jes | |dog |*epe |ˈjɛpə |ep:pe |epe |eːˈpe |epe |epeʔ ~ epːe | |get up/stand up|*ete |dʒɛɾ- ~ -jɛɾ-|ere- | |re- |er- |re- | |fall |*nepe | |depe- | |deˈpe- | |depe- | |tie |*keke | |keːˈke | |kʰekʰe | |kʰekʰeʔ | |ashes |*etetep |dʒɛtɛɾɛb |ereˈrepʰ | |reːˈrepʰ | | | |betel pepper |*ena |dʒɛna- |ena- | |ena- | | | |younger sibling|*jenap |ɲap (?)- |dʒenapʰ | |dʒenˈapʰ | | | |fly (n.) |*mote | | |more | |more |bore | |no/not |*mame |mamɛ | | | |meme | | |kill |*wase |wase ~ wadʒɛ |waˈte | |wase | |waːse ~ wasi | Initial /*e/ … Yogo /*j/ [j dʒ] or [ɲ] …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***e** |**je [jɛ dʒɛ]**|**e** |**** |**e** |**** |**** | |liver |*ep |jɛp- | |ep- | | |ep- | |dog |*epe |ˈjɛpə |ep:pe |epe |eːˈpe |epe |epeʔ ~ epːe| |get up/stand up|*ete |dʒɛɾ- ~ -jɛɾ- |ere- | |re- |er- |re- | |ashes |*etetep |dʒɛtɛɾɛb |ereˈrepʰ | |reːˈrepʰ | | | |betel pepper |*ena |dʒɛna- |ena- | |ena- | | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***eCi** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |night|*esi |itʃ- |et- |ete |iːˈsi |esi |ɛsi ~ isi | Mid vowel harmony … : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***eCu** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |breast|*etum |jotɔm ~ dʒuɾum|eːˈrem |erem |eːˈrem | |reːm ~ rɛm| Mid vowel harmony … : |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***eCo** |**oCo** |**eCe** |**** |**eCe** |**** |**** | |woman |*enop |ɲonɔp |oˈnopʰ- | | |onop |onop̚ | |finger|*enop |-ɲenɛp |-ːeˈnopʰ | |-ːenopʰ | |-ɛnop | A similar pattern …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***iCo** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |thorn|*isot |ɛtʃɛɾ ~ uˈtʃuɾ\\ ~ otʃɔɾ|eːˈtor | |oːˈsor | |o(ː)sor | In combination with vowel harmony …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***e/#_** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |breast|*etum |jotɔm ~ dʒuɾum|eːˈrem |erem |eːˈrem | |reːm ~ rɛm| |woman |*enop |ɲonɔp |oˈnopʰ- | | |onop |onop̚ | |finger|*enop |-ɲenɛp |-ːeˈnopʰ | |-ːenopʰ | |-ɛnop | Mid back rounded vowel /*o/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***o** |**ɔ** |**o** |**** |**o** |**** |**** | |that/there|*om |ɔm(-) |om- |om- |aˈm- ~ um- (?)| |oːm | |cough |*po[k] |pʰɔ ~ pɔ |poʔ | |foʔ | |fɔː ~ foː | |tree/wood |*wom |ŋuɔm ~ ŋɔm |gʰum ~ gᵘom- |wom |wum |wom |woːm | |fingernail|*wop |wɔp |-gwop |-wop | |-wop |woːpʰ | |breadfruit|*jot |dʒɔɾ ~ dʒɔt |dʒor | |jor | | | |man/person|*jo[k] |joʔ ~ joɣ- |dʒo |jo | |jo |joː | |water |*o…om |ɔɣɔm |oˈɣom |okom |oɣʊm |oxom |oɣom | |tooth |*o…om |ɔxɔm ~ ɔχɔm\\ ~ ɔɣɔm |oˈɣom |ukom |oxom |oxom |ɔɣom ~ oɣom | |bone |*nomop |nomɔp |noˈmopʰ |nomop |noːˈmopʰ |namop |nomop̚\\ ~ noːmup| |hit |*po…om | |poˈɣom | |foˈɣum | |foɣom | |hole |*po…op | | |pokop | |poxop | | |head |*toxom |toɣɔm ~ tokɔm |toˈɣom |tokom |toˈɣom |toxom |tuɣum ~ toɣom | |wash |*so…so… |sokosok\\ ~ tʃokᵒtʃok|toɣotox | |soˈxoso | | | |flesh/meat|*wo…om |-oˈɣom |gʷoˈɣom |wokom |-oˈɣom |-oxom |-oɣ(o)m | |taro |*so…omo… |ˈtʃokᵒmox |toɣoˈmokʰ | |soxomokʰ | | | |long |*wotu |wɔɾu | | |woru |woro |wo(ː)ru | |fly (n.) |*mote | | |more | |more |bore | |good |*mo…ae |boɣoe |boˈɣe |moxae |boːeʔ | |boɣoi | |dry |*sakotaːp |tʃɔkɾɔb |takoˈdap | |sɔˈkrapʰ |sokorap |sakraʔap | |white |*koptaːp |kɔˈpːɾɔp |kopˈrap |koprap |kʰoprap |koprap |kobraʔam | |speech |*utox | |uːˈroχ | |orox- | |roʔ- | |snake |*jekot |dʒokɔɾ ~ jaˈkɔɾ |eːkˈʰoɾ |ekor |dʒeˈkˈʰoɾ |jekor |jokor ~ jəkor | In one example of initial /*o/, Yogo …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***o-** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |rattan/rope|*ot[o]p[a]m|wɔˈɾɔpm̩ ~ wɔˈtɔpm̩|orːˈpʰam | |rʊm ~ rumː |orom | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***oCi** |**uCu** |**uCi** |**** |**oCi** |**** |**oCi** | |drink|*joti |dʒutʃu~ˈdʒudʒu|dʒuˈri | |jori | |jori | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***aCe** |**aCe** |**aCa** |**** |**aCa** |**** |**** | |excrement|*ane |an:ɛ |aˈna |ana |aˈna | | | |rain |*muane |mɔnɛ |muˈnaː |muna |munaː |muna |muna(ʔ) | | |***o/aC_** |**o** |**a** |**** |**a** |**** |**ʷaː** | |roof |*apo |apo |ap:a | |apah | |apaʔ ~ əbʷaː| Low central vowel /*a/ … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario |Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve |Clouse | | |***** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |this/here |*am |am(-) |am- | |; aˈm- | |am(-) | |2 sg. |*ax |aːq |aχ |ak |ax |ax | | |name |*na[k] |naʔ ~ na- |naʔ | |naʔ | |naː(ʔ) | |1 sg. |*nax |daːq |daχ |nak |dax |nax |dak ~ dɔx | |where? |*tam |tam- ~ (ˈ)tan- |tam- | |tam- | | | |neck |*xam | | |-kam | |-xam |xam- | |leaf |*xap |xap ~ kʰap |-ˈkʰap |kap |-xapʰ ~ -ːapʰ |xap |xaːp ~ -xap | |new/young |*wam |wãm ~ˈwɐ̃m |wam- |wam- |wam- |wam- |waːm- | |three |*watn |watn- |wor- (?) | |wan- | |watn | |tail |*xapm | |kʰaːpm̃ |kapm |xaːˈm | |xam | |grandchild |*jatn | |dʒatːñ̩- | |dʒatʰn- | | | |search |*ka…[a] |kaɣa- | | |kax | |xaː ~ kax | |dig |*ta…a |taɣa- |taɣa- | |saxa- | |tagə- ~ taɣa- | |see |*saka |saɣa- ~ tʃaɣa- |taɣa- |taka- |sixa (?)- |saxa- |saɣa- | |hold |*ja…a |dʒaka- | |dʒaɣa- |jaɣa- | |jaɣa- | |2 pl. |*axan | | | | | | | |sago flour |*ma…am |baˈɣam |baˈɣam | |baˈɣam | | | |worm |*tatap |ta(ˈ)ɾəp |tʰarːap | |tarapʰ | |tarap | |eye |*sakam |sakam ~ tʃakam |taˈɣam |sakam |saˈɣam |saxam |saɣam ~ səɣəm | |fruit |*ja…am |-ˈtʃaɣam\\ ~ -iaˈɣam|-ia(ˈ)ɣam |jakam ~ -iakam|-ia(ˈ)ɣam\\ ~ -iakam|-eam ~ -iam\\ -iaxam|-eaɣəm ~ jajam\\ ~ -ia(ɣə)m| |moon |*xa…atam |kaxaɾam\\ ~ kaɣaɾam |χaɣaˈram |kakaram |xaram |xaxaram |xaɣaram | |excrement |*ane |an:ɛ |aˈna |ana |aˈna | | | |kill |*wase |wase ~ wadʒɛ |waˈte | |wase | |waːse ~ wasi | |path |*kamein |kʰami |kʰamein |kame |kʰaˈmin |xami |xamin | |above/up |*wapei |wapi ~ wapɛ |ˈwapʰi | |wafe- ~ wapi- |wapi | | |tongue |*maetap |baɾap |baˈrap |marap |baeˈrapʰ |marap |barap̚ | |fish |*ijakam |i̯jaxam ~ jaˈkam |dʲaˈkʰam |jakam |dʲaˈkʰam |jakam |jakm ~ jaːkum | |hear |*j[i/e]ta…a|jɛtaɣa- ~jɛɾaɣa- |dʒiraɣeˈ- |jiɾəka- |jira- | |ira- ~ gira- | |betel pepper |*ena |dʒɛna- |ena- | |ena- | | | |younger sibling|*jenap |ɲap- |dʒenapʰ | |dʒenˈapʰ | | | When /*a/ is followed by /*i/ in the next syllable, Yogo varieties … /e/ [ɛ]: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***a/_Ci** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |lightning |*mati | | | | | |bari | |netbag |*japi |dʒɛpi |dʒa;ˈpi | |jaːˈpʰi | | | |burn/roast |*jati |dʒidʒi- ~ -jetʃɛ| |jair- | | |ja(ː)ri | |woman/o. sister|*wasi |watʃi ~ waⁱt- |waˈti | |wasi | | | |foot/leg |*apit |apis |aˈpir |apir |aˈpir |apir |apir | |smoke |*atip |atʃip ~ ɛⁱtʃip |-aˈripʰ |-arip |-eripʰ |-erip |-erip ~ -ɛrip| |heavy |*xatim | | |karim | |xarim |xarim | |eat |*xapti | |ɣaˈpri |kapri | |xapri |xabri | When /*a/ is followed by /*u/ in the next syllable, Yogo varieties … /o/ [ɔ]: | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | | |***a/_Cu** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | | |canoe |*amu |amu |aːˈmuː | |aˈmu | | | | |bathe |*apu |apu |apʰuː | |aːˈpʰu | |ʔaːpu ~ abu\\ ~ apu| | |urine |*anu |onːu ~ an:u |aˈnu | |aˈnu | | | | |fire |*atu |ɔtu ~ atu ~ aɾu |aˈruː |aru |aˈru |aru |aru | | |child |*mapu |ˈbopu ~ -bapu\\ bap-|baˈpʰu ~ -baˈβu\\ ~bapʰ-|map- |bap- |map- |bap- | | |wind/cold |*namu | | |namu |naˈmu | |namu(ʔ) | | |bite |*ta…u- |toɣo- ~ tɔᵘk- | | |tau- | |taɣu- | | |paddle |*watu |ˈwatu ~ wodu |war:u | |waˈru | | | | |village |*japu |japu ~ jopu |dʒap:u | |japuh | | | | |sleep/tired|*apun |apun |aˈpun |apun |apu(n)- | |abu- | | |seed |*atum |*atum |otʃim ~ aˈtʃim\\ ~atʃum |aˈrum | |aˈrum | |arum| |black |*sakum |tʃokum |saˈkʰum |takum |saˈkʰum |sakum |sa(ʔ)kum | | |forest |*kaput |kɔpits ~ kɔbits |kaˈpur | | | | | | |pig |*wakum |ˈwɔkum\\ ~ waˈkum |waˈɣum |wakum |waːˈkʰum |wakum |wakom\\ ~ wokum | | |split |*tatutu | |taruːˈru | |-taruru | |taruru | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***aCe** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |no/not|*mame |mamɛ | | | |meme | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***aCo** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |dry|*sakotaːp |tʃɔkɾɔb |takoˈdap | |sɔˈkrapʰ |sokorap |sakraʔap | | |***aCo** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |one|*pa…amo… |pɔɣɔmɔx\\ ~pɔgɔmɔx|paɣamokʰ |pakamok |paɣamokʰ |paxamu |paɣamok̚\\ ~ pamok| Long low vowel /*aː/ is most typically found in monosyllables. It is distinguished from low central /*a/ (above) not only by length but by the interpolation of velars [x ɣ] in Kriens, Lebold and Menanti's (2011) Kaigir and of glotal stop [ʔ] in Clouse's (n.d.) vocabularies: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario |Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve |Clouse | | |***aː/C_C**|**aː [a aː]**|**aː [a]** |**aː [aː]**|**aː [axa aɣa a]**|**aː [aː]**|**aː [aʔa]**| |blunt/dull |*maːm |mam ~ maːm | | |maˈxam ~ mam | | | |older sibling|*naːn |nan | | |naˈxan | | | |sun |*taːm |tam |tam |taːm |taɣam |taːm |taʔam | |grandparent |*taːt | |tar | |taˈxar | | | |belly/stomach|*kaːp |kap |kʰap |kaːp |kʰapʰ |kaːp |kaʔap | |coconut |*jaːp |dʒap ~ jap |dʒap | |jaˈxapʰ | | | Outcomparison to Atohwaim and, in the instances of /*naːn/ and /*taːt/, to Trans New Guinea generally, supports the assumption that the Kaigir medial is a latter-day and probably subphonemic interpolation. This phenomenon is superficially reminiscent of the behavior of long low central /*aː/ in Iatmul of the Ndu subfamily of Sepik River, where a glottal stop [ʔ] looks to have likewise been interpolated (q.v. Staalsen 1969: 75-82.)\\ \\ Several probable examples in non-monosyllables, for which evidence is restricted to Clouse's (n.d.) Kaigir, may well be compounds, for example the Kaugat (Atowhaim) cognate of "ear" is [itʃoxop] (Voorhoeve 1971: 110) while /*taːp/ may be the same root in all three examples below: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River |Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***aː/VCVC_C**|**a ɔ** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**a** |**aʔa a** | |near |*jitaːp | |iːrapʰ | |jiːˈrapʰ | |jiraʔap ~ girap| |ear |*itipaːm | |ipˈram |ipiram |rəˈpam |iripam |ripam~ripaʔam | |white|*koptaːp |kɔˈpːɾɔp |kopˈrap |koprap |kʰoprap |koprap |kobraʔam | |dry |*sakotaːp |tʃɔkɾɔb |takoˈdap | |sɔˈkrapʰ |sokorap |sakraʔap | … diphthongs ….\\ \\ The most common diphthongs are /*eⁱ *oᵘ/ …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***eⁱ** |**ei [ɛi ɛ i]**|**ei [ei i eː]**|**** |**ei [ei e i]**|**** |**** | |behind |*nei |dɛi- |deⁱ- | |nei- | | | |earth/ground|*meip |bɛp̚ ~ bɛp |beⁱpʰ ~ beːp- |mep |bep |mep |pʰeip ~ beip| |who? |*mein |-mɛⁱ ~ -mɛ |mein | |mein | |men | |mud |*peip |pɛipʰ ~ pɛp | | |peipʰ | | | |weep/cry |*neit |dɛs ~ dɛts |deːⁱr |neir |deir |neir |der ~ dir | |below |*jei[n] |ɲɛi |dʒe- | |jei- | | | |scratch |*seisi | |teiˈti | |seˈsi | |sesi | |above/up |*wapei |wapi ~ wapɛ |ˈwapʰi | |wafe- ~ wapi- |wapi | | |path |*kamein |kʰami |kʰamein |kame |kʰaˈmin |xami |xamin | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***oᵘ** |**ou [ou o u]**|**ou [ou oː]**|**** |**ou [ou o u]**|**** |**** | |mouth/door|*moup |boᵘp |bo:upʰ |mowp |boupʰ |mowp |bu:p ~ bop | |run |*joup |jɔup |dʒoupʰ | |joupʰ | | | |two |*tousiki |totʃi |toᵘtiˈgi |totigi |tuskʰi |tosigi |tusəki ~ tusgi| |cuscus |*kouput |ˈkɔbuɾ ~ kɔpuɾ |kʰoupʰur | |kʰouˈpʰur | | | |root |*koutup |gutup ~ wuɾup |kʰouːrupʰ | |kuˈrupʰ | | | Final /*ou/ may be occluded in Yogo and Tamagario in a manner reminiscent of the occlusion of /*w/ when followed by /*o/ (above): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***ou** |**ou [o u uk]**|**ou [oː oug ouk]**|**** |**ou [ou o u]**|**** |**** | |old (things)|*ou |uk- |ougʰ- |ow- | |o- |uː- | |afraid |*tou |to |toː | |tou | |toː ~ tuː | |house |*wou |wu ~ gũ |goːukʰ ~ gougʰ- |wowk |wouː |wuw |wo ~ wu | Diphthong /*eu/ is known from only one example, with outcomparisons to Asmat-Kamoro (/*[k]ew/) and Marind (/*kiu/): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***eu** |**au** |**eo** |**** |**o** |**** |**** | |crocodile|*keu |kʰau ~ kʰa |kʰeːo | |kʰoː |xo | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***oi** |**oi [oi ui]** |**oi** |**** |**oi [o i]** |**** |**** | |far |*woi |wɔi ~ goj- ~ wui-|-goijʰ | |wo- ~ wij- | |wiːj- | |in front|*woi |wɔⁱ- ~ wɔ- | | |wei- | | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***ai** |**ai [ei ai]**|**ai** |**** |**ai** |**** |**** | |father |*ai |aⁱ- |ai- |aj |aiː | |ai | |know |*nait |dɛⁱɾ ~ dɛɾ |deiːdiʔ- | |dasje- | |naːise- | |stone |*maitn |ᵐbɛi̯dn̩ |baitñ̩ |maitn | | | | |wallaby|*sepaxai |tʃɛpaɣai | | |seːˈpair | | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***ai** |**** |**** |**** |**ai** |**** |**** | |friend|*nai[tn/k] |do-tʃi ~ dɛ-tʃu|daitñ̩- | |daːiʔ | | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***ae** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |come|*kae |kʰa |ɣai |kae |-kʰai | |-kai | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***ae** |**a** |**a** |**** |**ae** |**** |**** | |banana|*xaet | |χer |kaer |xer |xaer | | |tongue|*maetap |baɾap |baˈrap |marap |baeˈrapʰ |marap |barap̚ | |good |*mo…ae |boɣoe |boˈɣe |moxae |boːeʔ | |boɣoi | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| ||Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | || |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| || |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | ||***au** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | || | | | | | | | … |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***ie** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** |**** | |sit |*tie | | |tei |tje- |tei- |tijɛ- ~ tije-| |shoot/bite|*sie |-tʃɛ ~ -dʒɛ | | |-sie | |-si ~ -se | …/*uo/ has merged with /o/ in Yogo: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al. |Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Clouse | | |***uo** |**o [o ɔ]** |**uo [uo :u oː]**|**** |**uo [uː u o]**|**** |**** | |lime|*kuo |kɔ |kᵘo | | | | | |wife|*nuo[k] |doʔ |nᵘoː | |nuː | |doʔ ~ nuː ~ du-| |bird|*suopam |sɔˈpɔm~tʃɔˈpɔm|tuːpam |towpam |supaːm |səpam |sopam ~ supam | Compounding proceeds similarly to Asmat-Kamoro to the west in that final vowels of first members are dropped. Article /*-m/ is not present on the first members of older compounds: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc. | | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al. |Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | |fruit |*ja…am | | |jakam | | | | |child |*mapu |ˈbopu ~ -bapu|baˈpʰu ~ -baˈβu| | | | | |egg |*map-jaxam |bap-iaˈɣam |bapʰ-iaˈɣam |map-iakam|bap-iaˈɣam |map-iaxam|bap-ia(ɣə)m| |tree/wood |*wom |ŋuɔm ~ ŋɔm |gʰum ~ gᵘom- |wom |wum |wom |woːm | |fruit of tree|*wo-jaxam | | | | |w-eam |w-eaɣəm | |flesh |*wo…om |-oˈɣom |gʷoˈɣom |wokom |-oˈɣom |-oxom |-oɣ(o)m | |meat |*ijak-woxom|dʒak-oɣom | | |dʲak-oˈɣom | | | ===== Pronouns ===== Voorhoeve (1971: 85-86) Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 45-46) Kriens, Lebold and Menanti (2011: 45-46)\\ \\ Voorhoeve's transcriptions are phonemic, not phonetic. |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Yogo |Tamagario |Tamagario|Kaigir |Kaigir |Kaigir | | | |Kaitok etc. |Arare |Arare |Atsipim |Kawem |Kawem etc.| | | |Lebold et al.|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Kriens et al.|Voorhoeve|Clouse | |1 sg.|*nax |daːq |daχ |nak |dax |nax |dak ~ dɔx | |2 sg.|*ax |aːq |aχ |ak |ax |ax |? | |3 sg.|*ek |om |aχ-nɛm/waˈti |ek |aɣar:akʰ |ekam | | |1 pl.|*nep |dɛːp |depʰ |nep |depʰ |nep |dep | |2 pl.|*akan |axan |aɣanekʰ |akanek |aɣeno |axan | | |3 pl.|*wep |wɛp |wen:ekʰ |wep, wene|en: |ene | | Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen's third person singular reflects /*om/ "that." The second of Kriens, Lebold and Menanti's Tamagario forms would seem to reflect /*wasi/ "woman."\\ \\ In addition to the above, Voorhoeve (1971: 85-86) gives pronouns in three more case forms for Tamagário and Kaigir alongside those of Kaugat (Atohwaim;) these are drawn from the manuscripts of Drabbe (n.d.) and Lommertsen (n.d.)\\ \\ … emphatic …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Central Gondu|Tamagário|Kaigir | | |***-at[e]** |**-ar** |**-are**| |1 sg. emph.|*… |nak-ar |nax-are | |2 sg. emph.|*… |ak-ar |ax-are | |3 sg. emph.|*… |ekam-ar |ekam-are| |1 pl. emph.|*… |nep-ar |nep-are | |2 pl. emph.|*… |akan-ar |axan-are| |3 pl. emph.|*… |wep-ar |en-are | … indirect object …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Central Gondu|Tamagário|Kaigir | | |***-et[u]** |**-ere** |**-eru**| |1 sg. dat.|*… |nakere |naxeru | |2 sg. dat.|*… |akere |axeru | |3 sg. dat.|*… |ekamere |ekameru | |1 pl. dat.|*… |nepere |neperu | |2 pl. dat.|*… |akanere |axaneru | |3 pl. dat.|*… |wepere |eneru | … possessive …: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Central Gondu|Tamagário |Kaigir | | |***…** |**** |**** | |1 sg. poss.|*… |nam; nakanem|nem naxanem | |2 sg. poss.|*… |anam |anem | |3 sg. poss.|*… |enem |enem | |1 pl. poss.|*… |nokom |naboxom\\ noxom| |2 pl. poss.|*… |ikim |axanikim | |3 pl. poss.|*… |wepkom |enekem | ===== Verbal morphology ===== … Voorhoeve (1971: 86-87) … ===== Loans from neighboring languages ===== … Warkay from Voorhoeve (1971: 92-94, 110-114) and Yaqay (Yakhai) from Drabbe (1954: 128-142) and Kriens and Lebold (2010: 40-53): |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |Gondu River|Warkay|Yaqay |Marind|Awyu| |hole |*po…op |peʔep | | | | |mosquito |*ni[k] |nikir |naːŋgit | | | |tree kangaroo|*na[u]wat | |naˈgwa [rk] | | | |sun |*taːm | |teme "sky" | | | |wallaby |*sepaxai | |tɛmbaˈɣats [rk]| | | |taro |*so…omo… | |ˈtoqomi | | | |bamboo |*supo | | |*suba | | |forest |*kaput | |qapu | | | |cassowary |*ko[u]je |kojæ |ˈkuju | | | |net bag |*japi | |jaˈpi [rk] | | | Like Tamagario and the unrelated Maklew, Yakhai regularly reflects laminal /*s/ as apical stop /t/, demonstrating that modern Yakhai cannot be the immediate source of these loans, though proto-Yakhai-Warkay retained /*s/ as such and it's not clear how old the change is.\\ \\ \\