Table of Contents

Mabulap-Numugen River

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

[under construction]

The Mabulap-Numugen River family consists of as many as seven languages spoken …

Subclassification

The internal classification of Mabulap-Numugen River is as follows:

Mabulap-Numugen River

Mabulap (Amaimon)

Numugen River

Sources

[under construction]

Z'graggen (1980: 1-159) 320 comparative terms and (p. 164-165) pronominal paradigms for Wanuma (Usan,) Yaben, Yarawata, Bilakura (Karian,) Parawen, Ukuriguma and Amaimon

Reesink (1981) (unobtained)

Reesink (1983) subordination in Usan (unobtained)

Reesink (1984) grammar of Usan (unoibtained)

Reesink (1987) grammar of Usan

Reesink (1993) (unobtained)

Reesink (1994) (unobtained)

Reesink (2013) “give” in Usan

Lillie (2001) sketch phonology of Amaimon (Mabulap) of Tebesarik village

Pick (2020: …) grammar sketch of Karian, (pp. …) grammar sketch of Yaben and (pp. 397-429) reconstruction of proto-Numugen including (pp. 415-429) …

History of classification

[under construction]

Z'graggen (1971: 54-55, 1975: 29) considers Amaimon to be a family-level isolate in the Pihom Stock subgroup of his Northern Adelbert Superphylum.

…Ross …

Pick (2020: 188-194) excludes Amaimon) from his Norht Delbert classification, saying of Amaimon as well as Omosan, Bargam (Mugil,) and Amako-Waskia (Isumrud Strait) (p. 192,) “I have not excluded these languages because I don't believe they are related to Northern Adelbert. They likely are related, and there are promising potential cognates between the Northern Adelbert languages and other languages in the area, and further research may show that the boundaries of NorthernAdelbert need to be adjusted.”

We find Mabulap (Amaimon) to be the nearest relative of the Numugen River subgroup within Adelbert Range.

Historical phonology

[under construction]

Proto-Mabulap-Numugen River had 13 to 19 consonants and 4 vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *s *k [*kʷ]
*b *d *g [*gʷ]
[*mb] [*nd] [*ŋg] [*ŋgʷ]
*w *j
*i *u
*a





Initial consonants correspond as follows:

Mab.-Num. Mabulap Numugen
*m- m *m
*n- n *n
*ŋ- ŋ- *n
*p-
*t- t *t
*s- s
*k- k *k
*kʷ- *kʷ
*b- *b
*d- *d
*d-/_i s *d
*g- g *g
*gʷ- *gʷ-
*w- Ø *w
*j- Ø *j-

Medial consonants correspond as follows:

Mab.-Num. Mabulap Numugen
*-m- m *m
*-n- n *n
*-ŋ- ŋ *n
*-p- p *p
*-t- t *t
*-t-/_I s *t
*-s- s
*-k- k *k
*-kʷ- *kʷ
*-b- b *b
*-d- *d
*-d-/i_ s *d
*-d-/_i s *d
*-g- g *g
*-gʷ- *gʷ
*-mb-
*-nd-
*-ŋg- ŋ *ŋg
*-w-
*-ɺ- l *ɺ-
*-j-

Final consonants correspond as follows:

Mab.-Num. Mabulap Numugen
*-m m *n
*-n n *n
*-ŋ ŋ *n
*-p
*-t
*-s
*-k
*-…
*-b
*-…
*-d
*-g
*-w
*-ɺ
*-j

Vowels correspond as follows:



These corerspondences are exemplified as follows, with Amaimon (Mabulap) attestations drtawn from Z'graggen (1980: 1-159) and Pick's proto-Numugen from Pick (2020: 215-288, 415-429.) In most instance Pick arrived at the same forms that we did, and his identifications of mid-central vowel /*ə/ (Pick's <e>) were more reliable, prompting improvements to our forms; however there remain a minrotiy of substantive differences which warrant two separate Numugen River columns as are given below.




Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*…
hair *im *im *im
younger s.s. sib *iməka *im[ə]ka *imeka
excrement *ibi iːβi *ibi *ibi
sleep (v.) *in- -in- *in- *in-
dream (n.) *in-aw ina- *inaw
1 pl. *ini ini- *in[i] *in
egg *inaw *inaw *niaw
yesterday *inukan *inukan *inukʷan
wash/bathe *it- -is- *it- *it-
stand up *[i]dəɺam- zɛlamu- ~ zela- *[i]d[ə]ɺam-
roast *ida[t]- *ida[t]-
walk/go *id[uw]- iz- ~ -idz- *id[uw]-
smoke/tobacco *ikab *ikab *ikab
hear *ig[V]- igi- *ig[u]-
green *igəm *igəm *igem
laugh *igaɺ- *igaɺ-
burn (tr.) *igum- *igum- *igum-
be *igʷ[a]- go- *igʷ[a]- *igʷ-
penis *igʷaɺ iːgʷal ~iːgʷale *igʷaɺ *iguar
sea/salt *iwəɺ wɛl *iwəɺ *iwer ~ *jer
go up *iɺ- i- *iɺ- *ir-
crocodile *ijamaji jamːail *jamaj
who? *ijawu jau *jaw
breast *amVn amun
net bag *abaw ʌba *abaw *abaw
2 pl. *ani ani *ani *an
tail *aduɺ aru-kɛm *aduɺ
path *aɺVkVj *aɺ[a]kVj *arakai
die *um- um- *um- *um-
man *uma[d] uːma
plant (v.) *ub- *ub- *ub-
arm/hand *ubən bene *ubən *uben
draw water *un- unu- *un- *un-
name *unim unim *unim *unim
female *unad *unad *unad
give (3 sg.) *ut- *ut- *ut-
song *ud *ud *ud
dance (v.) *uw- *uw- *uw-
house *mənə mɔnɛ *mənə
nose *məd mɛta *məd
vomit (v.) *məŋiɺ- miŋil- *məniɺ-
earth/ground *məkiw mɛːki ~ mɛki
~ meki
cassowary *m[ə/a]jiba[n]mɛwa *m[ə/a]jiba[n]
taro *mam mʌːmu *mam *mam
what? *maj[a] ma-ma *maj(-maj) *maj-maj
fire *mud *mud
eye *musag *muag *mag
saliva *muk muːku *muk
flooring *[pə]ɺəm *əɺəm *erem
white *[p]awan *awan *awan
call out *[p]aɺ- *aɺ- *ar-
skin *[p]ugan *gʷan *guan
heavy *bin(-at) piːni *bin(-at) *binat
put *big(-iw)- *big(-iw)- *bigʷ-
stone axe *bəŋ bɛŋi ~ bɛŋ *bən *ben
old. s.s. sib (1)*bab *bab *bab
rattan *bunəm *bunəm
sit *bugu- *bugu-
fly (v.) *buŋg[ija] *buŋgija
pig *buɺuk *buɺuk *buruk
eat *ni- ni- *ni- *ni-
2 sg. *nə nɛ- *nə *ne
mother (1) *na *na *na
mother (2) *na-nija nʌnia *na-nija *nain
stone *naməwən *naməwən
kongkong *naməɺan namʌrʌn *naməɺan
hot *nanaw *nanaw *nanaw
chest *təgum *təgum
now/new *t[ə/a]mən tɛmɛn *t[ə/a]mən *temen
sky/cloud *t[ə/a]t tɛrɛ ~ tɛr ~ tɛl *tat *tat
wooden plate *tabin tʌːbin *tabin *tabin
moon *takiw *takiw
short *taj *taj
stick (n.) *tukum tukum *tukum
calf *dibuɺ *dibuɺ *dibur
full *dikʷaɺ siːkʷa- *dikaɺ
ear *diwad zuar ~ zuʌr-
long/right (side)*dVgVn *dVgVn *degen
cough (n.) *du[k]un *dukun *dukun
snake *d[u]wag *duwag *duag
root *duɺu[n] *duɺun *durun
fat/grease *sidaŋ siraŋ *idan
dog *sikaw sika *ikaw *ikaw
vine/rope *siwaɺ sʌla ~ sual *iwaɺ
bamboo *səŋi seŋi *əni
clay pot\ *səgi siːgi *əgi *egi ~ *igi
sand *səɺəw sɛlɛ *əɺəw *erew
tooth *ŋ[ə/a]nag ŋanag ~ ŋʌnʌg-
~ nanag-
*n[ə/a]nag *nanag
tree *ŋam ŋʌmu *nam *nam
hand drum *kibəm *kibəm *kibem
shadow *kinakin kinikin *kinakin
meat *kit *kit *kit
chop/fell *kikʷ[a]- kiku- *kikʷa- *kikʷa-
bow *kəmi kɛːmi *kəmi *kemi
speech *kəb kɛβ- *kəb *keb
near *kəni *kəni
blood *kəd *kəd *ked
sap *kədi kese ~ kɛsɛ *kədi *kesi
armpit *kədipan kɛpina *kədipan
yellow *kəwəgap kogʌp
sago *kamaɺ kamʌr *kamaɺ *kamar
mouth *kabVɺ *kabVɺ *kabar
stump/base *kanam kanaim *kanam
after/later *kanugadi kanaβas *kaŋgadi
mosquito sp. *kadidiɺ *kadidiɺ *sisir
red *kad-at *kadat *kadat
mosquito *kasin kasin *kain *kain
top of tree *kawaɺ[ap] kwalap *kawVɺ *kaur
swell *kaɺim- *kaɺim- *karim-
sugarcane *kaji kʌi *kaj *kai
yam *k[a]jaw *k[a]jaw
brain(s) *kum *kum *-kum
nape *kuman *kuman *kuman
fly (n.) *kuduɺuk *kuduɺuk *kuduruk
shadow *k[u]gud *kugud *kugud
betel pepper *kuwi[ja] kuːwiza
loincloth *kuɺaw kuːla *kuɺaw *kuraw
valley *kuɺum *kuɺum *kurum
black *kuɺun *kuɺun *kurun
see *-gV- -gi *-gV-
knee *gəta geːta ~ -geta *gətaɺik
one *gədika gɛsikʌkʌ *gədika *g[e/a]di
grass skirt *gəguɺ *gəguɺ
liver *gama gamʌ- ~ gamʌː-
louse *gun gunu *gun *gun
wind/cold *gugum ugum ~ uɣum *gugum
bite *guɺ- gul-
banana *kʷədi *kʷədi *kʷedi
sweat *kʷaɺ kʷʌːlɛ *kʷaɺ
Gnetum sp. *kʷaɺi *kʷaɺi *kʷari
3 sg. *wə o- *wə *we
3 pl. *wə-də otɛ- *wədə *wede
sun *wədijəm *wədijəm *wediem
no/not/empty *wəjak ok-in ~ oːk-im *wəjak *ujak
ashes *wam wam ~ wamu *wam
pig *wasi wasi
shoot (v.) *waɺ- wʌl- *waɺ- *war-
sing *waɺ- -wʌr- *waɺ- *war-
1 sg. *jə ɛ- *jə *je
boil (v.) *jam- -amu- *jam- *jam-
water *jag ʌːgə *jag *jag
this *jaŋgu ɛŋʌ *jaŋgu *jegu

Any consonant except apical non-stop /*ɺ/ and prenasalized voiced stops /*mb *ŋg/ can occur initially.

Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both subgroups:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*m- m *m *m
hunger *min[ə] *min…
house *mənə mɔnɛ *mənə
nose *məd mɛta *məd
vomit (v.) *məŋiɺ- miŋil- *məniɺ-
earth/ground*məkiw mɛːki ~ mɛki
~ meki
cassowary *m[ə/a]jiba[n]mɛwa *m[ə/a]jiba[n]
taro *mam mʌːmu *mam *mam
what? *maj[a] ma-ma *maj(-maj) *maj-maj
fire *mud *mud
eye *musag *muag *mag
saliva *muk muːku *muk

Initial apical nasal /*n/…:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*n-
eat *ni- ni- *ni- *ni-
2 sg. *nə nɛ- *nə *ne
mother (1)*na *na *na
mother (2)*na-nija nʌnia *na-nija*nain
stone *naməwən *naməwən
kongkong *naməɺan namʌrʌn *naməɺan
hot *nanaw *nanaw *nanaw

Initial velar nasal /*ŋ/…:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*ŋ- ŋ [ŋ n] *n *n
tooth*ŋ[ə/a]nagŋanag ~ ŋʌnʌg-
~ nanag-
*n[ə/a]nag*nanag
tree *ŋam ŋʌmu *nam *nam

Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*p-
flooring*[pə]ɺəm- *əɺəm–*erem-
white *[p]awan *awan *awan
call out*[p]aɺ- *aɺ- *ar-
skin *[p]ugan *gʷan *guan

Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is generally retained as such in both subgroups:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*t- t *t *t
chest *təgum *təgum
now/new *t[ə/a]məntɛmɛn *t[ə/a]mən*temen
sky/cloud *t[ə/a]t tɛrɛ ~ tɛr ~ tɛl*tat *tat
wooden plate*tabin tʌːbin *tabin *tabin
moon *takiw *takiw
short *taj *taj
stick (n.) *tukum tukum *tukum

No examples of initial /*t/ followed by high front vowel /*i/ have been found, suggesting that it was fricated to and merged with /*s/ (below); however there are several examples of /*s/ followed by mid central vowel /*ə/ such that it cannot in all instances be reduced to a conditioned variant of /*t/

Initial laminal voiceless /*s/ is dropped in Numugen River:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*s- s
fat/grease*sidaŋ siraŋ *idan
dog *sikaw sika *ikaw *ikaw
lime *siwan *iwan *iwan
vine/rope *siwaɺ sʌla ~ sual*iwaɺ
bamboo *səŋi seŋi *əni
clay pot\ *səgi siːgi *əgi *egi ~ *igi
sand *səɺəw sɛlɛ *əɺəw *erew

Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*k-
chop/fell *kikʷ[a]- kiku- *kikʷa- *kikʷa-
hand drum *kibəm *kibəm *kibem
shadow *kinakin kinikin *kinakin
meat *kit *kit *kit
bow *kəmi kɛːmi *kəmi *kemi
speech *kəb kɛβ- *kəb *keb
near *kəni *kəni
blood *kəd *kəd *ked
red *kəd-at *k[a]dat *kadat
sap *kədi kese ~ kɛsɛ*kədi *kesi
armpit *kədipan kɛpina *kədipan
yellow *kəwəgap kogʌp
yam *kəj[ə/a]w *kəj[ə/a]w
stump *k[ə/a]nVmkanaim *k[ə/a]n[a]m
sago *kamaɺ kamʌr *kamaɺ *kamar
mouth *kabVɺ *kabVɺ *kabar
after/later *kanugadi kanaβas *kaŋgadi
mosquito sp.*kadidiɺ *kadidiɺ *sisir
mosquito *kasin kasin *kain *kain
top of tree *kawaɺ[ap]kwalap *kawVɺ *kaur
swell *kaɺim- *kaɺim- *karim-
sugarcane *kaji kʌi *kaj *kai
brain(s) *kum *kum *-kum
nape *kuman *kuman *kuman
fly (n.) *kuduɺuk *kuduɺuk *kuduruk
shadow *k[u]gud *kugud *kugud
betel pepper*kuwi[ja] kuːwiza
loincloth *kuɺaw kuːla *kuɺaw *kuraw
valley *kuɺum *kuɺum *kurum
black *kuɺun *kuɺun *kurun

Initial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ s retained as such in both subgroups:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*kʷ- *kʷ*kʷ
banana *kʷədi *kʷədi *kʷedi
sweat *kʷaɺ kʷʌːlɛ *kʷaɺ
Gnetum sp.*kʷaɺi *kʷaɺi *kʷari

Initial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ sometimes devoiced to [p] in Mabulap; it's unclear if this is phnemically distinct from initial /b/:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*b- b p (?)*b *b
heavy *bin(-at) piːni *bin(-at) *binat
put *big(-iw)- *big(-iw)- *bigʷ-
turn *biɺi[k/g]- *biɺi[k/g]-
stone axe *bəŋ bɛŋi ~ bɛŋ *bən *ben
old. s.s. sib (1)*bab *bab *bab
hold *buka- *buka-
sit *bugu- *bugu-
fly (v.) *buŋg[ija] *buŋgija
pig *buɺuk *buɺuk *buruk

Iniital apical voiced stop /*d/ …:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*d- *d *d
long/right (side)*dVgVn *dVgVn *degen
cough (n.) *du[k]un *dukun *dukun
snake *d[u]wag *duwag *duag
root *duɺu[n] *duɺun *durun

When initial /*d/ is followed by high front vowel /*i/ …:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*d-/_is *d *d
calf*dibuɺ *dibuɺ *dibur
full*dikʷaɺ siːkʷa- *dikaɺ
ear *diwad zuar ~ zuʌr-

Initial velar voiced stop /*g/ …:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*g-
knee *gəta geːta *gətaɺik
grass skirt*gəguɺ *gəguɺ
one *gədika gɛsikʌkʌ *gədika *g[e/a]di
liver *gama gamʌ- ~ gamʌː-
louse *gun gunu *gun *gun

In one example initial /*g/ is seemingly irregularly dropped from Amaimon form, perhaps becaue it is followed by another /*g/; here we know /intiial /*g/ to be original because it has outcomparisons in KumilRiver and in KaukombarRiver:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*g- Ø *g
wind/cold*gugum ugum ~ uɣum*gugum

Initial rounded velar voiced stop /*gʷ/ …:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*gʷ-
skin*[p]ugan *gʷan *guan

Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*w-
3 sg. *wə o- *wə *we
3 pl. *wə-də otɛ- *wədə *wede
sun *wədijəm *wədijəm*wediem
no/not/empty*wəjak ok-in ~ oːk-im*wəjak *ujak
ashes *wam wam ~ wamu *wam
pig *wati wasi
shoot (v.) *waɺ- wʌl- *waɺ- *war-
sing *waɺ- -wʌr- *waɺ- *war-

Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is droppped in Amaimon:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*j- Ø *j *j
1 sg. *jə ɛ- *jə *je
boil (v.)*jam- -amu- *jam- *jam-
water *jag ʌːgə *jag *jag
this *jaŋgu ɛŋʌ *jaŋgu *jegu

Any consonant can occur medially.

Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both subgroups:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-m- m m m
younger s.s. sib*iməka *im[ə]ka *imeka
stand up *[i]dəɺam-zɛlamu- ~ zela-*[i]d[ə]ɺam-
burn (tr.) *igum- *igum- *igum-
crocodile *ijamaji jamːail *jamaj
breast *amVn amun
die *um- um- *um- *um-
man *uma[d] uːma
stone *naməwən *naməwən
kongkong *naməɺan namʌrʌn *naməɺan
now/new *t[ə/a]məntɛmɛn *t[ə/a]mən *temen
bow *kəmi kɛːmi *kəmi *kemi
sago *kamaɺ kamʌr *kamaɺ *kamar
swell *kaɺim- *kaɺim- *karim-
nape *kuman *kuman *kuman
liver *gama gamʌ- ~ gamʌː-
boil (v.) *jam- -amu- *jam- *jam-

Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both subgroups:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-n- n n n
sleep (v.) *in- -in- *in- *in-
dream (n.) *in-aw ina- *inaw
1 pl. *ini ini- *in[i] *in
yesterday *inukan *inukan *inukʷan
2 pl. *ani ani *ani *an
draw water *un- unu- *un- *un-
name *unim unim *unim *unim
female *unad *unad *unad
hunger *min[ə] *min…
house *mənə mɔnɛ *mənə
heavy *bin-at *bin-at *binat
rattan *bunəm *bunəm
mother (2) *na-nija nʌnia *na-nija *nain
hot *nanaw *nanaw *nanaw
tooth *ŋ[ə/a]nagŋanag ~ ŋʌnʌg-
~ nanag-
*n[ə/a]nag *nanag
shadow *kinakin kinikin *kinakin
stump *k[ə/a]nVmkanaim *k[ə/a]n[a]m
after/later*kanugadi kanaβas *kaŋgadi (?)

When apical /*n/ is preceded or follow by high front vowel /*i/ …:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-n-/_i

Medial velar nasal /*ŋ/…:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-ŋ-
vomit (v.)*məŋiɺ- miŋil- *məniɺ-
bamboo *səŋi seŋi *əni

Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ has been found in only one example, where it is reatained as such in both subgroups:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-p- p *p ?
armpit*kədipan kɛpina (?)*kədipan

Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is uncommon. It is generally retained aas such in both subgroups:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-t- t *t *t
give (3 sg.)*ut- *ut- *ut-
knee *gəta geːta *gətaɺik

When medial /*t/ is preceded by high front vowel /*i/ is is fricated to /s/ in Amaimon:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-t-/i_s *t *t
wash/bathe*it- -is- *it- *it-

No examples of medial /*t/ followed by /*i/ have been found, suggesting that it was fricated to and merged with /*s/ (below); however there are at least one examples of /*s/ followed by low central vowel /*a/ such that it cannot in all instances be reduced to a conditioned variant of /*t/

Medial laminal voiceless /*s/ is dropped in Numugen River:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-s- s
eye *musag *muag *mag
mosquito*kasin kasin *kain *kain
pig *wasi wasi

Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in both subgroups:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-k- k *k *k
younger s.s. sib*iməka *im[ə]ka *imeka
yesterday *inukan *inukan *inukʷan
smoke/tobacco *ikab *ikab *ikab
path *aɺVkVj *aɺ[a]kVj*arakai
earth/ground *məkiw mɛːki ~ mɛki
~ meki
hold *buka- *buka-
moon *takiw *takiw
stick (n.) *tukum tukum *tukum
cough (n.) *du[k]un *dukun *dukun
dog *sikaw sika *ikaw *ikaw
shadow *kinakin kinikin *kinakin
one *gədika gɛsikʌkʌ *gədika *g[e/a]di

Medial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ is retaained as such in both subgroups:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-kʷ- *-kʷ-*-kʷ-
full *dikʷaɺ siːkʷa- *dikaɺ
chop/fell*kikʷ[a]-kiku- *kikʷa- *kikʷa-

Medial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in both subgroups, sometimes with subphonemic lention to [β w] in Amaimon:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-b- b [b β w]*b *b
excrement *ibi iːβi *ibi *ibi
net bag *abaw ʌba *abaw *abaw
plant (v.) *ub- *ub- *ub-
arm/hand *ubən bene *ubən *uben
cassowary *m[ə/a]jiba[n]mɛwa *m[ə/a]jiba[n]
wooden plate*tabin tʌːbin *tabin *tabin
calf *dibuɺ *dibuɺ *dibur
hand drum *kibəm *kibəm *kibem
mouth *kabVɺ *kabVɺ *kabar

Medial apical voiced stop /*d/ …:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-d- t [t r]*d *d
tail *aduɺ aru-kɛm *aduɺ
fat/grease*sidaŋ siraŋ *idan
red *kəd-at *k[a]dat*kadat
fly (n.) *kuduɺuk *kuduɺuk*kuduruk
3 pl. *wə-də otɛ- *wədə *wede
sun *wədijəm *wədijəm*wediem

When medial /*d/ is preceded or followed by high front vowel /*i/ …:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-d-/i_
stand up *[i]dəɺam- zɛlamu- ~ zela-*[i]d[ə]ɺam-
roast *ida[t]- *ida[t]-
walk/go *id[uw]- iz- ~ -idz- *id[uw]-
*-d-/_is *d
sap *kədi kese ~ kɛsɛ *kədi *kesi
armpit *kədipan kɛpina (?) *kədipan
after/later *kanugadi kanaβas *kaŋgadi
mosquito sp.*kadidiɺ *kadidiɺ *sisir
one *gədika gɛsikʌkʌ *gədika *g[e/a]di
banana *kʷədi *kʷədi *kʷedi

Medial velar voiced stop /*g/ si retained as such in both subgroups, soemetimes with subphonemic lenition to [ɣ] in Amaimon:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-g- g [g ɣ]*g *g
see *-gV- -gi *-gV-
hear *ig[V]- igi- *ig[u]-
green *igəm *igəm *igem
laugh *igaɺ-(igu)- *igaɺ-(igu)-
burn (tr.) *igum- *igum- *igum-
put *big(-iw)- *big(-iw)- *bigʷ-
turn *biɺig- *biɺig-
sit *bugu- *bugu-
chest *təgum *təgum
long/right (side)*dVgVn *dVgVn *degen
clay pot\ *səgi siːgi *əgi *egi ~ *igi
yellow *kəwəgap kogʌp
after/later *kanugadi kanaβas (?)*kaŋgadi
shadow *k[u]gud *kugud *kugud
grass skirt *gəguɺ *gəguɺ
wind/cold *gugum ugum ~ uɣum*gugum

Medial rounded velar voiceled stop /*gʷ/ is retained as such in both subgroups:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-gʷ- *gʷ *gʷ *gu
be *igʷ[a]- go- *igʷ[a]-*igʷ-
penis*igʷaɺ iːgʷal ~iːgʷale*igʷaɺ *iguar

Medial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ …:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-mb-

Medial apical prenasalized stop /*nd/ …:

Medial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-ŋg- ŋ *ŋg *g
fly (v.)*buŋg[ija] *buŋgija
this *jaŋgu ɛŋʌ *jaŋgu *jegu

Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is generally retained as scuh in both subgroups:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-w- w *w *w
sea/salt *iwəɺ wɛl *iwəɺ *iwer ~ *jer
who? *ijawu jau *jaw
dance (v.) *uw- *uw- *uw-
white *[p]awan *awan *awan
stone *naməwən *naməwən
ear *diwad zuar ~ zuʌr-
snake *d[u]wag *duwag *duag
lime *siwan *iwan *iwan
vine/rope *siwaɺ sʌla ~ sual (?)*iwaɺ
yellow *kəwəgap kogʌp
top of tree *kawaɺ[ap]kwalap *kawVɺ *kaur
betel pepper*kuwi[ja] kuːwiza

Medial apical non-stop /*ɺ/ …:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-ɺ- *r
stand up *[i]dəɺam-zɛlamu- ~ zela-*[i]d[ə]ɺam-
laugh *igaɺ- *igaɺ-
go up *iɺ- i- *iɺ- *ir-
path *aɺVkVj *aɺ[a]kVj *arakai
vomit (v.) *məŋiɺ- miŋil- *məniɺ-
flooring *[pə]ɺəm- *əɺəm– *erem-
call out *[p]aɺ- *aɺ- *ar-
turn *biɺig- *biɺig-
pig *buɺuk *buɺuk *buruk
kongkong *naməɺan namʌrʌn *naməɺan
root *duɺu[n] *duɺun *durun
sand *səɺəw sɛlɛ *əɺəw *erew
top of tree*kawaɺ[ap]kwalap *kawVɺ *kaur
swell *kaɺim- *kaɺim- *karim-
fly (n.) *kuduɺuk *kuduɺuk *kuduruk
loincloth *kuɺaw kuːla *kuɺaw *kuraw
valley *kuɺum *kuɺum *kurum
black *kuɺun *kuɺun *kurun
bite *guɺ- gul-
Gnetum sp. *kʷaɺi *kʷaɺi *kʷari
shoot (v.) *waɺ- wʌl- *waɺ- *war-
sing *waɺ- -wʌr- *waɺ- *war-

Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ … :

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-j-
crocodile *ijamaji jamːail *jamaj
who? *ijawu jau *jaw
cassowary *m[ə/a]jiba[n]mɛwa *m[ə/a]jiba[n]
what? *maj[a] ma-ma *maj(-maj) *maj-maj
mother (2) *na-nija nʌnia *na-nija *nain
yam *kəj[ə/a]w *kəj[ə/a]w
sugarcane *kaji kʌi *kaj *kai
sun *wədijəm *wədijəm *wediem
no/not/empty*wəjak ok-in ~ oːk-im*wəjak *ujak

… finally …

Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-m m mV m m
hair *im *im *im
green *igəm *igəm *igem
name *unim unim *unim *unim
taro *mam mʌːmu *mam *mam
flooring *[pə]ɺəm- *əɺəm– *erem-
rattan *bunəm *bunəm
chest *təgum *təgum
stick (n.)*tukum tukum *tukum
tree *ŋam ŋʌmu *nam *nam
hand drum *kibəm *kibəm *kibem
stump *k[ə/a]nVmkanaim *k[ə/a]n[a]m
brain(s) *kum *kum *-kum
valley *kuɺum *kuɺum *kurum
wind/cold *gugum ugum ~ uɣum*gugum
sun *wədijəm *wədijəm *wediem
ashes *wam wam ~ wamu *wam

Final apical nasal /*n/ …:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-n n nV n n
yesterday *inukan *inukan *inukʷan
breast *amVn amun
arm/hand *ubən bene *ubən *uben
white *[p]awan *awan *awan
skin *[p]ugan *gʷan *guan
heavy *bin piːni *bin *binat
turn *biɺig- *biɺig-
stone *naməwən *naməwən
kongkong *naməɺan namʌrʌn *naməɺan
now/new *t[ə/a]məntɛmɛn *t[ə/a]mən*temen
wooden plate *tabin tʌːbin *tabin *tabin
long/right (side)*dVgVn *dVgVn *degen
cough (n.) *du[k]un *dukun *dukun
lime *siwan *iwan *iwan
shadow *kinakin kinikin *kinakin
armpit *kədipan kɛpina (?)*kədipan
mosquito *kasin kasin *kain *kain
nape *kuman *kuman *kuman
black *kuɺun *kuɺun *kurun
louse *gun gunu *gun *gun

Final velar nasal /*ŋ/…:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-ŋ
stone axe *bəŋ bɛŋi ~ bɛŋ*bən *ben
fat/grease*sidaŋ siraŋ *idan

Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/…:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-p
yellow*kəwəgap kogʌp

Final apical voiceless stop /*t/…:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-t
heavy *bin-at *bin-at*binat
sky/cloud*t[ə/a]t tɛrɛ ~ tɛr ~ tɛl*tat *tat
meat *kit *kit *kit

Final laminal voiceless /*s/…:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-s

Final velar voiceless stop /*k/…:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-k k kV *k *k
saliva *muk muːku *muk
pig *buɺuk *buɺuk *buruk
fly (n.) *kuduɺuk *kuduɺuk*kuduruk
no/not/empty*wəjak ok-in ~ oːk-im*wəjak *ujak

Final bilabial voiced stop /*b/…:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-b b [β]*b *b
smoke/tobacco *ikab *ikab *ikab
old. s.s. sib (1)*bab *bab *bab
speech *kəb kɛβ- *kəb *keb

Final apical voiceless stop /*d/…:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-d t tV *d *d
female*unad *unad *unad
song *ud *ud *ud
nose *məd mɛta *məd
ear *diwad zuar ~ zuʌr-
blood *kəd *kəd *ked
shadow*k[u]gud *kugud *kugud

Final velar voiceless stop /*g/…:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-g g gV *g *g
eye *musag *muag *mag
snake*d[u]wag *duwag *duag
tooth*ŋ[ə/a]nagŋanag ~ ŋʌnʌg-
~ nanag-
*n[ə/a]nag*nanag
water*jag ʌːgə *jag *jag

Final bilabial non-stop /*w/ is dropped in Amaimon:

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-w Ø *w *w
dream (n.) *in-aw ina- *inaw
egg *inaw *inaw *niaw
net bag *abaw ʌba *abaw *abaw
earth/ground*məkiw mɛːki ~ mɛki
~ meki
put *big-iw- *big-iw- *bigʷ-
hot *nanaw *nanaw *nanaw
moon *takiw *takiw
dog *sikaw sika *ikaw *ikaw
sand *səɺəw sɛlɛ *əɺəw *erew
yam *kəj[ə/a]w *kəj[ə/a]w
loincloth *kuɺaw kuːla *kuɺaw *kuraw

Final apical non-stop /*ɺ/…:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-ɺ ɺ ɺV [l r] *r
penis *igʷaɺ iːgʷal ~iːgʷale*igʷaɺ *iguar
sea/salt *iwəɺ wɛl *iwəɺ *iwer ~ *jer
tail *aduɺ aru-kɛm (?) *aduɺ
calf *dibuɺ *dibuɺ *dibur
full *dikʷaɺ siːkʷa- (?) *dikaɺ
vine/rope *siwaɺ sʌla ~ sual *iwaɺ
sago *kamaɺ kamʌr *kamaɺ *kamar
mouth *kabVɺ *kabVɺ *kabar
mosquito sp.*kadidiɺ *kadidiɺ*sisir
grass skirt *gəguɺ *gəguɺ
sweat *kʷaɺ kʷʌːlɛ *kʷaɺ

Final palatal non-stop /*j/is dropped in Amaimon:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
*-j Ø *j *i
path *aɺVkVj *aɺ[a]kVj*arakai
short*taj *taj

… vowels …




Pronouns

[under construction]

Mabulap-Numiugen River subject pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with Amaimon attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 165) and proto-Numugen from Pick (2020: 201-212, 409-411):

Mab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
1 sg,*jə ɛ-ŋi *jə *je
2 sg,*nə nɛ-ŋi *nə *ne
3 sg,*wə o-ŋu *wə *we
1 pl.*ini ini-ŋi *in[i] *in
2 pl.*ani ani-ŋi *ani *an
3 pl.*wə-də otɛ-ŋi *wədə *wed

Possessive pronouns are reconstructed as follows. The Mabulap possessive suffix /-kana/ is unrelated to Numugen River /*-nəɺ/; however the latter is shown to be original by comparison to other subgroups of Adlbert Range (Pick 2020: 210-211):

Mab.-Num. Amaimon Numugen Numugen
Z'graggen Pick
1 sg, poss.*jə-nəɺ ɛ-kana *jə-nəɺ *je-ner
2 sg, poss.*nə-nəɺ nɛ-kana *nə-nəɺ *ne-ner
3 sg, poss.*wə-nəɺ o-kana *wə-nəɺ *we-ner
1 pl. poss.*i[ni]-nəɺini-kana *i[ni]-nəɺ*i-ner
2 pl. poss.*a[ni]-nəɺani-kana *ani-nəɺ *a-ner
3 pl. poss.*wədə-nəɺ otɛ-kana *wədə-nəɺ *wedi-ner

… verbal object prefixes for “see” …Unfortunately, these are are not attested for Amaimon, but the Numugen River forms are seen to be archaic by comparison to those of Barem-Manep (Pick 2020: 211-212):

Mab.-Num. Numugen Numugen
Pick
1 sg, obj.*jə- *jə- *je-
2 sg,obj. *nə- *nə- *ne-
3 sg, obj.*Ø- *Ø- *Ø-
1 pl. obj.*(ini) ibə-*ini-ibə-*inibe-
2 pl. obj.*(ani) ibə-*ani-ibə-*anibe-
3 pl. obj.*ibə- *ibə- *ibe-

Verbal morphology

[under construction]


Loans to and from neighboring languages

[under construction]

Several Mabulap-Numugen River forms appear to be loans from Sogeram River or possibly vice-versa; the direction of borrowing is difficult to immediately determine because they are firmly established for both protolanguages::

SogeramMab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Daniels Z'graggen Pick
fat/grease*sindaŋ*sidaŋ siraŋ *idan
clay pot\ *sɨŋgi *səgi siːgi *əgi *egi ~ *igi
bow *kɨmi *kəmi kɛːmi *kəmi *kemi
yellow *kuŋga *kəwəgap kogʌp

(Note: Daniels gives Sogeram /*nd *ŋg/ as <*nt *ŋk>.)

Additionally there are a number of loans from Sogeram River languages in Mabulap; that are not shared with Numugen River and are probably more recent borrowings, perhaps all from Sirva, with Sileibi (Sirvam,) Emerum (Apalɨ) and Musak (Aisi Mabɨŋ) attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 1-80) and proto-Sogeram from Daniels (…):

SogeramSileibi Emerum Musak Amaimon
DanielsZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
tobacco/smokeitu iːtu ~ itujitu iːtu ~ itu
bean *umai umɛ umɛ umɛ omoj
hand drum tʌmar tʌmʌl

There are also a number of terms shared with the Tomui River subgroup of Sogerma and Tomui Rivers, which is not currently adjacent to Mabulap-Numugen River…the term for “lime” has a curious distribution in languages which are not adjecent to one another. It is not attested for Amaimon as Z'graggen's [wamu ~ wam] really means “ashes”:

Paynamar Osum Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Pick
limeiwan iwanu- *iwan

…:

Mab.-Num.Amaimon Numugen Sileibi Emerum Musak
Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
kongkong*naməɺan namʌrʌn *naməɺannaːmiraŋ

Kare of the Hansemann subgroup of Mabuso …:

HansemannKare Amaimon
Z'graggenZ'graggen
moon*nawaj nawaj nawaj

Numugen River has loaned several words into Manep (Malas) and Barem of the Gilagil River family, spoken by the coast to the northeast. In light of the geography, the immediate sources are likely Karian and Yaben, which form a subgroup of Numugen River. Bilakura (Karien,) Yaben, Malas (Manep) and Bunabun (Barem) attestations are drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 1-159.) These words are not found in Mabulap

Numugen NumugenBilakura Yaben Malas Bunubun
Pick Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
sand *əɺəw *ərəw alu ʔʌluʌ ari
moon *inawun unu (?) nʌunu noun
dirty *unun ununu ununu unun
flying fox *nunaj *nunai nuniː nuni nunɛ
kunai grass*tubag tubag tumbaŋ
woman *[w]iɺubwilup wilubu irum

… Oceanic …It is possible that, as Pick asserts, some of these date to before the time of time of proto-Numugen; in the case of /*buɺuk/ “pig” this seems doubtful as Mabulap /wasi/ is the native Adelbert Range form and could not have been borrowed from anywhere, but final apical nasal in /*tabin/ is unique to Mabulap-Numugen River, and it is difficult to understand why Mabulap would have borrowed /*t[ə/a]t/ “sky” from Numugen River had it not already been present. It is not the case, as might otherwise be expected, that Oceanic terms found in Numugen River are necessarily found in Barem-Manep, though “pig” is and “vine” is found in Malas (Manep) as [usɔkɔr] (Z'graggen 1980: 67) with regular loss of medial /*s/ in Numugen River:

OceanicBelMab.-Num.Amaimon NumugenNumugen
Z'graggen Pick
vine *ukʷaɺ
pig *buɺuk *buruk
sky/cloud *t[ə/a]t tɛrɛ ~ tɛr ~ tɛl*tat *tat
wooden plate *tabin tʌːbin *tabin *tabin