Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
The Asmat family consists of three or more languages spoken over a vast area of New Guinea's southwestern coastal lowlands from the Yac (Opa) river in the northwest to the mouth of the Digul river in the southeast and extending inland as much as 70 miles. Its nearest relatives as Sempan and Kamoro along the coast to the northwest (Voorhoeve 1965: 1, 1980: 1-2.) The term Asmat comes from a native word (q.v. Drabbe 1963: 218-219) meaning “people” in the sense of ethnicity or community, which becomes /asmat/ in the best-known dialect Kawenak (Drabbe 1963: 1.) Autonyms of Asmat languages and dialects are local variations of the compound /*kawei-nako/ which Drabbe glosses as “real human” (“echte mens”, Drabbe 1963: 2-3;) however Voorhoeve (1980: 2, 103) disputes this interpretation, claiming that the compound means “real stranger” and refers to carved wooden figures representing the dead.
Voorhoeve (1980: 6-14) subclassifies Asmat languages and dialects as follows:
Asmat
Casuarina Coast Asmat (Kaweinag)
Citak Asmat (Kaünak)
North Asmat
Central Asmat
Keenok
Sokoni
Keenakap
Kawenak
This revises Drabbe (1963) who did not include North Asmat or Sokoni in his survey area, and did not group Keenok, Keenakap and Kawenak into a single language.
Voorhoeve bases his language determinations upon lexicostatistical percentages as follows (pp. 8-9, 12-13):
| Casuarina | Citak | North | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | |
| Casuarina | — | 68 | 72 | 74 | 77 | 79 |
| Citak | 68 | — | 74 | 76 | 75 | 75 |
| North | 72 | 74 | — | 71 | 75 | 72 |
| Keenok | 74 | 76 | 71 | — | 85 | 87 |
| Keenakap | 77 | 75 | 75 | 85 | — | 89 |
| Kawenak | 79 | 75 | 72 | 87 | 89 | — |
(Keenok given mistakenly as Kawenak “KW” on p. 13 of print original.)
(Komor and Suru villages chosen to illustrate Keenok and Kawenak respectively.)
Lexical distributions (Voorhoeve 1980: 40-42) support the view that Casuarina Coast Asmat is the most divergent of the Asmat languages:
Asmat
Casuarina Coast Asmat
North and Central Asmat
Citak Asmat
North Asmat
Central Asmat
Feuilletau de Bruijn (1913) Kaja-kaja variety of Asmat (unobtained)
Feuilletau de Bruijn (1915) Kaja-kaja variety of Asmat (unobtained)
Drabbe (1950) unpublished comparative vocabulariy of Kawenak (Central) Asmat
Drabbe (1953: 96-104) 378 comparative terms for Kawenak (Central) Asmat
Drabbe (1954: 232-255) 100 comparative terms for Kawenak (Central) Asmat
Drabbe (1958) grammar of Keenok (Central Asmat) of Amor village
Drabbe (n.d.) dictionary of Keenok (Central Asmat) of Amor village
Drabbe (1959) grammar of Kawenak (Central Asmat) (unobtained)
Drabbe (1959) dictionary of Kawenak (Central Asmat) (unobtained)
Drabbe (1963) study of Asmat dialects and (pp. 212-233) 377 comparative terms for Kawenak, Keenok and Keenakap varieties of Central Asmat, Kaünak (Citak) and Kaweinag (Casuarina Coast)
Voorhoeve (1965) dictionary and grammar of Flamingo Bay variety (Surú village) of Kawenak (Central) Asmat
Voorhoeve (1975: 372-374) general description
Voorhoeve (1980) survey of Asmat dialects and (pp. 61-121) 455 reconstructed terms for Proto-Asmat
Voorhoeve (2005: 148-149, 152-154, 158-164) Proto-Asmat-Kamoro correspondences and (unexempified) reconstructions
Roesler (1972) phonology of Asmat of Ajam (unobtained)
Roesler and Roesler (2011) dictionary of Asmat (Kawenak) of Ayam village
Bromley (1973) orthography of Citak (unobtained)
Bromley (1975) orthography of Citak (unobtained)
van Arsdale (1974: 31-32) 66 comparative terms for Awok (Keenakap,) Wooi-Karmbis, Jinak (Tamnim,) Brazza and Upper Eilanden (Citak)
Lebold, Kriens and Susanto (2013) 239 comaprative terms for Central Asmat (Kawenak) of Isyaman village
[under construction]
Proto-Asmat had 11 consonants and perhaps 5 vowels as follows:
| *m | *n | ||
| *p | *t | *tʲ | *k |
| *ɸ | *s | ||
| *w | *ɾ | *j |
| *i | *u | |
| *e | *o | |
| *a |
…
…
Voorhoeve (1980: 53, 2005: 148-149) gives reflexes of Proto-Asmat consonants as follows:
| Asmat | Casuarina | Citak | North | Central | Keenok | Sokoni | Keenakap | Kawenak |
| *m | m | m ~ b | m | *m | m | m | m | m |
| *n | n | n ~ d | n | *n | n | n | n | n |
| *p | p | p | p | *p | p | p | p | p |
| *t | t | t | t ~ r | *t | t ~ r | t ~ r | t | t |
| *T | t | t | t ~ r | *T | t ~ r | t ~ r | t | c |
| *k | k | k | k | *k | k | k | k | k |
| *f | f ~ ø | f ~ ø | f ~ ø | *f | f ~ ø | f ~ h | f ~ ø | f ~ ø |
| *s | s | s | s | *s | s | s ~ h | s | s |
| *r | r | r | r ~ ø | *r | r/ø | ø | r | r |
| *j | j ~ ø | z ~ j | j ~ ø | *j | j ~ ø | j ~ ø | j ~ ø | j ~ ø |
| *w | w ~ ø | w~v~y~ø | w ~ ø | *w | w ~ ø | w ~ ø | w ~ ø | w ~ ø |
(n.b. Voorhoeve gives /j/ as <y>)
…
Any consonant other than apical non-stop /*ɾ/ can occur initially.
Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is generally occluded to voiced prenasalized stop [mb] in all descendants. Unlike the Cook River languages to the south, there does not appear to be any conditioning factor which governs whether occlusion occurs or not:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *m- | m [mb] | m [mb] | m [mb] | m [mb] | m [mb] | *m | |
| nose | *mi | mbi-(mak) | mbi | mbi-(mak) | mbi-(mak) | mbi | *mi(-mak) |
| small root | *mimi | mbimi | mbimi | *mimi | |||
| thought | *minipV | mbinip | mbinipu | mbinip | mbinip | mbinip | *minip |
| revenge | *mitʲi | mbit | mbiti | mbiɾi | mbit | mbitʃ | *miTi |
| frog sp. | *mitʲinV | mbitin | mbitin | *miTin | |||
| sand | *misini | mbisin | mbisin | mbisin | mbisin | mbisin | *misini |
| testicle(s) | *misaka | mbisak | mbisak | mbisak | mbisak | mbisak | *misaka |
| spirit/ghost | *miwi | mbyy | mbii | mbiy | *miwi | ||
| deaf | *mirV | mbiɾɛ: | mbiɾ | mbiɾi | mbiɾi | *miri | |
| thumb/big toe | *m[i/e]tVwitV | mbityt | mbɛtɛt | mbitit | mbɛtɛt | *mitut | |
| mouth | *mea | mbɛ: | mbɛ | mbia | mbɛ | mbɛ | *mea |
| nipple | *mene | mbɛn | *men(e) | ||||
| bring | *metomVtV- | mbɛtɔmjaɾ- | mbɛtɔmɔs | mbɛtɔmat- | — | ||
| saliva/spittle | *mesa[pV] | mbas | mbɛsɛp | mbɛsa | mbɛsɛ | *masap | |
| back | *maeke | mbɛk | mbɛk | mbak | mbak | mbak | *ma(e)ke |
| three | *maminVtʲVp | mbɛmtiap | mbɛmintɛp | mbamintʃop | — | ||
| low/below | *mapi | mbapi | mbap | mbap | — | ||
| hand/arm | *maɸane | mban | mban | mban | mban | mban | *mafane [*mane] |
| three | *man… | mbɛni | mbanyɾ | — | |||
| eye | *mana | mban(-ak) | mban-ak | mban-mak | mban-mak | mban-mɔk | *man(-aka) *mana(-ka) |
| forehead | *mana-pinV | mbanɛpin | mbanapin | mbinipin | mbipin | mbipin | *manapin |
| orphan | *manama | mbanma | mbanma | mbaɛnmɛ | mbanma | *manema | |
| tear(s) | *matʲi | mbat | mbati | mbiɾi- | mbatɛ | mbɛtʃ | *maTi |
| weep/cry | *matʲe- | mbat- | mbati- | mbɛɾ- | mbɛt- | mbɛtʃ- | *maTi- |
| unwilling | *maso | mbas | mbaɔs | mbas | — | ||
| foot/leg | *mawi | mbɛⁱ | mbai | mbɛɛ | mbaᵋy | mbɛⁱ | *maji ~ *mawi |
| star | *mawito | mbaɛt | mbaœ | mbaᵋyt | mbait | *mawito | |
| scar | *maji | mbɛⁱ | mbɛⁱ | mbɛⁱ | — | ||
| husband | *mo | mbɔ | mbɔ | mbɔ | mbɔ | mb- | *-omo(-piT) |
| vomit (n.) | *mo | mbɔ | mbɔ | mbɔ | mbɔ | mbɔ | — |
| vomit (v.) | *mo- | mbɔ- | mbɔ- | mbɔ- | mbɔ- | *mo- | |
| chop down | *mo- | mbɔ- | mbɔ- | mbɔ- | mba- | mbɔ- | *mo- |
| wet | *motʲoɸo[ko] | mbɔtɔ | mbɔɾɔk | *moTo(k) | |||
| navel | *mokopeɾe | mbɔgɔpɛ-tɔk | mbœkœpœɾ | mbɔkɔpɛɾ | mbɔkɔpɛɾ | mbɔkɔpɛɾ | *mokoper *mopere |
| buttocks | *moɾe | mbɔɾ | mbɛɾ | mbɔɾ | mbɔɾ | *faemore | |
| calf/upper arm | *m[o/u] | mbu | mbu | mbɔ | *iman mo | ||
| turtle | *mu | mbu | mbu | mbu | mbu | mbu | *mu(a) |
| water | *mui | mbi | mbi | mbi | mbᵘi | mbᵘi | *muˈi |
| bathe | *mui- | mbu- | mbi- | mbu- | mbᵘi- | mbᵘi- | *mui- |
… /*m/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *(-)m- | m [m] | m [mb] | m [m] | m [m] | *m | ||
| wife | *(e)mo | ɛm | mbɔ | ɛmɔ | ɛm | *-emo | |
| *(-)m- | m [mb] | m [mb] | m [m] | m [mb] | m [m] | *m | |
| younger sister | *(o)masi | mbas | mbasi | ɔmsi | mbasi | ɔmɛs | *-omosi |
| *(-)m- | m [m] | m [m] | m [m] | m [mb] | *m | ||
| knowledge | *(o)mVsVmV | ɔmsɔm | msɛm- | msam- | mbisom | *masom(o) | |
| *(-)m- | m [m] | m [m] | m [m] | m [mb] | m [mb] | *m | |
| white ashes | *mVtʲV | jaᵓ-mut | za-mit | ju-muɾ | zɔɔ mbɛt | jɔᵘ mbɛtʃ | *jowomiTi |
| *(-)m- | m [m] | m [mb] | m [mb] | *m | |||
| lightning | *mVɾV | mbasa-mɛɾ | mbɛɾ | mbɛɾ | *(masa-)maro | ||
| *(-)m- | m [mb] | m [m] | m [m] | *m | |||
| earth/ground | *tʃapini-mi | tapin-mbi | tɛpin-mi | tʃapin-mi | *Tapini-mi | ||
| *(-)m- | m [mb] | m [m] | m [m] | m [mb] | *m | ||
| sago stem(s) | *amate | mbakɛ | amaɾa | amatɛ | mbatɛ | — | |
| *(-)m- | m [mb] | m [m] | m [m] | m [m] | *m | ||
| hot | *amopo | ambɔp | amɔp | amɔp | amɔp | *amapo |
Initial apical nasal /*n/ is generally occluded to voiced prenasalized stop [nd] in all descendants. Umlike the Cook River languages to the south, there does not appear to be any conditioning factor which governs whether occlusion occurs or not::
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *n- | n [nd] | n [nd] | n [nd] | n [nd] | n [nd] | *n | |
| eat/drink | *ne- | ndɛ- | ndɛ- | nda- | *na-, *ne- | ||
| suckle | *ne-mV- | ndɛ-m- | nda-m- | — | |||
| death | *namiɾi | ndambiɾ | ndamiɾ | ndimiɾ | ndamiɾ | ndamiɾ | *namiri |
| body | *namo | ndam | ndamɔ ~ ndam | ndamɔ | ndamɔ ~ ndam | ndamɔ ~ ndam | *namo |
| love | *namose | ndamɔs | ndsɛmsɛ | ndamɔs | ndamɔs | — | |
| go down | *naɸi- | ndaja- | ndai- | ndɛ- | ndɛ- | ndɛᵘ- | *naj- |
| spirit/ghost | *nato | ndat | ndat | *nato | |||
| raw | *natʲi | ndati | ndati | ndiɾ | ndati | ndatʃi | *naTi |
| flesh/meat | *nasa | ndas | ndasa | ndɛsɛ | ndasa | ndas | *nasa |
| empty/nothing | *nasane | ndasɛn | ndasan | *nasen | |||
| light (weight) | *nasasV | ndasas | ndasas | — | |||
| wound/scar | *nas[o/u] | ndasy | ndasɔ | ndɔsɔ | ndasɔ | ndɔsɔ | *naso |
| 1 pl. | *na-ɾV | nda-ɾ | nda-ɾ | nda-ɾ | nda-ɾ | nda-ɾ | *naro |
| carry | *notʲo- | ndɔɾ- | ndɔt- | ndɔtʃ- | *noT- | ||
| 1 sg. | *no-ɾe | ndɛ-ɾ | ndœ-ɾ | ndɛ-ɾ | ndɛ-ɾ | ndɔ-ɾ | *nor |
… /*n/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *(-)n- | n [n] | n [nd n] | n [nd] | n [nd] | n [nd] | *n | |
| correct/true | *nako | nak | ndak ~ -nak | ndɔk | ndak | ndak | — |
Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all decendants:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *p- | p | p | p | p | p | *p | |
| cassowary | *pi | pi | pi | pi | pi | *pi | |
| fly (v.) | *pi- | pi- | pi- | pi- | pi- | pi- | *pi- |
| smell (n.) | *… | pinim | pinim | pinim | pinim | pinim | *pinum |
| skin/bark | *pitʲini | pitin | pitin | pitni | pitin | pitʃin | *piTini |
| break/snap | *piki- | piki- | piki- | piki- | — | ||
| break/snap (tr.) | *piki-mV- | piki-m- | piki-m- | piki-m- | piki-m- | — | |
| grasshopper | *pikamo | pikmo | pikam | pikam | — | ||
| ripe | *piwi | pi | pyy | pii | pii | piwi | *piwi |
| moon | *piɾa | piɾ | piɾa | piɾ | piɾ | piɾ | *pira |
| bat | *… | piaᵓ | *piaw | ||||
| sated | *… | pɛta- | piɾ | piti- | piti | *pita | |
| rat | *… | -piɾaɔ | paɾɔ | piɾaᵓ | pɛɾɔ | *piraw(to) | |
| give birth | *pe- | pɛ- | pɛ- | pɛ- | pɛ- | pɛ- | *pe- |
| blind | *… | pɛtɛ | pɛtɛⁱ | *… | |||
| mouse | *… | pɛsi | pɛs | pasitʃ | — | ||
| break/split | *… | paka- | pakaɛ | paka- | *pakaj- | *… | |
| break/split (tr.) | *… | paka-m- | paka-m- | — | |||
| breadfruit | *… | paᵓ | paa | paˈu | pɔᵘ | *pawo | |
| seek/look for | *… | pɔᵘ- | pɔɔ- | pa- | pɔᵘ- | *powa ~ *pawo | |
| wide | *paɾa | paɾ | paɾayt | paɾ | paɾ | paɾ | — |
| daughter | *… | pɛɾɛis | piɾis | paɾaᵋys | pɛɾɛs | *-porawis | |
| pigeon sp. | *… | paɾ-yɾ | *pari | ||||
| paddle | *… | pɔ | pɔ | pɔ | pɔ | *po | |
| see/look | *… | pɔɾ- | pɔɾ- ~ pɔɾa- | pɛɾ- | pɔɾ- | pɔɾ- | *por- |
| flatulate | *pu-mV- | pu-m- | pu-m- | pu-m- | pu-m- | pu-m- | *asa pum- |
| bad/worthless | *… | pɛtag | pɛtɛk | pɛɾakas | pɛta | pᵘitʃak | *peTak(as) |
Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *t- | t | t | t | t | t | *t | |
| son | *tiwi | ty | tyy | tii | tyy | tiᵘ | *tiwi |
| watch/guard | *… | ty- | tuu- | ty- | tuᵘ- | — | |
| rain | *teɸe | tɛ: | tɛ | tɛ | tɛ | tɛ | *te(e) |
| shiver | *teti- | tɛtɛ- | tiɾiɾi | tɛtɛ | titi- | *titi- ~ *tete- | |
| rattan | *temV | tɛm | tɔma | tɛm | tɛm | tɛm | *tama ~ *tema |
| throat | *tenemV | tɛnɛm | tɛnɛm | tɛnɛm | — | ||
| give (sg.) | *te-tema- | tɛ-tam- | ta-tam- | tɛ-tɛm- | tɛ-tam- | tɛ-tam- | *te-tam- (sg.) *ta-tam- (pl.) |
| dream | *tamiti- | tamas- | timiɾi- | tamit- | tamit- | *tam(-iti/as) | |
| morning | *tamV | tam | tama-zyt | tam | tɔm | tam | *tama |
| large root | *tamawV | tamaᵓ | tamam | tamɔˈɔ | *tamowo | ||
| mat | *tapini | tapin | tipin | tipini | tapini | tɛpɛn | *tapini |
| life | *… | tatakaⁱ | tɛɾaka | tɛtaka | tɛtakaⁱ | *tetaka ~ tatakaj |
|
| all | *… | atgas | -takas | takas | takas | *(a)takase | |
| take/seize | *… | tɛᵘ- | taœ- | tɛ- | taᵋ- | tɛᵘ- | *tew- |
| say/speak | *tawe- | tɔᵘ- | taœ- | taɔ- ~ tɔɔ- | taᵓ- | taᵓ- | — |
| flying fox | *taɾe | taɾ | taɾɛ | taɾɛ | taɾɛ | taɾ | *tare |
| old/legend | *taɾawi | taɾɛⁱ | taɾy | tiɾi | taɾɛ | taɾɛⁱ | *tarej |
| straight/flat | *taɾVwVtV | tɔɾɔɾ | tɔɾɔɔt | taɾɔwɔt | — | ||
| yesterday/tom. | *… | tɔ | tɔ | tɔ | tɔ | tɔ | *… |
| go up | *tometV- | tɔmɛt- | tœndœ- | tɔmɔɾ- | tɔmɛt- | tɔmɛt- | *tomet- |
| chin/jaw | *… | tɔpɔn | *topane | ||||
| prepare/gather | *tawVkVmV- | tɔkɔm | taᵓɔkɔm | tɔwɔkɔm | — | ||
| swallow | *… | tɔkɔp- | -ɾɔkɔp- (?) | tɔɔkɔp- | — |
Initial aleveopalatal voiceless stop /*tʲ/ is reliably distinguished only in Kawenak, where it is affricated to [tʃ]. Elsewhere it has generally merged with the reflexes of apical /*t/ (above;) however Drabbe (1958: 4) states that Keenok /t/ can in some instances be realized as [tʲ] and that this sound corresponds to Kawenak /tʃ/:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *tʲ- | t | t | t [t tʲ] | t | tʃ | *T | |
| canoe | *tʲiu | ty | ti | ti | ty | tʃi | *Tiˈu |
| leech | *tʲiɸi | ti | ti | ti | ti | tʃi | *Ti |
| shoot | *tʲimV- | tim- | tim- | tʃim- | — | ||
| be in pain | *tʲi… | ty- | ty- | tuu- | tu- | tʃuᵘ- | — |
| heel | *tʲ… | tim | tyma | timi | tyni | tʃimi | *Timi |
| swim | *tʲ… | tytypu- | tytypᵘi- | tʃytʃy- | — | ||
| flower | *tʲ… | tɛⁱjɛ | tawaœ | tɛɛ | tyɛ | tʃiwɛᵘ | *Taiwaw |
| penis | *tʲamane | tɛmɛn | taman | tamnɛ | tamanɛ | tʃɛmɛn | *Tamane |
| scolding | *tʲamewe | tamɛɛ | tɛmɛɛ | tʃɛmɛᵘ | — | ||
| contents | *tʲɛnamV | tanam | tɛnɛm | tanam | tʃɛnam | *Tenam | |
| think | *tʲeɾemV- | tɛɾɛm- | tɛɾɛm- | tʃɛɾɛm- | — | ||
| house | *tʲame | tamɛ | tɛmɛ | tamɛ | tʃɛm | *Tame | |
| earth/ground | *tʲapini-mi | tapin-mbi | tɛpin-mi | tʃapin-mi | *Tapini-mi | ||
| vagina | *tʲani | tɛn | tani | tɛnɛ | tɛni | tʃɛn | *Tani |
| low/below | *tʲanesa | tanɛs | tanɛs | tʃɛnɛs | *Tanes | ||
| waiting | *tʲatʲinV | titin | tatin | tʃatʃin | — | ||
| arrow | *tʲesa | tas | tasa | tɛs | tɛs | tʃɛs | *Taisa ~ *Tiasa |
| outside | *tʲasane | tasɛn | tasan | tɛsɛn | tasɛnɛ | tʃɛsɛn | *Tasane |
| kill | *tʲatiwV- | taty- | taɾi | taty- | tʃatiᵘ- | — | |
| nest | *tʲawa | tɔ | tɔ | tɔ | tɔ | tʃɔ | *Towa ~ *Tawa |
| one | *tʲawaka | tak | taka | tɔkɔ | tʃɔwɔk | *Towaka | |
| 2 pl. | *tʃa-ɾV | ta-ɾ | ta-ɾ | ta-ɾ | ta-ɾ | tʃa-ɾ | *Tara |
| suck | *tʲomo-(kopV)- | tɔmɔkɔp- | tɔmɔkɔp- | tʃɔ-tʃɔm- | — | ||
| woman/female | *tʲawotʲa | tɔwɔt | taɔt | tɔɔɾ | tɔɔt | tʃɔwɔtʃ | *TawoTa |
| hide | *tʲukumV- | tukum- | tʃukum- | — |
Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is relatively uncommon. It is retained as such in all descendants:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *k- | k | k | k | k | k | *k | |
| shoulder | *k… | kɛpu | -kɔp | kɛp | *kapei | ||
| small | *kanVmV | kanim | kanum | — | |||
| be sleepy | *kakapi- | kagapi- | kakapi- | kakapi- | kakapi- | — | |
| deep | *kakV | kɔk | kaku | kaku | *kaku | ||
| throw away | *komV-asomV- | kɔm-asɔm- | kɔk-asɔm- | *kom-asom- | |||
| soft | *komiti | kumit | kɔmɛt | kumiɾi | kumit | kumit | *komiti |
| tongue | *komVne | kɔmɛn | kɔmɛn | kɔmɛn | kɔmɛn | *(k)omane | |
| ankle | *komane | kɔman | kɔmnɛ | kɔmanɛ | kɔman | *komane | |
| paradise sp. | *koko | kɔkɔ-zɔ | kɔkɔ-jɔ | — | |||
| head/skull | *kowisi | kus | kuis | kuus | kus | kᵘis | *kuisi |
Several examples of initial /*k/ are loans from recent times:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *k- | k | k | k | k | k | *k | |
| taro | *k… | kamɛasan | kamɔasan | kamɛasan | — | ||
| tobacco | *k… | kapɔk | kapakɛ | kapak | — |
Initial bilabial voiceless fricative /*ɸ/ is retained as suchu in all descendants:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *ɸ- | f | f | f | f | f | *f | |
| empty | *ɸ… | fi | fi | fi | *fi | ||
| hair/feather(s) | *ɸinV | fin | fini | fini | fina | fin | *(u-)fini |
| sugarcane | *ɸinamo | finam | finmɔ | — | |||
| nail | *ɸitʲi | fit | fiti | fitʃ | *fiTi | ||
| sweet | *ɸemese | fɛmɛs | fɛmɛs | fɛmɛsɛ | fɛmɛs | — | |
| neck | *ɸVmakV | fɛmak | fɛmak | fɛmak | fɛmak | *femak ~ *fomak |
|
| white | *ɸesaka | fɛsak | fɛsaka | fɛsak | *fasa(ka/r) | ||
| buttocks | *ɸae | fɛ | fa ~ faɛa | fa | fa | fa | *fae(a) |
| short | *ɸanipV | fanip | *fanip | ||||
| cuscus | *ɸatʲ[e] | fat | fati | fɛt | fatɛ | fatʃ | *faTi |
| skinny | *ɸatʲo | fatɔ- | fatœ | fɔɾɔ | fatɔ | fatʃɔ | *faTo(kot) |
| crooked | *ɸasi | fasi | fasi | fasi | *fasi | ||
| hard/strong | *ɸeake | pakɛ (?( | fɛak | fɛak | fak | fak | *feak |
| wind | *ɸo | fɔ | fɔ | fɔ | *fo | ||
| widow | *ɸuisima | fisim | fisma | fᵘisma | fᵘisma | — |
Initial voiceless fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all descendants:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *s- | s | s | s | s | s | *s | |
| stone axe | *si | si | si | si | si | si | *si |
| plait | *si- | si- | si- | si- | si- | si- | *si |
| dig | *si | si- | -sœ- | si- | si- | si- | *si- |
| tooth | *sisV | sis | sisi | sisi | sisa | *sisi | |
| sour | *sisV-mVkV | sismik | sysmuk | sismik | — | ||
| be pregnant | *siwV- | sy- | si- | sy- | sy- | — | |
| bamboo | *siwine | syin | siini | syyny | siwin | *siwine | |
| ground | *se | sɛ | sɛ | sɛ | sɛ | sɛ | *se |
| shoulder | *s… | sɛ- | sɛⁱ | sɛⁱ | *saji | ||
| cough/phlegm | *sese | sɛsɛ | sɛs | — | |||
| bat | *seseɾV | sɛsɛɾ | sɛsɛɾ | sɛsɛɾ | — | ||
| dry | *sa | sa | sa | sa | *sa | ||
| egg | *sa | sa | *sa | ||||
| go out (fire) | *sapi- | sɛpi- | sapi- | sapi- | sapi- | — | |
| extinguish | *sapi-mV- | sɛpi-m- | sapi-m- | sapi-m- | sapi-m- | *sapim- | |
| forest (?) | *sase | sas | sasɛ | sasɛ | sas | — | |
| chop/break | *sakV- | saka- | — | ||||
| chop/break (tr.) | *sakV-mV- | sakɔ-m- | saka-m- | saka-m- | saka-m- | *sakam- | |
| bird | *sakV | sat | saku | suku | sakuu | sɔk | *soku |
| quick/fast | *saɾimV | saɾim | saɾim | — | |||
| light/bright | *s… | sɛɾœt | saɾɔ | saɾɛ | sɛɾɛ | *sareT *saroT |
|
| shallow | *saɾa | saɾ | saɾa | saɾa | saɾ | — | |
| song | *so | sɔ | sɔ | sɔ | sɔ | sɔ | *so |
| rope | *somVnV | sɛmɛn | sœmɛn | sɔmɛn | sɔmɛn | *somane | |
| upper arm | *sope | sɔp | sɔp | sɔp | *sope | ||
| elbow | *sonane | sœnan | sɛnɛnɛ | sœnœnɛ | sɔnɔn | *sonane | |
| near | *s… | sɛɾɛp | sœtœp | sɔtɔp | — | ||
| torch sp. | *sose | sœs | sœsœ | sɔsɔ | sœsœ | sɔs | *sos |
| black | *soseakV | sɔsɔk | sœsœkɔ | sɛsak | sɔsɔk | *sosaka | |
| dry | *… | sœsœt | sœsœ | *sosot | |||
| grandmother | *… | asak | sɔk | sɔk | sɔk | *-asok | |
| wallaby | *s… | sœn | syny | sœnœ | sɔn | — |
Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *w- | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ does not occur initially.
Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ when followed by vowels other than high front /*i/ is occluded to voiced fricative /z/ in Kaünak (Citak) and in Keenakap:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *j- | j | z | j | z | j | *j | |
| mute | *jewiɾV | zyɾys | jiiɾi | zɛᵘtu | — | ||
| cook | *jewe- | œ- (?) | jɛ- | zɛɛ- | jɛᵘ- | — | |
| enemy/war | *jewewi | jɛⁱ | jɛɛ | zɔy | jɛwɛᵘ | — | |
| fat/grease | *jaewi (?) | [jɛɛ] | zaɛy | jɔⁱ | — | ||
| armpit | *jamVpV | jamɛp | jamɛp | zamɛp | *jamopi | ||
| two | *j… | zamnik | jɔmnɔk | zamnɔk | jamnuk | *jaminuk | |
| chest | *jamomV | zamɔm | zamɔm | *jamom | |||
| ear | *jaɸane | jɛn | zæn | janɛ | zanɛ | jan | *jane(-maka) *jafane |
| men's house | *jaɸawe | [jɛɛ] | *jawe | ||||
| ask for | *janimV- | jɛnim- | zanim- | anim- (?) | — | ||
| question | *janowe | janœ | jɔnɔɔ | zɔnɔ | jɔnɔᵘ | — | |
| call | *jate- | jɛtɛ- | jɛɾ- | zatɛ- | jɛtɛ- | *jate- | |
| sneeze | *jaki | aki (?) | akis (?) | jiki | zaki | jaki | — |
| belly | *jake | zakɛ | jak | zak | jak | *jake | |
| charcoal | *jaka | jaka | *jaka | ||||
| trail | *[j]… | jakaⁱ | akaⁱ (?) | — | |||
| rib(s) | *jawimi | jaiɛm | zamim | [jiimi] | zaɛmi | jɛwɛm | *jawimi |
| wing | *jaɸoɾV | zœɾ | jɔɾa | zaᵓɾɔ | jɔɾɔ | *jaoro | |
| sun | *jawi | jawi | zau- | jɛɛ | zɔᵋ | jɔᵘ | *jowe ~ *jowi |
| black ashes | *jawo | jaᵓ- | za- | ju- | zɔɔ | jɔᵘ | *jowomiTi |
| break/crush | *jaɾe- | jɛɾɛ- | zaɾɛ- | jɛɾɛ- | — | ||
| break/crush (tr.) | *jaɾe-mV- | jɛɾɛ-m- | zaɾɛ-m- | jɛɾɛ-m- | — | ||
| walk/go | *jaɾV- | zaɾ- | jaɾ- | zaɾ- | jaɾ- | *jar | |
| sweat | *jopeɾesV | jɛpɛɾɛs | zɔpɛɾɛs | jɔpɛɾɛs | — | ||
| hole | *jaFp | jœf ~jaf | zafɔ ~zafa | jɔfɔ ~ -jɔf | zafa | jɔf | *jofa |
| paradise sp. | *jo | jɔ | -zɔ | -jɔ | -*jowa | ||
| breath | *josesV | jɛsɛs | zɔsɛs | jɔsɛs | — | ||
| silence | *jokonV | jɔkɔn | zɔkɔn | jɔkɔn | *… | ||
| bad/evil | *jokomane | jɔkman | jɔkɔmɛn | zɔkmɛn | jɔkmɛn | — | |
| river | *j… | jɔ | zy | ji [~ jɔ] | zu | jɔ | *joa(k) |
| daylight | *jowo | jɔwu | zɔk | jɔ | zɔ | jɔ | *joka |
| cold | *juFo | jyfyt | zyfy | jufuk | zifɔ | jufu | *jufo(-to/-ko) |
| heavy | *jutoɾo | jytyɾ | zytyɾy | wutyɾu (?) | jytyɾ | *juturu ~ *jitoro |
|
| slippery | *jutʲo | jytyt | zyɾy- | juɾu- | zytɔ | jytʃy | *juTo(t) |
| coconut | *jusini | jysyn | zisin | jisin | zysyni | jysyn | *jusini |
| fire/firewood | *jusa | jis | isa | jis | zys | jis | *jusa |
| kunai grass | *juwa | jya | zua | jua | zuˈɛ | jua | — |
| name | *juwase | jyas | zɔas | jɔas | zuas | juas | *juwas |
| dog | *juwVɾi | juɾ | zuuɾ | juuɾi | zuuɾi | juˈuɾ | *juwuri |
| rainbow | *juri | jiɾ | zyɾ | zyɾ | jiɾ | *jir(i) | |
| goura pigeon | *juɾV | -yɾ | jiɾ | zu | juɾ | — | |
| white cockatoo | *juɾV | zyɾ | *jur | ||||
| night | *juɾama | jiɾam | zytam | jiɾam | ziɾam | iɾam () | *jirama |
| long | *juɾawo | jiɾaᵓ | ziɾaut | jyɾɔ | ziɾaᵓ | jyɾɔᵘ | *jurao |
When initial /*j/ is followed by high front vowel /*i/, it is often dropped rather than occluded in Kaünak (Citak):
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *j-/_i | j | z ø | j | z | j | *j | |
| do | *ji- | ji- | i- | ji- | zi- | ji- | — |
| excrete (?) | *ji-pi- | ji-pi- | pi- | zipi- | — | ||
| net | *jimV | jim | zimi | jimi | zimi | jim | *jime |
| nape | *jimasV | jimas | zimas | jimas | — | ||
| doorway | *jimasapi | imisɛp | jimsɛp | zimasap- | jimasap | *jimasapi(ne) *jimasapu(ne) |
|
| tired | *jipi | jipi | zip | jipi | — | ||
| short | *jipinV | zipin | jipin | — | |||
| man/male | *jipitʲi | ipit | ipit | jipiɾ | zipit | jipitʃ | *jipiTi |
| knee | *jinVɸa | jinyf | zini | jina | zinɛ | jinɛ | *jina |
| tie | *jikV- | jik- | zik- | jik- | *jik- | ||
| hear | *jiwV- | zi- | ji- | zy- | ji- | — | |
| spit | *jiwV- | ji- | zy- | ji- | — | ||
| child | *jiwi | jywi | jii | zyy | jiwi | *jiwi | |
| dark | *jiwitʲi | jit | zyyt | jiiɾ | zyyty | jiwitʃ | *jiwiTi |
| throw away | *[j]iwi-asomV- | j-ɔsœm- | z-asɔm- | iw-asɔm- | *iwi-asom- | ||
| gall/bile | *jɾV | jiɾ | ziɾi | jiɾak | ziɾa | jiɾ | *jiri |
| command | *jiɾimV | jiɾim- | ziɾim- | jiɾim- | ziɾim- | jiɾim- | *jirim- |
| command | *jiɾimetʲV | jiɾmɛt | jiɾmɛɾ | jiɾimɛtʃ | *jirimeT |
Any consonant can occur medially.
Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants. Unlike initial /*m/ (above), it is not occluded to a prenasalized stop:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-m- | m | m | m | m | m | *m | |
| … | *… | *… |
Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants. Unlike initial /*n/ (above), it is not occluded to a prenasalized stop:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-n- | n | n | n | n | n | *n | |
| … | *… | *… |
Medial bilabial voieeless stop /*p/ …
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-p- | *p | ||||||
| … | *… | *… |
Medial apical voicless stop /*t/ is lenited to non-stop /ɾ/ in Keenok:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-t- | t | t | ɾ | t | t | *t | |
| … | *… | *… |
Several examples in which /*t/ is not lenited to /ɾ/:in Keenok are compounds:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *(-)t- | t | t | ɾ | t | t | *t | |
| … | *… | *… |
Medial alveopalatal voiceless stop /*tʲ/ is distinguished from apical /*t/ (above) only in Kawenak. Elsewhere it ia merged with the reflexes of /*t/, likewise leniting to /ɾ/:in Keenok
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-tʲ- | t | t | ɾ | t | tʃ | *T | |
| … | *… | *… |
Several examples in which /*tʃ/ is not lenited to /ɾ/:in Keenok have it forming a cluster with following apical nasal /*n/ instead:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-tʃVn- | tVm | tVm | tn | tVn | tʃVn | *T | |
| … | *… | *… |
Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-k- | *k | ||||||
| … | *… | *… |
Medial bilabial voiceless fricative /*ɸ/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-ɸ- | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
… /*F/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-F- | *f | ||||||
| … | *… | *… |
Medial voiceless fricative /*s/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-s- | *s | ||||||
| … | *… | *… |
Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is discernible primarily by its effects upon neighboring vowels.
… /*iwi/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-w- | |||||||
| spirit/ghost | *miwi | mbyy | mbii | mbiy | *miwi | ||
| ripe | *piwi | pi | pyy | pii | pii | piwi | *piwi |
| son | *tiwi | ty | tyy | tii | tyy | tiᵘ | *tiwi |
| kill | *… | *… | |||||
| be pregnant | *… | *… | |||||
| bamboo | *… | *… | |||||
| child | *… | *… | |||||
| dark | *… | *… |
… /*w/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-w- | |||||||
|  crocodile | *… | *… |
… /*w/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-w- | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
… /*w/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-w- | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
… /*w/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-w- | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
… /*w/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-w- | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
Medial apical non-stop /*ɾ/ …:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-ɾ- | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *-j- | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
…
…
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *… | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
…
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *… | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
…
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *… | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
…
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *… | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
…
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *… | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
…
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *… | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
…
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *… | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
…
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *… | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
…
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| *… | |||||||
| … | *… | *… |
[under construction]
…:
| Asmat | Kaweinag | Kaünak | Keenok | Keenakap | Kawenak | Voorhoeve | |
| Pirampun | Senggo | Komor-Amor | Ndamen | Ajam | |||
| 1 sg. | *no-ɾe | ndɛ-ɾ | ndœ-ɾ | ndɛ-ɾ | ndɛ-ɾ | ndɔ-ɾ | *nor |
| 2 sg. | *[w]o-ɾe | ɔ-ɾ | wɔ-ɾ | wɛ-ɾ | wɔ-ɾ | ɔ-ɾ | *woro |
| 3 sg. | *a-ɾe | a-ɾ | a-ɾ | a-ɾ | a-ɾ | a-ɾ | *are |
| 1 pl. | *na-ɾV | nda-ɾ | nda-ɾ | nda-ɾ | nda-ɾ | nda-ɾ | *naro |
| 2 pl. | *tʃa-ɾV | ta-ɾ | ta-ɾ | ta-ɾ | ta-ɾ | tʃa-ɾ | *Tara |
| 3 pl. | *a-ɾV | a-ɾ | a-ɾ | a-ɾ | a-ɾ | a-ɾ | *are |
[under construction]
No information about the verbal inflectional systems of Casuarina Coast Asmat or Citak Asmat is urrently available to us. Therefore our discussion here is based upon Keenok of Amor village (Drabbe 1958) and Kawenak of Surú village (Voorhoeve 1965.)
…
| Asmat | Keenok | Kawenak | |
| … | *… |
… recent past …:
| Asmat | Keenok | Kawenak | |
| … | *… | -ø- |
…
| Asmat | Keenok | Kawenak | |
| … | *… |