Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
[under construction]
The Mabulap-Numugen River family consists of as many as seven languages spoken …
The internal classification of Mabulap-Numugen River is as follows:
Mabulap-Numugen River
Mabulap (Amaimon)
Numugen River
[under construction]
Z'graggen (1980: 1-159) 320 comparative terms and (p. 164-165) pronominal paradigms for Wanuma (Usan,) Yaben, Yarawata, Bilakura (Karian,) Parawen, Ukuriguma and Amaimon
Reesink (1981) (unobtained)
Reesink (1983) subordination in Usan (unobtained)
Reesink (1984) grammar of Usan (unoibtained)
Reesink (1987) grammar of Usan
Reesink (1993) (unobtained)
Reesink (1994) (unobtained)
Reesink (2013) “give” in Usan
Lillie (2001) sketch phonology of Amaimon (Mabulap) of Tebesarik village
Pick (2020: …) grammar sketch of Karian, (pp. …) grammar sketch of Yaben and (pp. 397-429) reconstruction of proto-Numugen including (pp. 415-429) …
[under construction]
Z'graggen (1971: 54-55, 1975: 29) considers Amaimon to be a family-level isolate in the Pihom Stock subgroup of his Northern Adelbert Superphylum.
…Ross …
Pick (2020: 188-194) excludes Amaimon) from his Norht Delbert classification, saying of Amaimon as well as Omosan, Bargam (Mugil,) and Amako-Waskia (Isumrud Strait) (p. 192,) “I have not excluded these languages because I don't believe they are related to Northern Adelbert. They likely are related, and there are promising potential cognates between the Northern Adelbert languages and other languages in the area, and further research may show that the boundaries of NorthernAdelbert need to be adjusted.”
We find Mabulap (Amaimon) to be the nearest relative of the Numugen River subgroup within Adelbert Range.
[under construction]
Proto-Mabulap-Numugen River had 13 to 19 consonants and 4 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | *ŋ | ||
*p | *t | *s | *k | [*kʷ] |
*b | *d | *g | [*gʷ] | |
[*mb] | [*nd] | [*ŋg] | [*ŋgʷ] | |
*w | *ɺ | *j |
*i | *u | |
*ə | ||
*a |
…
…
Initial consonants correspond as follows:
Mab.-Num. | Mabulap | Numugen |
*m- | m | *m |
*n- | n | *n |
*ŋ- | ŋ- | *n |
*p- | ||
*t- | t | *t |
*s- | s | *Ø |
*k- | k | *k |
*kʷ- | kʷ | *kʷ |
*b- | *b | |
*d- | *d | |
*d-/_i | s | *d |
*g- | g | *g |
*gʷ- | *gʷ- | |
*w- | Ø | *w |
*j- | Ø | *j- |
Medial consonants correspond as follows:
Mab.-Num. | Mabulap | Numugen |
*-m- | m | *m |
*-n- | n | *n |
*-ŋ- | ŋ | *n |
*-p- | p | *p |
*-t- | t | *t |
*-t-/_I | s | *t |
*-s- | s | *Ø |
*-k- | k | *k |
*-kʷ- | kʷ | *kʷ |
*-b- | b | *b |
*-d- | *d | |
*-d-/i_ | s | *d |
*-d-/_i | s | *d |
*-g- | g | *g |
*-gʷ- | gʷ | *gʷ |
*-mb- | ||
*-nd- | ||
*-ŋg- | ŋ | *ŋg |
*-w- | ||
*-ɺ- | l | *ɺ- |
*-j- |
Final consonants correspond as follows:
Mab.-Num. | Mabulap | Numugen |
*-m | m | *n |
*-n | n | *n |
*-ŋ | ŋ | *n |
*-p | ||
*-t | ||
*-s | ||
*-k | ||
*-… | ||
*-b | ||
*-… | ||
*-d | ||
*-g | ||
*-w | ||
*-ɺ | ||
*-j |
Vowels correspond as follows:
…
These corerspondences are exemplified as follows, with Amaimon (Mabulap) attestations drtawn from Z'graggen (1980: 1-159) and Pick's proto-Numugen from Pick (2020: 215-288, 415-429.) In most instance Pick arrived at the same forms that we did, and his identifications of mid-central vowel /*ə/ (Pick's <e>) were more reliable, prompting improvements to our forms; however there remain a minrotiy of substantive differences which warrant two separate Numugen River columns as are given below.
…
…
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*… | ||||
hair | *im | *im | *im | |
younger s.s. sib | *iməka | *im[ə]ka | *imeka | |
excrement | *ibi | iːβi | *ibi | *ibi |
sleep (v.) | *in- | -in- | *in- | *in- |
dream (n.) | *in-aw | ina- | *inaw | — |
1 pl. | *ini | ini- | *in[i] | *in |
egg | *inaw | *inaw | *niaw | |
yesterday | *inukan | *inukan | *inukʷan | |
wash/bathe | *it- | -is- | *it- | *it- |
stand up | *[i]dəɺam- | zɛlamu- ~ zela- | *[i]d[ə]ɺam- | |
roast | *ida[t]- | *ida[t]- | — | |
walk/go | *id[uw]- | iz- ~ -idz- | *id[uw]- | — |
smoke/tobacco | *ikab | *ikab | *ikab | |
hear | *ig[V]- | igi- | *ig[u]- | — |
green | *igəm | *igəm | *igem | |
laugh | *igaɺ- | *igaɺ- | — | |
burn (tr.) | *igum- | *igum- | *igum- | |
be | *igʷ[a]- | go- | *igʷ[a]- | *igʷ- |
penis | *igʷaɺ | iːgʷal ~iːgʷale | *igʷaɺ | *iguar |
sea/salt | *iwəɺ | wɛl | *iwəɺ | *iwer ~ *jer |
go up | *iɺ- | i- | *iɺ- | *ir- |
crocodile | *ijamaji | jamːail | *jamaj | — |
who? | *ijawu | jau | *jaw | — |
breast | *amVn | amun | ||
net bag | *abaw | ʌba | *abaw | *abaw |
2 pl. | *ani | ani | *ani | *an |
tail | *aduɺ | aru-kɛm | *aduɺ | — |
path | *aɺVkVj | *aɺ[a]kVj | *arakai | |
die | *um- | um- | *um- | *um- |
man | *uma[d] | uːma | ||
plant (v.) | *ub- | *ub- | *ub- | |
arm/hand | *ubən | bene | *ubən | *uben |
draw water | *un- | unu- | *un- | *un- |
name | *unim | unim | *unim | *unim |
female | *unad | *unad | *unad | |
give (3 sg.) | *ut- | *ut- | *ut- | |
song | *ud | *ud | *ud | |
dance (v.) | *uw- | *uw- | *uw- | |
house | *mənə | mɔnɛ | *mənə | — |
nose | *məd | mɛta | *məd | — |
vomit (v.) | *məŋiɺ- | miŋil- | *məniɺ- | — |
earth/ground | *məkiw | mɛːki ~ mɛki ~ meki | ||
cassowary | *m[ə/a]jiba[n] | mɛwa | *m[ə/a]jiba[n] | — |
taro | *mam | mʌːmu | *mam | *mam |
what? | *maj[a] | ma-ma | *maj(-maj) | *maj-maj |
fire | *mud | *mud | — | |
eye | *musag | *muag | *mag | |
saliva | *muk | muːku | *muk | — |
flooring | *[pə]ɺəm | *əɺəm | *erem | |
white | *[p]awan | *awan | *awan | |
call out | *[p]aɺ- | *aɺ- | *ar- | |
skin | *[p]ugan | *gʷan | *guan | |
heavy | *bin(-at) | piːni | *bin(-at) | *binat |
put | *big(-iw)- | *big(-iw)- | *bigʷ- | |
stone axe | *bəŋ | bɛŋi ~ bɛŋ | *bən | *ben |
old. s.s. sib (1) | *bab | *bab | *bab | |
rattan | *bunəm | *bunəm | — | |
sit | *bugu- | *bugu- | — | |
fly (v.) | *buŋg[ija] | *buŋgija | — | |
pig | *buɺuk | *buɺuk | *buruk | |
eat | *ni- | ni- | *ni- | *ni- |
2 sg. | *nə | nɛ- | *nə | *ne |
mother (1) | *na | *na | *na | |
mother (2) | *na-nija | nʌnia | *na-nija | *nain |
stone | *naməwən | *naməwən | — | |
kongkong | *naməɺan | namʌrʌn | *naməɺan | — |
hot | *nanaw | *nanaw | *nanaw | |
chest | *təgum | *təgum | — | |
now/new | *t[ə/a]mən | tɛmɛn | *t[ə/a]mən | *temen |
sky/cloud | *t[ə/a]t | tɛrɛ ~ tɛr ~ tɛl | *tat | *tat |
wooden plate | *tabin | tʌːbin | *tabin | *tabin |
moon | *takiw | *takiw | — | |
short | *taj | *taj | — | |
stick (n.) | *tukum | tukum | *tukum | — |
calf | *dibuɺ | *dibuɺ | *dibur | |
full | *dikʷaɺ | siːkʷa- | *dikaɺ | — |
ear | *diwad | zuar ~ zuʌr- | ||
long/right (side) | *dVgVn | *dVgVn | *degen | |
cough (n.) | *du[k]un | *dukun | *dukun | |
snake | *d[u]wag | *duwag | *duag | |
root | *duɺu[n] | *duɺun | *durun | |
fat/grease | *sidaŋ | siraŋ | *idan | — |
dog | *sikaw | sika | *ikaw | *ikaw |
vine/rope | *siwaɺ | sʌla ~ sual | *iwaɺ | — |
bamboo | *səŋi | seŋi | *əni | — |
clay pot\ | *səgi | siːgi | *əgi | *egi ~ *igi |
sand | *səɺəw | sɛlɛ | *əɺəw | *erew |
tooth | *ŋ[ə/a]nag | ŋanag ~ ŋʌnʌg- ~ nanag- | *n[ə/a]nag | *nanag |
tree | *ŋam | ŋʌmu | *nam | *nam |
hand drum | *kibəm | *kibəm | *kibem | |
shadow | *kinakin | kinikin | *kinakin | — |
meat | *kit | *kit | *kit | |
chop/fell | *kikʷ[a]- | kiku- | *kikʷa- | *kikʷa- |
bow | *kəmi | kɛːmi | *kəmi | *kemi |
speech | *kəb | kɛβ- | *kəb | *keb |
near | *kəni | *kəni | — | |
blood | *kəd | *kəd | *ked | |
sap | *kədi | kese ~ kɛsɛ | *kədi | *kesi |
armpit | *kədipan | kɛpina | *kədipan | — |
yellow | *kəwəgap | kogʌp | ||
sago | *kamaɺ | kamʌr | *kamaɺ | *kamar |
mouth | *kabVɺ | *kabVɺ | *kabar | |
stump/base | *kanam | kanaim | *kanam | — |
after/later | *kanugadi | kanaβas | *kaŋgadi | — |
mosquito sp. | *kadidiɺ | *kadidiɺ | *sisir | |
red | *kad-at | *kadat | *kadat | |
mosquito | *kasin | kasin | *kain | *kain |
top of tree | *kawaɺ[ap] | kwalap | *kawVɺ | *kaur |
swell | *kaɺim- | *kaɺim- | *karim- | |
sugarcane | *kaji | kʌi | *kaj | *kai |
yam | *k[a]jaw | *k[a]jaw | — | |
brain(s) | *kum | *kum | *-kum | |
nape | *kuman | *kuman | *kuman | |
fly (n.) | *kuduɺuk | *kuduɺuk | *kuduruk | |
shadow | *k[u]gud | *kugud | *kugud | |
betel pepper | *kuwi[ja] | kuːwiza | ||
loincloth | *kuɺaw | kuːla | *kuɺaw | *kuraw |
valley | *kuɺum | *kuɺum | *kurum | |
black | *kuɺun | *kuɺun | *kurun | |
see | *-gV- | -gi | *-gV- | |
knee | *gəta | geːta ~ -geta | *gətaɺik | — |
one | *gədika | gɛsikʌkʌ | *gədika | *g[e/a]di |
grass skirt | *gəguɺ | *gəguɺ | — | |
liver | *gama | gamʌ- ~ gamʌː- | ||
louse | *gun | gunu | *gun | *gun |
wind/cold | *gugum | ugum ~ uɣum | *gugum | — |
bite | *guɺ- | gul- | ||
banana | *kʷədi | *kʷədi | *kʷedi | |
sweat | *kʷaɺ | kʷʌːlɛ | *kʷaɺ | — |
Gnetum sp. | *kʷaɺi | *kʷaɺi | *kʷari | |
3 sg. | *wə | o- | *wə | *we |
3 pl. | *wə-də | otɛ- | *wədə | *wede |
sun | *wədijəm | *wədijəm | *wediem | |
no/not/empty | *wəjak | ok-in ~ oːk-im | *wəjak | *ujak |
ashes | *wam | wam ~ wamu | *wam | |
pig | *wasi | wasi | ||
shoot (v.) | *waɺ- | wʌl- | *waɺ- | *war- |
sing | *waɺ- | -wʌr- | *waɺ- | *war- |
1 sg. | *jə | ɛ- | *jə | *je |
boil (v.) | *jam- | -amu- | *jam- | *jam- |
water | *jag | ʌːgə | *jag | *jag |
this | *jaŋgu | ɛŋʌ | *jaŋgu | *jegu |
Any consonant except apical non-stop /*ɺ/ and prenasalized voiced stops /*mb *ŋg/ can occur initially.
Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*m- | m | *m | *m | |
hunger | *min[ə] | *min… | — | |
house | *mənə | mɔnɛ | *mənə | — |
nose | *məd | mɛta | *məd | — |
vomit (v.) | *məŋiɺ- | miŋil- | *məniɺ- | — |
earth/ground | *məkiw | mɛːki ~ mɛki ~ meki | ||
cassowary | *m[ə/a]jiba[n] | mɛwa | *m[ə/a]jiba[n] | — |
taro | *mam | mʌːmu | *mam | *mam |
what? | *maj[a] | ma-ma | *maj(-maj) | *maj-maj |
fire | *mud | *mud | — | |
eye | *musag | *muag | *mag | |
saliva | *muk | muːku | *muk | — |
Initial apical nasal /*n/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*n- | ||||
eat | *ni- | ni- | *ni- | *ni- |
2 sg. | *nə | nɛ- | *nə | *ne |
mother (1) | *na | *na | *na | |
mother (2) | *na-nija | nʌnia | *na-nija | *nain |
stone | *naməwən | *naməwən | — | |
kongkong | *naməɺan | namʌrʌn | *naməɺan | — |
hot | *nanaw | *nanaw | *nanaw |
Initial velar nasal /*ŋ/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*ŋ- | ŋ [ŋ n] | *n | *n | |
tooth | *ŋ[ə/a]nag | ŋanag ~ ŋʌnʌg- ~ nanag- | *n[ə/a]nag | *nanag |
tree | *ŋam | ŋʌmu | *nam | *nam |
Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*p- | ||||
flooring | *[pə]ɺəm- | *əɺəm– | *erem- | |
white | *[p]awan | *awan | *awan | |
call out | *[p]aɺ- | *aɺ- | *ar- | |
skin | *[p]ugan | *gʷan | *guan |
Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is generally retained as such in both subgroups:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*t- | t | *t | *t | |
chest | *təgum | *təgum | — | |
now/new | *t[ə/a]mən | tɛmɛn | *t[ə/a]mən | *temen |
sky/cloud | *t[ə/a]t | tɛrɛ ~ tɛr ~ tɛl | *tat | *tat |
wooden plate | *tabin | tʌːbin | *tabin | *tabin |
moon | *takiw | *takiw | — | |
short | *taj | *taj | — | |
stick (n.) | *tukum | tukum | *tukum | — |
No examples of initial /*t/ followed by high front vowel /*i/ have been found, suggesting that it was fricated to and merged with /*s/ (below); however there are several examples of /*s/ followed by mid central vowel /*ə/ such that it cannot in all instances be reduced to a conditioned variant of /*t/
Initial laminal voiceless /*s/ is dropped in Numugen River:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*s- | s | *Ø | *Ø | |
fat/grease | *sidaŋ | siraŋ | *idan | — |
dog | *sikaw | sika | *ikaw | *ikaw |
lime | *siwan | *iwan | *iwan | |
vine/rope | *siwaɺ | sʌla ~ sual | *iwaɺ | — |
bamboo | *səŋi | seŋi | *əni | — |
clay pot\ | *səgi | siːgi | *əgi | *egi ~ *igi |
sand | *səɺəw | sɛlɛ | *əɺəw | *erew |
Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*k- | ||||
chop/fell | *kikʷ[a]- | kiku- | *kikʷa- | *kikʷa- |
hand drum | *kibəm | *kibəm | *kibem | |
shadow | *kinakin | kinikin | *kinakin | — |
meat | *kit | *kit | *kit | |
bow | *kəmi | kɛːmi | *kəmi | *kemi |
speech | *kəb | kɛβ- | *kəb | *keb |
near | *kəni | *kəni | — | |
blood | *kəd | *kəd | *ked | |
red | *kəd-at | *k[a]dat | *kadat | |
sap | *kədi | kese ~ kɛsɛ | *kədi | *kesi |
armpit | *kədipan | kɛpina | *kədipan | — |
yellow | *kəwəgap | kogʌp | ||
yam | *kəj[ə/a]w | *kəj[ə/a]w | — | |
stump | *k[ə/a]nVm | kanaim | *k[ə/a]n[a]m | — |
sago | *kamaɺ | kamʌr | *kamaɺ | *kamar |
mouth | *kabVɺ | *kabVɺ | *kabar | |
after/later | *kanugadi | kanaβas | *kaŋgadi | — |
mosquito sp. | *kadidiɺ | *kadidiɺ | *sisir | |
mosquito | *kasin | kasin | *kain | *kain |
top of tree | *kawaɺ[ap] | kwalap | *kawVɺ | *kaur |
swell | *kaɺim- | *kaɺim- | *karim- | |
sugarcane | *kaji | kʌi | *kaj | *kai |
brain(s) | *kum | *kum | *-kum | |
nape | *kuman | *kuman | *kuman | |
fly (n.) | *kuduɺuk | *kuduɺuk | *kuduruk | |
shadow | *k[u]gud | *kugud | *kugud | |
betel pepper | *kuwi[ja] | kuːwiza | ||
loincloth | *kuɺaw | kuːla | *kuɺaw | *kuraw |
valley | *kuɺum | *kuɺum | *kurum | |
black | *kuɺun | *kuɺun | *kurun |
Initial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ s retained as such in both subgroups:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*kʷ- | kʷ | *kʷ | *kʷ | |
banana | *kʷədi | *kʷədi | *kʷedi | |
sweat | *kʷaɺ | kʷʌːlɛ | *kʷaɺ | — |
Gnetum sp. | *kʷaɺi | *kʷaɺi | *kʷari |
Initial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ sometimes devoiced to [p] in Mabulap; it's unclear if this is phnemically distinct from initial /b/:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*b- | b p (?) | *b | *b | |
heavy | *bin(-at) | piːni | *bin(-at) | *binat |
put | *big(-iw)- | *big(-iw)- | *bigʷ- | |
turn | *biɺi[k/g]- | *biɺi[k/g]- | — | |
stone axe | *bəŋ | bɛŋi ~ bɛŋ | *bən | *ben |
old. s.s. sib (1) | *bab | *bab | *bab | |
hold | *buka- | *buka- | — | |
sit | *bugu- | *bugu- | — | |
fly (v.) | *buŋg[ija] | *buŋgija | — | |
pig | *buɺuk | *buɺuk | *buruk |
Iniital apical voiced stop /*d/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*d- | *d | *d | ||
long/right (side) | *dVgVn | *dVgVn | *degen | |
cough (n.) | *du[k]un | *dukun | *dukun | |
snake | *d[u]wag | *duwag | *duag | |
root | *duɺu[n] | *duɺun | *durun |
When initial /*d/ is followed by high front vowel /*i/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*d-/_i | s | *d | *d | |
calf | *dibuɺ | *dibuɺ | *dibur | |
full | *dikʷaɺ | siːkʷa- | *dikaɺ | — |
ear | *diwad | zuar ~ zuʌr- |
Initial velar voiced stop /*g/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*g- | ||||
knee | *gəta | geːta | *gətaɺik | — |
grass skirt | *gəguɺ | *gəguɺ | — | |
one | *gədika | gɛsikʌkʌ | *gədika | *g[e/a]di |
liver | *gama | gamʌ- ~ gamʌː- | ||
louse | *gun | gunu | *gun | *gun |
In one example initial /*g/ is seemingly irregularly dropped from Amaimon form, perhaps becaue it is followed by another /*g/; here we know /intiial /*g/ to be original because it has outcomparisons in KumilRiver and in KaukombarRiver:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*g- | Ø | *g | ||
wind/cold | *gugum | ugum ~ uɣum | *gugum | — |
Initial rounded velar voiced stop /*gʷ/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*gʷ- | ||||
skin | *[p]ugan | *gʷan | *guan |
Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*w- | ||||
3 sg. | *wə | o- | *wə | *we |
3 pl. | *wə-də | otɛ- | *wədə | *wede |
sun | *wədijəm | *wədijəm | *wediem | |
no/not/empty | *wəjak | ok-in ~ oːk-im | *wəjak | *ujak |
ashes | *wam | wam ~ wamu | *wam | |
pig | *wati | wasi | ||
shoot (v.) | *waɺ- | wʌl- | *waɺ- | *war- |
sing | *waɺ- | -wʌr- | *waɺ- | *war- |
Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is droppped in Amaimon:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*j- | Ø | *j | *j | |
1 sg. | *jə | ɛ- | *jə | *je |
boil (v.) | *jam- | -amu- | *jam- | *jam- |
water | *jag | ʌːgə | *jag | *jag |
this | *jaŋgu | ɛŋʌ | *jaŋgu | *jegu |
Any consonant can occur medially.
Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-m- | m | m | m | |
younger s.s. sib | *iməka | *im[ə]ka | *imeka | |
stand up | *[i]dəɺam- | zɛlamu- ~ zela- | *[i]d[ə]ɺam- | |
burn (tr.) | *igum- | *igum- | *igum- | |
crocodile | *ijamaji | jamːail | *jamaj | — |
breast | *amVn | amun | ||
die | *um- | um- | *um- | *um- |
man | *uma[d] | uːma | ||
stone | *naməwən | *naməwən | — | |
kongkong | *naməɺan | namʌrʌn | *naməɺan | — |
now/new | *t[ə/a]mən | tɛmɛn | *t[ə/a]mən | *temen |
bow | *kəmi | kɛːmi | *kəmi | *kemi |
sago | *kamaɺ | kamʌr | *kamaɺ | *kamar |
swell | *kaɺim- | *kaɺim- | *karim- | |
nape | *kuman | *kuman | *kuman | |
liver | *gama | gamʌ- ~ gamʌː- | ||
boil (v.) | *jam- | -amu- | *jam- | *jam- |
Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-n- | n | n | n | |
sleep (v.) | *in- | -in- | *in- | *in- |
dream (n.) | *in-aw | ina- | *inaw | — |
1 pl. | *ini | ini- | *in[i] | *in |
yesterday | *inukan | *inukan | *inukʷan | |
2 pl. | *ani | ani | *ani | *an |
draw water | *un- | unu- | *un- | *un- |
name | *unim | unim | *unim | *unim |
female | *unad | *unad | *unad | |
hunger | *min[ə] | *min… | — | |
house | *mənə | mɔnɛ | *mənə | — |
heavy | *bin-at | *bin-at | *binat | |
rattan | *bunəm | *bunəm | — | |
mother (2) | *na-nija | nʌnia | *na-nija | *nain |
hot | *nanaw | *nanaw | *nanaw | |
tooth | *ŋ[ə/a]nag | ŋanag ~ ŋʌnʌg- ~ nanag- | *n[ə/a]nag | *nanag |
shadow | *kinakin | kinikin | *kinakin | — |
stump | *k[ə/a]nVm | kanaim | *k[ə/a]n[a]m | — |
after/later | *kanugadi | kanaβas | *kaŋgadi (?) | — |
When apical /*n/ is preceded or follow by high front vowel /*i/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen |
Z'graggen | Pick | ||
*-n-/_i |
Medial velar nasal /*ŋ/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-ŋ- | ||||
vomit (v.) | *məŋiɺ- | miŋil- | *məniɺ- | — |
bamboo | *səŋi | seŋi | *əni | — |
Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ has been found in only one example, where it is reatained as such in both subgroups:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-p- | p | *p | ? | |
armpit | *kədipan | kɛpina (?) | *kədipan | — |
Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is uncommon. It is generally retained aas such in both subgroups:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-t- | t | *t | *t | |
give (3 sg.) | *ut- | *ut- | *ut- | |
knee | *gəta | geːta | *gətaɺik | — |
When medial /*t/ is preceded by high front vowel /*i/ is is fricated to /s/ in Amaimon:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-t-/i_ | s | *t | *t | |
wash/bathe | *it- | -is- | *it- | *it- |
No examples of medial /*t/ followed by /*i/ have been found, suggesting that it was fricated to and merged with /*s/ (below); however there are at least one examples of /*s/ followed by low central vowel /*a/ such that it cannot in all instances be reduced to a conditioned variant of /*t/
Medial laminal voiceless /*s/ is dropped in Numugen River:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-s- | s | *Ø | *Ø | |
eye | *musag | *muag | *mag | |
mosquito | *kasin | kasin | *kain | *kain |
pig | *wasi | wasi |
Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-k- | k | *k | *k | |
younger s.s. sib | *iməka | *im[ə]ka | *imeka | |
yesterday | *inukan | *inukan | *inukʷan | |
smoke/tobacco | *ikab | *ikab | *ikab | |
path | *aɺVkVj | *aɺ[a]kVj | *arakai | |
earth/ground | *məkiw | mɛːki ~ mɛki ~ meki | ||
hold | *buka- | *buka- | — | |
moon | *takiw | *takiw | — | |
stick (n.) | *tukum | tukum | *tukum | — |
cough (n.) | *du[k]un | *dukun | *dukun | |
dog | *sikaw | sika | *ikaw | *ikaw |
shadow | *kinakin | kinikin | *kinakin | — |
one | *gədika | gɛsikʌkʌ | *gədika | *g[e/a]di |
Medial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ is retaained as such in both subgroups:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-kʷ- | kʷ | *-kʷ- | *-kʷ- | |
full | *dikʷaɺ | siːkʷa- | *dikaɺ | — |
chop/fell | *kikʷ[a]- | kiku- | *kikʷa- | *kikʷa- |
Medial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in both subgroups, sometimes with subphonemic lention to [β w] in Amaimon:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-b- | b [b β w] | *b | *b | |
excrement | *ibi | iːβi | *ibi | *ibi |
net bag | *abaw | ʌba | *abaw | *abaw |
plant (v.) | *ub- | *ub- | *ub- | |
arm/hand | *ubən | bene | *ubən | *uben |
cassowary | *m[ə/a]jiba[n] | mɛwa | *m[ə/a]jiba[n] | — |
wooden plate | *tabin | tʌːbin | *tabin | *tabin |
calf | *dibuɺ | *dibuɺ | *dibur | |
hand drum | *kibəm | *kibəm | *kibem | |
mouth | *kabVɺ | *kabVɺ | *kabar |
Medial apical voiced stop /*d/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-d- | t [t r] | *d | *d | |
tail | *aduɺ | aru-kɛm | *aduɺ | — |
fat/grease | *sidaŋ | siraŋ | *idan | — |
red | *kəd-at | *k[a]dat | *kadat | |
fly (n.) | *kuduɺuk | *kuduɺuk | *kuduruk | |
3 pl. | *wə-də | otɛ- | *wədə | *wede |
sun | *wədijəm | *wədijəm | *wediem |
When medial /*d/ is preceded or followed by high front vowel /*i/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-d-/i_ | ||||
stand up | *[i]dəɺam- | zɛlamu- ~ zela- | *[i]d[ə]ɺam- | |
roast | *ida[t]- | *ida[t]- | — | |
walk/go | *id[uw]- | iz- ~ -idz- | *id[uw]- | — |
*-d-/_i | s | *d | ||
sap | *kədi | kese ~ kɛsɛ | *kədi | *kesi |
armpit | *kədipan | kɛpina (?) | *kədipan | — |
after/later | *kanugadi | kanaβas | *kaŋgadi | — |
mosquito sp. | *kadidiɺ | *kadidiɺ | *sisir | |
one | *gədika | gɛsikʌkʌ | *gədika | *g[e/a]di |
banana | *kʷədi | *kʷədi | *kʷedi |
Medial velar voiced stop /*g/ si retained as such in both subgroups, soemetimes with subphonemic lenition to [ɣ] in Amaimon:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-g- | g [g ɣ] | *g | *g | |
see | *-gV- | -gi | *-gV- | |
hear | *ig[V]- | igi- | *ig[u]- | — |
green | *igəm | *igəm | *igem | |
laugh | *igaɺ-(igu)- | *igaɺ-(igu)- | — | |
burn (tr.) | *igum- | *igum- | *igum- | |
put | *big(-iw)- | *big(-iw)- | *bigʷ- | |
turn | *biɺig- | *biɺig- | — | |
sit | *bugu- | *bugu- | — | |
chest | *təgum | *təgum | — | |
long/right (side) | *dVgVn | *dVgVn | *degen | |
clay pot\ | *səgi | siːgi | *əgi | *egi ~ *igi |
yellow | *kəwəgap | kogʌp | ||
after/later | *kanugadi | kanaβas (?) | *kaŋgadi | — |
shadow | *k[u]gud | *kugud | *kugud | |
grass skirt | *gəguɺ | *gəguɺ | — | |
wind/cold | *gugum | ugum ~ uɣum | *gugum | — |
Medial rounded velar voiceled stop /*gʷ/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-gʷ- | gʷ | *gʷ | *gʷ *gu | |
be | *igʷ[a]- | go- | *igʷ[a]- | *igʷ- |
penis | *igʷaɺ | iːgʷal ~iːgʷale | *igʷaɺ | *iguar |
Medial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen |
Z'graggen | Pick | ||
*-mb- |
Medial apical prenasalized stop /*nd/ …:
Medial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-ŋg- | ŋ | *ŋg | *g | |
fly (v.) | *buŋg[ija] | *buŋgija | — | |
this | *jaŋgu | ɛŋʌ | *jaŋgu | *jegu |
Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is generally retained as scuh in both subgroups:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-w- | w | *w | *w | |
sea/salt | *iwəɺ | wɛl | *iwəɺ | *iwer ~ *jer |
who? | *ijawu | jau | *jaw | — |
dance (v.) | *uw- | *uw- | *uw- | |
white | *[p]awan | *awan | *awan | |
stone | *naməwən | *naməwən | — | |
ear | *diwad | zuar ~ zuʌr- | ||
snake | *d[u]wag | *duwag | *duag | |
lime | *siwan | *iwan | *iwan | |
vine/rope | *siwaɺ | sʌla ~ sual (?) | *iwaɺ | — |
yellow | *kəwəgap | kogʌp | ||
top of tree | *kawaɺ[ap] | kwalap | *kawVɺ | *kaur |
betel pepper | *kuwi[ja] | kuːwiza |
Medial apical non-stop /*ɺ/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-ɺ- | *ɺ | *r | ||
stand up | *[i]dəɺam- | zɛlamu- ~ zela- | *[i]d[ə]ɺam- | |
laugh | *igaɺ- | *igaɺ- | — | |
go up | *iɺ- | i- | *iɺ- | *ir- |
path | *aɺVkVj | *aɺ[a]kVj | *arakai | |
vomit (v.) | *məŋiɺ- | miŋil- | *məniɺ- | — |
flooring | *[pə]ɺəm- | *əɺəm– | *erem- | |
call out | *[p]aɺ- | *aɺ- | *ar- | |
turn | *biɺig- | *biɺig- | — | |
pig | *buɺuk | *buɺuk | *buruk | |
kongkong | *naməɺan | namʌrʌn | *naməɺan | — |
root | *duɺu[n] | *duɺun | *durun | |
sand | *səɺəw | sɛlɛ | *əɺəw | *erew |
top of tree | *kawaɺ[ap] | kwalap | *kawVɺ | *kaur |
swell | *kaɺim- | *kaɺim- | *karim- | |
fly (n.) | *kuduɺuk | *kuduɺuk | *kuduruk | |
loincloth | *kuɺaw | kuːla | *kuɺaw | *kuraw |
valley | *kuɺum | *kuɺum | *kurum | |
black | *kuɺun | *kuɺun | *kurun | |
bite | *guɺ- | gul- | ||
Gnetum sp. | *kʷaɺi | *kʷaɺi | *kʷari | |
shoot (v.) | *waɺ- | wʌl- | *waɺ- | *war- |
sing | *waɺ- | -wʌr- | *waɺ- | *war- |
Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ … :
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-j- | ||||
crocodile | *ijamaji | jamːail | *jamaj | — |
who? | *ijawu | jau | *jaw | — |
cassowary | *m[ə/a]jiba[n] | mɛwa | *m[ə/a]jiba[n] | — |
what? | *maj[a] | ma-ma | *maj(-maj) | *maj-maj |
mother (2) | *na-nija | nʌnia | *na-nija | *nain |
yam | *kəj[ə/a]w | *kəj[ə/a]w | — | |
sugarcane | *kaji | kʌi | *kaj | *kai |
sun | *wədijəm | *wədijəm | *wediem | |
no/not/empty | *wəjak | ok-in ~ oːk-im | *wəjak | *ujak |
… finally …
Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-m | m mV | m | m | |
hair | *im | *im | *im | |
green | *igəm | *igəm | *igem | |
name | *unim | unim | *unim | *unim |
taro | *mam | mʌːmu | *mam | *mam |
flooring | *[pə]ɺəm- | *əɺəm– | *erem- | |
rattan | *bunəm | *bunəm | — | |
chest | *təgum | *təgum | — | |
stick (n.) | *tukum | tukum | *tukum | — |
tree | *ŋam | ŋʌmu | *nam | *nam |
hand drum | *kibəm | *kibəm | *kibem | |
stump | *k[ə/a]nVm | kanaim | *k[ə/a]n[a]m | — |
brain(s) | *kum | *kum | *-kum | |
valley | *kuɺum | *kuɺum | *kurum | |
wind/cold | *gugum | ugum ~ uɣum | *gugum | — |
sun | *wədijəm | *wədijəm | *wediem | |
ashes | *wam | wam ~ wamu | *wam |
Final apical nasal /*n/ …:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-n | n nV | n | n | |
yesterday | *inukan | *inukan | *inukʷan | |
breast | *amVn | amun | ||
arm/hand | *ubən | bene | *ubən | *uben |
white | *[p]awan | *awan | *awan | |
skin | *[p]ugan | *gʷan | *guan | |
heavy | *bin | piːni | *bin | *binat |
turn | *biɺig- | *biɺig- | — | |
stone | *naməwən | *naməwən | — | |
kongkong | *naməɺan | namʌrʌn | *naməɺan | — |
now/new | *t[ə/a]mən | tɛmɛn | *t[ə/a]mən | *temen |
wooden plate | *tabin | tʌːbin | *tabin | *tabin |
long/right (side) | *dVgVn | *dVgVn | *degen | |
cough (n.) | *du[k]un | *dukun | *dukun | |
lime | *siwan | *iwan | *iwan | |
shadow | *kinakin | kinikin | *kinakin | — |
armpit | *kədipan | kɛpina (?) | *kədipan | — |
mosquito | *kasin | kasin | *kain | *kain |
nape | *kuman | *kuman | *kuman | |
black | *kuɺun | *kuɺun | *kurun | |
louse | *gun | gunu | *gun | *gun |
Final velar nasal /*ŋ/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-ŋ | ||||
stone axe | *bəŋ | bɛŋi ~ bɛŋ | *bən | *ben |
fat/grease | *sidaŋ | siraŋ | *idan | — |
Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-p | ||||
yellow | *kəwəgap | kogʌp |
Final apical voiceless stop /*t/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-t | ||||
heavy | *bin-at | *bin-at | *binat | |
sky/cloud | *t[ə/a]t | tɛrɛ ~ tɛr ~ tɛl | *tat | *tat |
meat | *kit | *kit | *kit |
Final laminal voiceless /*s/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen |
Z'graggen | Pick | ||
*-s |
Final velar voiceless stop /*k/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-k | k kV | *k | *k | |
saliva | *muk | muːku | *muk | — |
pig | *buɺuk | *buɺuk | *buruk | |
fly (n.) | *kuduɺuk | *kuduɺuk | *kuduruk | |
no/not/empty | *wəjak | ok-in ~ oːk-im | *wəjak | *ujak |
Final bilabial voiced stop /*b/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-b | b [β] | *b | *b | |
smoke/tobacco | *ikab | *ikab | *ikab | |
old. s.s. sib (1) | *bab | *bab | *bab | |
speech | *kəb | kɛβ- | *kəb | *keb |
Final apical voiceless stop /*d/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-d | t tV | *d | *d | |
female | *unad | *unad | *unad | |
song | *ud | *ud | *ud | |
nose | *məd | mɛta | *məd | — |
ear | *diwad | zuar ~ zuʌr- | ||
blood | *kəd | *kəd | *ked | |
shadow | *k[u]gud | *kugud | *kugud |
Final velar voiceless stop /*g/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-g | g gV | *g | *g | |
eye | *musag | *muag | *mag | |
snake | *d[u]wag | *duwag | *duag | |
tooth | *ŋ[ə/a]nag | ŋanag ~ ŋʌnʌg- ~ nanag- | *n[ə/a]nag | *nanag |
water | *jag | ʌːgə | *jag | *jag |
Final bilabial non-stop /*w/ is dropped in Amaimon:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-w | Ø | *w | *w | |
dream (n.) | *in-aw | ina- | *inaw | — |
egg | *inaw | *inaw | *niaw | |
net bag | *abaw | ʌba | *abaw | *abaw |
earth/ground | *məkiw | mɛːki ~ mɛki ~ meki | ||
put | *big-iw- | *big-iw- | *bigʷ- | |
hot | *nanaw | *nanaw | *nanaw | |
moon | *takiw | *takiw | — | |
dog | *sikaw | sika | *ikaw | *ikaw |
sand | *səɺəw | sɛlɛ | *əɺəw | *erew |
yam | *kəj[ə/a]w | *kəj[ə/a]w | — | |
loincloth | *kuɺaw | kuːla | *kuɺaw | *kuraw |
Final apical non-stop /*ɺ/…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-ɺ | ɺ ɺV [l r] | *ɺ | *r | |
penis | *igʷaɺ | iːgʷal ~iːgʷale | *igʷaɺ | *iguar |
sea/salt | *iwəɺ | wɛl | *iwəɺ | *iwer ~ *jer |
tail | *aduɺ | aru-kɛm (?) | *aduɺ | — |
calf | *dibuɺ | *dibuɺ | *dibur | |
full | *dikʷaɺ | siːkʷa- (?) | *dikaɺ | — |
vine/rope | *siwaɺ | sʌla ~ sual | *iwaɺ | — |
sago | *kamaɺ | kamʌr | *kamaɺ | *kamar |
mouth | *kabVɺ | *kabVɺ | *kabar | |
mosquito sp. | *kadidiɺ | *kadidiɺ | *sisir | |
grass skirt | *gəguɺ | *gəguɺ | — | |
sweat | *kʷaɺ | kʷʌːlɛ | *kʷaɺ | — |
Final palatal non-stop /*j/is dropped in Amaimon:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
*-j | Ø | *j | *i | |
path | *aɺVkVj | *aɺ[a]kVj | *arakai | |
short | *taj | *taj | — |
… vowels …
…
…
[under construction]
Mabulap-Numiugen River subject pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with Amaimon attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 165) and proto-Numugen from Pick (2020: 201-212, 409-411):
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
1 sg, | *jə | ɛ-ŋi | *jə | *je |
2 sg, | *nə | nɛ-ŋi | *nə | *ne |
3 sg, | *wə | o-ŋu | *wə | *we |
1 pl. | *ini | ini-ŋi | *in[i] | *in |
2 pl. | *ani | ani-ŋi | *ani | *an |
3 pl. | *wə-də | otɛ-ŋi | *wədə | *wed |
Possessive pronouns are reconstructed as follows. The Mabulap possessive suffix /-kana/ is unrelated to Numugen River /*-nəɺ/; however the latter is shown to be original by comparison to other subgroups of Adlbert Range (Pick 2020: 210-211):
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||
1 sg, poss. | *jə-nəɺ | ɛ-kana | *jə-nəɺ | *je-ner |
2 sg, poss. | *nə-nəɺ | nɛ-kana | *nə-nəɺ | *ne-ner |
3 sg, poss. | *wə-nəɺ | o-kana | *wə-nəɺ | *we-ner |
1 pl. poss. | *i[ni]-nəɺ | ini-kana | *i[ni]-nəɺ | *i-ner |
2 pl. poss. | *a[ni]-nəɺ | ani-kana | *ani-nəɺ | *a-ner |
3 pl. poss. | *wədə-nəɺ | otɛ-kana | *wədə-nəɺ | *wedi-ner |
… verbal object prefixes for “see” …Unfortunately, these are are not attested for Amaimon, but the Numugen River forms are seen to be archaic by comparison to those of Barem-Manep (Pick 2020: 211-212):
Mab.-Num. | Numugen | Numugen | |
Pick | |||
1 sg, obj. | *jə- | *jə- | *je- |
2 sg,obj. | *nə- | *nə- | *ne- |
3 sg, obj. | *Ø- | *Ø- | *Ø- |
1 pl. obj. | *(ini) ibə- | *ini-ibə- | *inibe- |
2 pl. obj. | *(ani) ibə- | *ani-ibə- | *anibe- |
3 pl. obj. | *ibə- | *ibə- | *ibe- |
[under construction]
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[under construction]
Several Mabulap-Numugen River forms appear to be loans from Sogeram River or possibly vice-versa; the direction of borrowing is difficult to immediately determine because they are firmly established for both protolanguages::
Sogeram | Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Daniels | Z'graggen | Pick | |||
fat/grease | *sindaŋ | *sidaŋ | siraŋ | *idan | — |
clay pot\ | *sɨŋgi | *səgi | siːgi | *əgi | *egi ~ *igi |
bow | *kɨmi | *kəmi | kɛːmi | *kəmi | *kemi |
yellow | *kuŋga | *kəwəgap | kogʌp | — | — |
(Note: Daniels gives Sogeram /*nd *ŋg/ as <*nt *ŋk>.)
Additionally there are a number of loans from Sogeram River languages in Mabulap; that are not shared with Numugen River and are probably more recent borrowings, perhaps all from Sirva, with Sileibi (Sirvam,) Emerum (Apalɨ) and Musak (Aisi Mabɨŋ) attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 1-80) and proto-Sogeram from Daniels (…):
Sogeram | Sileibi | Emerum | Musak | Amaimon | |
Daniels | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | |
tobacco/smoke | — | itu | iːtu ~ itu | jitu | iːtu ~ itu |
bean | *umai | umɛ | umɛ | umɛ | omoj |
hand drum | — | tʌmar | — | — | tʌmʌl |
There are also a number of terms shared with the Tomui River subgroup of Sogerma and Tomui Rivers, which is not currently adjacent to Mabulap-Numugen River…the term for “lime” has a curious distribution in languages which are not adjecent to one another. It is not attested for Amaimon as Z'graggen's [wamu ~ wam] really means “ashes”:
Paynamar | Osum | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Pick | ||
lime | iwan | iwanu- | — | *iwan | — |
…:
Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Sileibi | Emerum | Musak | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | |||
kongkong | *naməɺan | namʌrʌn | *naməɺan | — | — | naːmiraŋ |
Kare of the Hansemann subgroup of Mabuso …:
Hansemann | Kare | Amaimon | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | ||
moon | *nawaj | nawaj | nawaj |
Numugen River has loaned several words into Manep (Malas) and Barem of the Gilagil River family, spoken by the coast to the northeast. In light of the geography, the immediate sources are likely Karian and Yaben, which form a subgroup of Numugen River. Bilakura (Karien,) Yaben, Malas (Manep) and Bunabun (Barem) attestations are drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 1-159.) These words are not found in Mabulap
Numugen | Numugen | Bilakura | Yaben | Malas | Bunubun | |
Pick | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | ||
sand | *əɺəw | *ərəw | alu | ʔʌluʌ | — | ari |
moon | *inawun | — | unu (?) | nʌunu | noun | — |
dirty | *unun | — | ununu | ununu | — | unun |
flying fox | *nunaj | *nunai | nuniː | nuni | nunɛ | — |
kunai grass | *tubag | — | tubag | — | tumbaŋ | — |
woman | *[w]iɺub | — | wilup | wilubu | irum | — |
… Oceanic …It is possible that, as Pick asserts, some of these date to before the time of time of proto-Numugen; in the case of /*buɺuk/ “pig” this seems doubtful as Mabulap /wasi/ is the native Adelbert Range form and could not have been borrowed from anywhere, but final apical nasal in /*tabin/ is unique to Mabulap-Numugen River, and it is difficult to understand why Mabulap would have borrowed /*t[ə/a]t/ “sky” from Numugen River had it not already been present. It is not the case, as might otherwise be expected, that Oceanic terms found in Numugen River are necessarily found in Barem-Manep, though “pig” is and “vine” is found in Malas (Manep) as [usɔkɔr] (Z'graggen 1980: 67) with regular loss of medial /*s/ in Numugen River:
Oceanic | Bel | Mab.-Num. | Amaimon | Numugen | Numugen | |
Z'graggen | Pick | |||||
vine | — | — | *ukʷaɺ | — | ||
pig | — | — | *buɺuk | *buruk | ||
sky/cloud | *t[ə/a]t | tɛrɛ ~ tɛr ~ tɛl | *tat | *tat | ||
wooden plate | *tabin | tʌːbin | *tabin | *tabin |