Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
[under construction]
…
[under construction]
The internal classification of Orya-Tor River is as follows:
Orya-Tor River
Orya
Tor River
[under construction]
Galis (1955) 28 comparative terms for Tor (Berik,) Kwesten, Saweh (Orya) and Maremgi
Oosterwal (1961: 274-277) 79 comparative terms and (pp. 218-286) kin terms for Berik, Bonerif, Ittik, Ittik-Tor, Mander, Kwesten and Dabe
Voorhoeve (1975: 107) 39 comparative terms for Berik, Bonerif, Mander, Itik and Kwesten after Anceaux (n.d.,) (p. 108) 7 comparative terms for Maremgi after Galis (1955) and (p. 110) 40 comparative terms for Uria after Anceaux (n.d.)
Stokhof ed. (1983: 85-114) comparative vocabularies of Berrik Papua (Ujang, Samaninteh, Tenwer,) Sewan (Berik,) Biri (Itik,) Foya (Mander) and Sawé (Orya) after Jelkemp (?Jellemp)
Smits and Voorhoeve eds. (1994: 18-266) comparative vocabularies of Uria/Orya of Guay village after Maware and of Sigi and an unspecified variety after Anceaux, all collected in Guay, Berik (Upper Tor) of Sarontani after van der Leeden (n.d.), Berik of Taminambor after an unnamed missionary, and Berik of unnamed locations after Laban (n.d.) and Oosterwal (n.d.) …
Westrum and Westrum (1975) phonology of Berik
Westrum (1976) Berik clauses
Westrum (1982) Berik kinship
Westrum and Wiesemann (1986) Berik pronouns
Westrum, Westrum, Sowenso and Songkilawan (1986) extensive vocabulary of Berik
Westrurn (1987) Berik particle /ga/
Westrum (1988) grammar of Berik
Reimer, Songkilawand and Kana (1980) survey of Pantai Timur district (unobtained)
Fields (1991) phonology of Orya of Guay
Fields (1997) Orya nominalization (unobtained)
Clouse (1997: 165-230) 199 comparative terms for Berik of Somanente village after Westrum and 261 comparative terms for Orya of Guay after Fields
Lee and Wambaliau (2004: 40-62) 239 comparative terms and 21 sentences for Kwesten of Holmafen village, Kwesten of Arare, Keijar of Keder Lama, Dabe of Dabe, Vitou of Takar, Edwas of Nengke, Edwas of Beneraf, Tena of Betaf, Kwinsu of Ansudu and Jofotek of Biridua
[under construction]
Proto-Orya-Tor River had perhaps 13 consonants and 8 vowels as follows:
| *m | *n | |||
| *p | *t | *s | *k | *kʷ |
| *b | *d | *dz | *gʷ | |
| *w | *ɾ |
| *i | *u | |
| *e̝ | *o̝ | |
| *ɛ | *ə | *ɔ |
| *a |
Apical voiced stop /*d/ is marginal and has only been found initially.
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ has not been found to occur intially.
Only a restricted set of consonants occurs finally:
| *m | *n | ||
| *p | *t | *s | *k |
| *ɾ |
Initial and medial consonants correspond as follows:
| Orya-Tor | Orya | Tor River |
| *m | m | *m |
| *n | n | *n |
| *p | h | *f |
| *t | t | *t |
| *s | s | *s |
| *k | ø | *k |
| *kʷ | w | *kʷ |
| *b | b | *b |
| *d | d | *d |
| *dz | dʒ | *dz |
| *gʷ | gʷ | *gʷ |
| *gʷ/_ɔ o̝ u | g | *g |
| *-w- | w | *w |
| *-ɾ- | l | *ɾ |
Final consonants correspond as follows:
| Orya-Tor | Orya | Tor River |
| *-m | m | *m |
| *-n | n | *n |
| *-p | p | *f |
| *-t | … | *t |
| *-s | s | *s |
| *-k | ||
| *-ɾ | l | *ɾ |
Vowels correspond as follows:
| Orya-Tor | Orya | Tor River |
| *i | i | *i |
| *u | u | *u |
| *e̝ | e | *e̝ |
| *o̝ | o | *o̝ |
| *ɛ | e | *ɛ |
| *ɔ | o | *ɔ |
| *ə | a | *ə |
| *a | a | *a |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Orya forms drawn from Fields (1991, 1997, Clouse 1997: 165-230 after Fields) unless otherwise indicated.
Initial and medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *m- | m | *m | |
| mouth/lip(s) | *mip | mip | *mif |
| goura pigeon | *mɛɾis | *mɛɾis | |
| tongue | *mapəɾ[Vm] | mahal | *mafəɾVm |
| nose | *masɛ | mase | *masɛ |
| breast | *mo̝m | mom | *mo̝m |
| navel | *mus | … | *mus |
| *-m- | *m | ||
| knee | *s[u]man | *s[u]man | |
| imperial pigeon | *gʷ[ɔ/o̝]m[ɛ/ə]ɾ | … | *gʷ[ɔ/o̝]m[ɛ/ə]ɾ |
Initial and medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *n- | n | *n | |
| flesh/meat | *nin | *nin | |
| path | *nVɾ | *nVɾ | |
| head | *nəbaɾ | *nəbaɾ | |
| two | *nawɛt | *nawɛt | |
| eye | *nVwɛ | nwe | *nVwɛ |
| *-n- | n | *n | |
| fat/grease | *pəna | hana | *fəna |
| louse | *nɛna | … | *nɛna |
| child | *tan[ɛ/e̝] | tane | *tan[ɛ/e̝] |
| foot/leg | *ta[g]əna | tana | *ta[g]əna |
Initial and medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is fricated to /*f/ in Tor River and fricated and deoccluded to /h/ in Orya:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *p- | h | *f | |
| salt/sea | *pi | hi | *fi |
| moon | *p[ɛⁱ]n | *fɛⁱn | |
| fat/grease | *pəna | hana | *fəna |
| comb | *pataɾ | hatal | *fataɾ |
| water | *pɔ | ho | *fɔ |
| netbag | *po̝n | hon | *fo̝n |
| *-p- | h | *f | |
| one | *apa | … | *afa |
| not | *[a]pɔm | … | *afɔm |
| tongue | *mapəɾ[Vm] | mahal | *mafəɾVm |
| hand/arm | *təpa | taha | *təfa |
| shame/shy | *səpɛɾ | saheɾ | *səfɛɾ |
Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *t- | t | *t | |
| tree/wood | *te̝ | te | *te̝ |
| saliva | *-tɛp | … | *-tɛf |
| hand/arm | *təpa | taha | *təfa |
| centipede | *ta | … | *ta |
| child | *tan[ɛ/e̝] | tane | *tan[ɛ/e̝] |
| foot/leg | *ta[g]əna | tana | *ta[g]əna |
One example of root-medial /*t/ is possibly a loan:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *-t- | t | *t | |
| comb | *pataɾ | hatal | *fataɾ |
Initial and medial laminal voiceless /*s/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *s- | s | *s | |
| shame/shy | *səpɛɾ | saheɾ | *səfɛɾ |
| vein/tendon | *səgaɾ | … | *səgaɾ |
| mosquito | *san | san | *san |
| ashes | *sɔn | son | *sɔn |
| knee | *s[u]man | *s[u]man | |
| urine | *su | su | *su |
| egg | *s[u]w[e̝] | *s[u]w[e̝] | |
| *-s- | s | *s | |
| nose | *masɛ | mase | *masɛ |
| name | *bo̝s[ɛ/a] | bose | *bo̝s[ɛ/a] |
Velar voiceless stop /*k/ does not occur medially. Initially, it is retained as such only in Jofotek and Mander of the Tor River family, and lost in all other descendants including Orya:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *k- | *ø | *k | |
| liver | *ke̝n | en | *ke̝n |
| village | *k[aɛ] | æ | *k[aɛ] |
| earth/ground | *kɔ | *kɔ | |
| mouth/teeth | *ko̝ɾ | ol | *ko̝ɾ |
| excrement | *ku | u | *ku |
Rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ does not occur medially. Initially, it is retained as such only in Jofotek and Mander of the Tor River family, and reflected as /w/ in all other descendants including Orya::
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *kʷ- | w | *kʷ | |
| woman/wife | *kʷe̝ | we | *kʷe̝ |
Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *b- | b | *b | |
| finger/toe | *bɔɾ[a] | bola | *bɔɾ |
| name | *bo̝s[ɛ/a] | bose | *bo̝s[ɛ/a] |
| *-b- | *b | ||
| head | *nəbaɾ | *nəbaɾ |
Apical voiced stop /*d/ is marginal and has been found only intially, where it is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *d- | d | *d | |
| leech | *dam | dam | *dam |
…:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *dz- | dʒ | *dz | |
| crocodile | *dzəɾo̝m | dʒalom | *dzəɾo̝m |
| bird | *dzu | *dzu | |
| *-dz- | |||
| *… |
It's not clear that there is a velar voiced stop /*g/ except as an allophone of rounded velar /*gʷ/ (below.)
Rounded velar voiced stop /*gʷ/ is found only initially. When followed by non-back vowels it is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *gʷ- | gʷ | *gʷ | |
| night | *gʷin | *gʷin | |
| pig | *gʷas | *gʷas | |
| dog | *gʷəɾa | … | *gʷəɾa |
| imperial pigeon | *gʷ[ɔ/o̝]m[ɛ/ə]ɾ | … | *gʷ[ɔ/o̝]m[ɛ/ə]ɾ |
When /*gʷ/ is followed by rounded back vowels /*ɔ *o̝ *u/, it is heard as [g]:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *gʷ/_ɔ o̝ u | g | *g | |
| house/nest | *gʷɔɾ | gol | *gɔɾ |
Bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *-w- | w | *w | |
| two | *nawɛt | *nawɛt | |
| eye | *nVwɛ | nwe | *nVwɛ |
| egg | *s[u]w[e̝] | *s[u]w[e̝] |
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ has not been found to occur initially. Medially, it is retained as such in Tor River and reflected as /l/ in Orya:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *-ɾ- | l | *ɾ | |
| leaf/hair | *aɾ[ɛ/a][n/ŋ] | ala | *aɾ[ɛ/a][n/ŋ] |
| goura pigeon | *mɛɾis | *mɛɾis | |
| crocodile | *dzəɾo̝m | dʒalom | *dzəɾo̝m |
| dog | *gʷəɾa | … | *gʷəɾa |
Only a restricted set of consonants /*m *n *p *t *s *k *ɾ/ occurs finally.
Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *-m | m | *m | |
| not | *[a]pɔm | … | *afɔm |
| breast | *mo̝m | mom | *mo̝m |
| leech | *dam | dam | *dam |
| crocodile | *dzəɾo̝m | dʒalom | *dzəɾo̝m |
Final apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *-n | n | *n | |
| moon | *p[ɛⁱ]n | *fɛⁱn | |
| netbag | *po̝n | hon | *fo̝n |
| flesh/meat | *nin | *nin | |
| mosquito | *san | san | *san |
| ashes | *sɔn | son | *sɔn |
| knee | *s[u]man | *s[u]man | |
| liver | *ke̝n | en | *ke̝n |
| night | *gʷin | *gʷin |
Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is fricated to /*f/ in Tor River. Unlike initial and medial /*p/ (above) it is retained as such in Orya:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *-p | p | *f | |
| mouth/lip(s) | *mip | mip | *mif |
| saliva | *-tɛp | … | *-tɛf |
Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *-t | *t | ||
| two | *nawɛt | *nawɛt |
Final laminal /*s/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *-s | s | *s | |
| snake | *[au]s | … | *[au]s |
| goura pigeon | *mɛɾis | *mɛɾis | |
| navel | *mus | … | *mus |
| pig | *gʷas | *gʷas |
Final velar voicless stop /*k/ …
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River |
| *… | ||
| *… |
Final apical non-stop /*ɾ/ …
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *-ɾ | l [l ɾ] | *ɾ | |
| comb | *pataɾ | hatal | *fataɾ |
| path | *nVɾ | *nVɾ | |
| head | *nəbaɾ | *nəbaɾ | |
| shame/shy | *səpɛɾ | saheɾ | *səfɛɾ |
| vein/tendon | *səgaɾ | … | *səgaɾ |
| mouth/teeth | *ko̝ɾ | ol | *ko̝ɾ |
| house/nest | *gʷɔɾ | gol | *gɔɾ |
| imperial pigeon | *gʷ[ɔ/o̝]m[ɛ/ə]ɾ | … | *gʷ[ɔ/o̝]m[ɛ/ə]ɾ |
Vowels /*i *u *e̝ *o̝ *ɛ *ə *ɔ *a/ ….
High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *i | i | *i | |
| salt/sea | *pi | hi | *fi |
| mouth/lip(s) | *mip | mip | *mif |
| flesh/meat | *nin | *nin | |
| night | *gʷin | *gʷin | |
| goura pigeon | *mɛɾis | *mɛɾis |
High back vowel /*u/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *u | u | *u | |
| urine | *su | su | *su |
| bird | *dzu | *dzu | |
| excrement | *ku | u | *ku |
| navel | *mus | … | *mus |
High mid front vowel /*e̝/ is merged with the reflexes of low mid front /*ɛ/ (below) in Orya and retained as such in Tor River:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *e̝ | e | *e̝ | |
| tree/wood | *te̝ | te | *te̝ |
| woman/wife | *kʷe̝ | we | *kʷe̝ |
| liver | *ke̝n | en | *ke̝n |
High mid back vowel /*o̝/ is merged with the reflexes of low mid back /*ɔ/ (below) in Orya and retained as such in Tor River:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *o̝ | o | *o̝ | |
| breast | *mo̝m | mom | *mo̝m |
| netbag | *po̝n | hon | *fo̝n |
| mouth/teeth | *ko̝ɾ | ol | *ko̝ɾ |
| name | *bo̝s[ɛ/a] | bose | *bo̝s[ɛ/a] |
| crocodile | *dzəɾo̝m | dʒalom | *dzəɾo̝m |
Low mid front vowel /*ɛ/ is merged with the reflexes of high mid front /*e̝/ (above) in Orya and retained as such in Tor River:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *ɛ | e | *ɛ | |
| goura pigeon | *mɛɾis | *mɛɾis | |
| louse | *nɛna | … | *nɛna |
| saliva | *ko̝ɾ-tɛp | … | *ko̝ɾ-tɛf |
| eye | *nVwɛ | nwe | *nVwɛ |
| nose | *masɛ | mase | *masɛ |
| shame/shy | *səpɛɾ | saheɾ | *səfɛɾ |
| two | *nawɛt | *nawɛt |
Low mid back vowel /*ɔ/ is merged with the reflexes of high mid back /*o̝/ (above) in Orya and retained as such in Tor River:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *ɔ | o | *ɔ | |
| water | *pɔ | ho | *fɔ |
| earth/ground | *kɔ | *kɔ | |
| finger/toe | *bɔɾ[a] | bola | *bɔɾ |
| ashes | *sɔn | son | *sɔn |
| house/nest | *gʷɔɾ | gol | *gɔɾ |
Mid central schwa vowel /*ə/ has been found only in unstressed non-final syllables. It is merged with the reflexes of /*a/ in Orya (below) and retained as such in Tor River:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *ə | a | *ə | |
| crocodile | *dzəɾo̝m | dʒalom | *dzəɾo̝m |
| shame/shy | *səpɛɾ | saheɾ | *səfɛɾ |
| fat/grease | *pəna | hana | *fəna |
| hand/arm | *təpa | taha | *təfa |
| dog | *gʷəɾa | … | *gʷəɾa |
| head | *nəbaɾ | *nəbaɾ | |
| vein/tendon | *səgaɾ | … | *səgaɾ |
| tongue | *mapəɾ[Vm] | mahal | *mafəɾVm |
| foot/leg | *ta[g]əna | tana | *ta[g]əna |
Low central vowel /*a/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River | |
| *a | a | *a | |
| centipede | *ta | … | *ta |
| leech | *dam | dam | *dam |
| mosquito | *san | san | *san |
| pig | *gʷas | *gʷas | |
| one | *apa | … | *afa |
| comb | *pataɾ | hatal | *fataɾ |
| nose | *masɛ | mase | *masɛ |
| child | *tan[ɛ/e̝] | tane | *tan[ɛ/e̝] |
| two | *nawɛt | *nawɛt | |
| not | *[a]pɔm | … | *afɔm |
| foot/leg | *ta[g]əna | tana | *ta[g]əna |
| tongue | *mapəɾ[Vm] | mahal | *mafəɾVm |
| knee | *s[u]man | *s[u]man | |
| louse | *nɛna | … | *nɛna |
| fat/grease | *pəna | hana | *fəna |
| hand/arm | *təpa | taha | *təfa |
| dog | *gʷəɾa | … | *gʷəɾa |
| head | *nəbaɾ | *nəbaɾ | |
| vein/tendon | *səgaɾ | … | *səgaɾ |
…:
| Orya-Tor River | Orya | Tor River |
| *… | ||
| *… |
[under construction]
…
[under construction]
…