====== Usarufa ====== Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute ===== Situation ===== Usarufa is spoken by approximately 1,000 people (1973) living 30 miles southwest of Kainantu in the Kainantu subdistrict of Papua New Guinea's Eastern Highlands Province (McKaughan 1973: 179, Bee and Glasgow 1973: 190.) Usarufa is closely related to Awiyaana (Auyana,) but the two are not mutually intelligible (McKaughan and Marks 1973: 181.) Many Usarufa are multilingual, with Fore, Kanite, Keyagana and Kamano of the Goroka family being the most widely known second languages (Bee 1964: 2, 1973: 205, 225.) ===== Sources ===== Bee and Glasgow (1962: 112-127) phonology of Mairapaqa village, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 190-203) Bee (1964) phonology, masters thesis, reprinted in Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 4 (1965: 39-68) and McKaughan ed. (1973: 204-224) Bee (1965) grammar of Orona village Bee (1965: 1-37) 60 Usarufa reflexes of proto-Kainantu, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 739-768) Bee (1973: 225-323) grammar, a revised version of Bee (1965) Bee, compiler (1973: 390-400) texts Kerr (1973: 769-799) Usarufa reflexes of proto-Kainantu kin terms Chenoveth (1992) sketch phonology ===== Phonology ===== Bee (1964, 1973: 204-224) gives 9 consonants and 5 (6) vowels for Usarufa as follows: |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | m | n | | | | | p | t | | k | ʔ | | w | ɾ | j | | | |< - 60px 60px 60px >| | i | | u | | e | ɐ | o | | | [ɑ:] | | (n.b. Bee gives /ɐ/ as /ə/)\\ \\ This is a substantial simplification of the 18-consonant system presented in Bee and Glasgow (1962, 1973: 190-203) in which clusters (below) are treated as unit phonemes. Stops /p t k/ are lightly aspirated initially. Intervocalic peripheral stops /p k/ are lenited to voiced fricatives [β ɣ] . /t/ is specified as alveodental [t̪], reflecting its origin in /*s/, and according to Bee can be realized as [s] in words which have cognates with /s/ in other Kainantu langages. Alveolar flap /ɾ/ is realized as lateral [ɺ] following high front /i/ or when preceded by /ɐ ɑ:/ and followed by /i e ɐ ɑ:/. Glides /w j/ are slightly fricated.\\ \\ Glottal stop /ʔ/ is, like cluster-initial /N/ [m n ŋ], best viewed as an archiphoneme /C/ (Bee's ) resulting from the merger of syllable-final stops. Accordingly, /ʔ/ does not occur initially, only /N ʔ/ occur syllable finally, and, since word-final /N/ has been dropped, only /ʔ/ occurs word-finally. The combinatory rules which determine the qualities of clusters, including those resulting from suffixaton, are are follows (Bee 1973: 218-219, 1973: 743.): |< - 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px >| | class | final | V | m | n | p | t | k | ɾ | w | j | | ø | ø | V | m | n | β | t | ɣ | ɾ | w | j | | N | ø | nV | m: | n: | ʔp | ʔt | ʔk | ʔk | ʔk | ʔt | | C | ʔ | ɾV/ʔV | ʔm/ʔ | ʔn | ʔp | ʔt | ʔk | ʔk | ʔk/ʔw | ʔj | Long low central /ɑ:/ is interpreted as a sequence /ɐɐ/ .\\ \\ Each syllable takes one of three tones, low, high or falling. ===== Pronouns ===== Bee (1973: 241-244) gives pronouns for Usarufa in five case forms as follows: |< - 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px >| | |base form|unmarked|non-focus |singular focus|exclusive |reflexive | |1 sg.|kè- |kè-mɐ́ |--- |--- |kè-nɐ̀mɑ́:̀ |kè-nɐ̀mɑ́:̀-ɾìʔ| |2 sg.|è- |è-mɐ́ |--- |--- |è-nɐ̀mɑ́:̀ |è--nɐ̀mɑ́:̀-ɾìʔ| |3 sg.|wè- |wè-mɐ́ |--- |--- |wè-nɐ̀mɑ́:̀ |wè-nɐ̀mɑ́:̀-ɾìʔ| |1 pl.|kè- |--- |kè-tɑ́:́ |--- |kè--nɐ̀mɑ́:̀-tɑ̀:̀ |--- | |2 pl.|kè- |--- |kè-ɾɐ́wɐ́ʔ|--- |kè--nɐ̀mɑ́:̀-tɑ̀:̀\\ è--nɐ̀mɑ́:̀-tɑ̀:̀|--- | |3 pl.|jè- |jè-mɐ́ |jè-ɾɐ́wɐ́ʔ|--- |wè-nɐ̀mɑ́:̀-tɑ̀:̀ |--- | |1 dl.|kè- |--- |kè-ɾɐ́tɐ́ |kè-ɣɐ́ɾɐ́ʔ |kè--nɐ̀mɑ́:̀-ɾɐ̀tɐ̀ |--- | |2 dl.|kè- |--- |kè-nɐ̀kɐ̀ |è-ɣɐ́ɾɐ́ʔ |kè-nɐ̀mɑ́:̀-ɾɐ̀tɐ̀\\ è-nɐ̀mɑ́:̀-ɾɐ̀tɐ̀|--- | |3 dl.|jè- |--- |jè-nɐ́kɐ́ |wè-ɣɐ́ɾɐ́ʔ |wè--nɐ̀mɑ́:̀-ɾɐ̀tɐ̀ |--- | ===== Verbal morphology ===== **[under construction]**\\ \\ Bee (1965, 1973: 269-278) …\\ \\