Table of Contents

East Timor

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

[under construction]

The East Timor family consists of four languages spoken in the northeastern portion of Timor and on the small island of Kisar just to the north.

Subclassification

[under construction]

The internal classification of East Timor is as follows (CITE):

East Timor

Makalero-Makasae

Makasae

Makalero

Fataluku-Oirata

Fataluku

Oirata

Sources

[under construction]

Historical phonology

[under construction]

Proto-East Timor had perhaps 15 consonants and 4 or 5 vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *ts *k
*b *d *dz *g
*s
*l
*w *r *j
*i *u
*e [*o]
*a

In addition to the simple vowels given above, two diphthongs are found as follows:

*aⁱ *aᵘ



Our consonant values correlate to Mandala's (2010) proto-Oirata-Fataluku-Makasai and Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven's (2012, 2014) proto-Timor values as follows:

Mandala SHvE 2012 SHvE 2014
*m *m *m *m
*n *n *n *n
*p *p *f *f
*t *t *t *T *t
*ts *s *s
*k- *k
*-k- *k
*b- *p *p *p
*b₁- *p
*b₂- *p *b *b
*d- *t *d
*-d- *t *T *T
*dz- *t *D *D
*-dz- *s *D *D
*g- *k *g *g
*-g- *k *g
*s *s *s *s
*w *w *w *w
*l *l *l *l
*r *r *r *r
*j- *D *D
*-j-
*… *h/_i *j
[loans] *… *… *g
[loans] *… *g *…

As seen above, Mandala's proto-Oirata-Fataluku-Makasai posits only voiceless stops and fricative /*p *t *k *ʔ *s/, with what are given here as voiced stops /*b *d *g *dz/ and affricate /*ts/ derived from these by a series of unexplained and unconditioned splits. Schapper, Huber and Engelenhoven's (2012, 2014) proto-Timor, not strictly proto-East Timor as it includes the more distantly-related Bunaq, avoids Mandala's conflations but stops short of discerning the phonological structure of the system, such that where there correspondences are valid their proposed values often need significant adjustment.

Initial consonants correspond as follows:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata
*m- m m m m
*n- n n n n
*p- p/f f f p
*t- t t t t
*ts- s h s s
*k- k k k k
*d- d d c d
*dz- d s c ø
*g- g k ø ø
*s- s h h ø
*w- w w v w
*l- l l l l
*r- r r r r
*j-

Medial consonants correspond as follows:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata
*-m- m m m m
*-n- n n n n
*-p- f f f p
*-t- t t t t
*-ts- s s s s
*-k- k k k k
*-b- f f p h
*-d- t t c d
*-dz- s s c s
*-g- ʔ ʔ ʔ ʔ
*-s- s s h ø
*-w- w w v w
*-l- l l l l
*-r- r r r r
*-j- ø ø j j

Final consonants correspond as follows:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata
*-m n m n
*-n ø n ø n n
*-p
*-t ø ø t ø t
*-ts
*-k ø k ø k ø
*-b p h
*-d
*-dz
*-g ø ʔ
*-s ø ø h ø
*-l ø l l l
*-r ø r ø r ø r

Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata
*i i i i i
*u u u u u
*e
*o
*a a a a a
*aⁱ aⁱ eⁱ e: e:
*aᵘ aᵘ aᵘ aᵘ
*aCe
*aCo

Correspondences which have been found only in loans from Austronesian languages include:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata
*b₁- f f p h
*-b₁- h ? ? h
*b₂- b p p h
*g₂- g k k k
*-g₂- g k ʔ ʔ
*s₂

These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Makasae attestations drawn from Arnaud and Campagnolo (1997,) Makalero from Huber (2011,) Fataluku from Arnaud and Campagnolo (1997) and Oirata from de Josselin de Jong (1937) unless otherwise indicted. Makasae forms drawn from Sudiartha, Budiasa, Partami and Putra (1998) are indicated by [WS]. By coincidence, both Makasae forms from Huber (2008) and Fataluku forms drawn from Hewitt (n.d.) are indicated by [JH]. Fataluku from drawn from Heston (2015) is indicated by [TH]. Some cognates attested only in Makasae and in Makalero or in Fataluku and Oirata are listed here, even though these may not in all instances date to proto-East Timor, because they are useful to help illustrate several key correspondences.


Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:

East Timor Makasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*m- m m m m *m
next to/follow *mini mini mini minj-
sit (sg.) *mit mi mit mir(-e) mir(-e) *mit
go up/above *midza misa misa mica
vex/ruin *mila mila [JH] mila
up/above *medV mece mede, medai
palate/throat *meduk mecik(-u) [JH]meduk
loud sound *meg[e] meʔe [JH] meʔe(-n)
easy *mapes mafeh-e mapeh-e
neck/throat *mani mani- mani mani- mani
fruit *mana mana mana
clew *matar matar(-u) matar *matar [14]
Pterocarpus sp.*matari mater [AS]mater matari-a [FLP] *ma(t,T)ar
eat (intr.) *made mace mede
fear *masan masan mahan-e man-e
voice *mag maʔ-a
hang (tr.) *wajak-magi vaja-maʔi waja-maʔi
hear/know *magen maʔene maʔen *make(n)
likeness *magar[o] maʔar(-u) maro
come *magu maʔu maʔu maʔu maʔu
cross-cousin *mali mali mali mali mali
narrow/tight *malet málet-e malet-e
spicy/bitter *malar malar(-e) malar(-e)
outside *malu malu malu
broad/wide *malu-ara malar(a) malu-er-e [JH]malu-ara
forget *malup maluf(-e) malp-e
go *mara mara mara mara mara *mara
raptor sp. *maja[n] mai majan
child *m[a/o]d[a/o]mata mata moco modo *moTo
swallow *motsVl mosal mosil-e
lose/lost *molu molu [AC] molu molu [JH] mul-e
lay down *mor mor-e [JH] mor-e
laugh at *moru moru moru
smell *mu a-mu- (a-)mu-e
nose *munik muni mini minik(-u)
torch *muti muti mutu mutu
inside *mudu mutu mutu mucu mudu *mi
lick/suck *mutsu[k] mus musu musu ~
mus(-u)k-e
mucus *musi musa mihi
long time *mugit muʔit [*mukir]
earth/ground *muga muʔa muʔa muʔa mua *muka
banana *mugu muʔu muʔu muʔu muː ~ mu [*muku]

Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*n- n n n n *n
mosquito *nikin niki nikin(-u) [JH] nikin
flat/level *ne[s/g]er neʔer(-e) [JH]
neher(-e) [FLP]
ne:r-e
chase away *newur neur-e nour-e
follow/after *ner ner-e ner-e
name *naⁱ nai nei ne: [JH] ne:ne *-nei
man/male *nami -nami nami nami nami
but *naba napa []JH] naha
snake sp. *nana nana nana nana
older sibling *nana nana
stand (sg.) *nat na nat nat(-e) nat-e *nat
wedge *nadi naci [FLP] nadi
stand (pl.) *naser nahara naser -neher(-e) [*naser]
breath *nag náʔ-e naʔ(-e/a)
just/only *nagu naʔu nau [FLP] naʔu
eat/drink *nawa nawa nua nava nawa *nua [14]
so/then *nara nara [JH] nara
dig hole/grave *naru naru [JH] naru-n-u
morning/morrow *nob nóp(-e) noh-e
younger sibling*noko noko noko noko noʔo
big/very (?) *numu numu numu numu

Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is fricated to /f/ in Makase, Makalero and Fatalukku, being retained as /p/ only in Oirata:

East TimorMakasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*p- f f f p *f
palm/sole *pele fele pele
delicious *pani fani fani fani pan-e ~ pani-
female *panar -fana fanar -fanar(-u) panar *fana
face/front *panu fanu fanu fanu [JH] panu *fenu
thigh/lap *patu fatu fatu- [JH] patu
swell *patu fatu fatu [JH]
cooked *patu fatu patu
sneeze *pasin fasin(i) fasin fahin(-e)
husk *pasu fasu fasu fahu pau
make/do *pagi faʔi pai
hold *pal (u)fal(-e) pal(-e)
rattan whip *palu falu [FLP] palu
bean *popon fofon [JH] popon
blunt *polo folo [JH] polo
grass/weeds *pojes foeh(-u) poje
termite *putu futu [JH] putu
meat/muscle *pusu fusu [WS] fuhu [JH]
sprout/seed *pula fula pula
spit/spittle*pulum fulun fulum(-e) [VA]
fulun(-i/u) [JH]
*fulu(k,n) [14]

Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:

East Timor Makasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*t- t t t t *t
hot/fever *timin timin(-e) tim(i)n(-i)
suck/suckle *tim[i/e]ts timis(-e) times-e
run *tipar tifar(-e) tipar-e *tifar
dry *titil titil titil(-e) titl-(e)
drum sp. *titir titir(-u) [FLP] titi(:)r(i)
flea *tikuwa tíkua tikua
heavy *tigir tiʔir(i) tiʔir ciʔir(-e) (?) tiʔir- [*Tiʔir]
trample *tigal tiʔal tiel-e [FLP] tial-e ~ tiel-e
peel (v.) *tila[k] tilaka tila
bite/chew *tija tia tia tia
break/part *tepel tefel(-e) tepel(-e) [JH]
break down *tepu tefu tepu-e [JH]
mountain *t[e]ber teher(-e)
test/measure *teg[e] teʔe(-n(-e)) teʔe
stab/pound *tapa tafa tafa tafa tapa [*tafa]
true *tabi[r] tafiru tafi tapi(r(-u)) tahi
wake *tan[i/e] tane tane tani *Tani
right (side) *tanen tane tanen tenen(-u) tenen [*tanen]
hand/arm *tana tana tana tana tana *tana
meet/find *tatan tatan(-e) tatan-e
half c. shell *towo-takur to-takur(-u) [JH]to-tokur
axe/adze *taga taʔa taʔa taʔa ta
count *taga taʔa taʔa
ten *taga-n taʔán-e taʔan
increase *tawa tava(n-(e)) [JH] tawa(-n)
fence *tari tari [JH] tari
beginning *tara tara [FLP] tara
male (bird) *taralewu -taraleu taraleu
rattan/rope *taru taru taru taru
bury *taru[n] taru(nu) taru
lie down/sleep *taja taʔe ~ taetia taja taja *tia®
split *totol totol-(e/-u) [JH]totol-(e)
crowd *towur tour(-e/-u) [FH] tour(-u)
bellows *towo-towo toto [FLP] towotowo
break *towot tot(-e) [FLP] toːte
that (?) *tu tu tu
woman/sister *tubur tufu tufur tupur(-u) tuhur(-u)
roll up/fold *tunu tunu [JH] tunu
drink *tutu tutu tutu
like/desire *tutu tutu tutu tutu
post/pole *tutu tutu [FLP] tutu
poke hole/plant*tug tuʔ-e tu-e
help *tulun tulun tulun- [JH] tuln-e

Initial laminal voiceless affricate /*ts/ is reflected as fricative /s/ [s h] in all descendants:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*ts- s h s [s h] s *s
tie/bind *tsil hil ~ -sil i-sil-e
burden/carry *tsem[a/o]nseman(-a)heman ~
-seman
somon-e ~
homon(-e)
somon(-e)
carve/sharpen*tsets ses-e ses-e
deshell *tsek sek-e sek-e
pull/draw *tsejil heil ~ -seil seil-e [JH] seil-e
wither/wilt *tsatsak sasak(-e) sasak-e *sasar
rust *tsagi saʔ-e sai(j-e:)
finish/end *tsaji[l] haiʔ ~ saiʔ sai (sai-)sail-e
fish sp. *tsunu sunu [FLP] sunu
mucus *tsuwun sun-e [JH] suːn(-u)

Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all descendants. All of these words are suspected of ultimately being loans from local Austronesian because West Bomberai initial /*k/ was dropped in proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar; however these roots appear to have been established in the protolanguage and no alternative etymologies have yet been identified:

East TimorMakasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*k- k k k k
mushroom *kiri-kirikiri-kiri kiri-kiri [JH] -kiri-kiri
cricket *k[i/e]la kela -kila
stem *kete kete kete
knock fruit *kegil keili keʔil(-e) keit-e (?)
stairs/ladder *keger keʔer(-u) ke:r-e
laugh *k[aⁱ]l kel-e ke:l-e
fragment *kapi[gi] kafiʔina [JH] kapi
bad *kabar kapar(-e) kahar(-e)
thirsty *kagats kás(-e) kaːs(-e/-a)
burst/explode *kagun ka(ʔ)un(-e) [JH]kaun(-e/-u)
scratch/dig *kawur kaur(u) kaur kaur(-e) kaur(-e)
tired/fatigued*kajar kaiar-e [JH] kajar(-e/-a)
wall/box *kodo koco kodo
dark *kowun koun(-u) koun-e
embrace *kolew kolev-e [JH] kolew-e
unripe *koron koron-e [JH] koron(-e)
cook/steam *kurukets kurukes-e [JH] kurukes-e

Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ …

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*b- p h *b
lie (n.) *biri piri hir-e
liar *biri-n piri-n(u) hire-n
leaf *bira -pira hira
take care of *bijabara piapara [JH] hiahara
strong *betel petel-e [JH] hetel-e
father *ba[l] pal(-u) ha(-le)
great g.parent*babu papu hahu
bedbug *banatika panatika hanatia
pain/disease *banak panak(-e) hanak
panak(-e) (?)
hold/join (?) *bal pal-e (ha-)hal-e
lacking *bali pali hali(n-(i))
wind *bari pari hari *beri
partition *bobon popon-u [JH] hohon
mango sp. *bajas pajah(-u) haja
blister *bokel[er] pokeler-e [JH]hokol(-e)
hang/droop *bowol pol-e [JH] hoːl-e
lap/groin *bolo polo holo
boil/cook *b[o/u]s poh-e hu-je
sated *boreg poreʔ(-e) hore
surround *boron poron-e horon-
bunch/bundle *borot porot [JH] horot(-e)
calf/forearm *buna puna [JH] huna
ridgepole *buwigina puiʔina huiːna
weevil *buruk puruk(-u) huruk

Loans from Austronesian languages … /*b₁/ … /*b₂/ … The correspondence shown here as /*b₁/ is much less common than is /*b₂/, but is designated as /*b₁/ because it matches the reflexes of native medial /*b/, while /*b₂/ matches those of a medial correspondence which is likewise found only in loans (below.) From this one might conclude that the former are of more ancient origin, except that one of them is from Portuguese /pombo/, so another explanation must be found.

… /*b₁/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*b₁- f f p h
pigeon sp. [*b₁ab₁o] faho hoho
cross-cousin[*b₁agin] fai fain paʔin(-u)hain(-i)

… /*b₂/ …

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*b₂- b p p h *b
goat [*b₂ib₂i] bibi pipi pipi hihi
copper [*b₂ira] bira pira hira
mat [*b₂[a]iti] biti piti pét(-u) he:t(e) *biti [14]
bamboo sp. [*b₂etun] betu petun petun(-u) hetun
cucumber sp. [*b₂ab₂…as] baboras hahula
ginger sp. [*b₂anarika] banarika panarika
divide/share [*b₂ati] bati pati pati hati
candle [*b₂adu] badu padu pacu
beat clothes [*b₂asal] basal(a)pasal pahal-e haːl-e
wife's parent[*b₂ag₂in] bagi paːkin paʔin(-u)
dry season [*b₂ar[i/e]r]barere pare parir(-e) harir
widow [*b₂a[l/r]u] baru paːr- paru [JH] halu ~ haru
pig [*b₂aji] bai pai pai hai *baj
trunk of tree[*b₂ata] bata pata pata hata
wrap/wind [*b₂or[o]] por ~ poraporo-poro [JH]horo
*b₂…
sell/price [*b₂ura] bura pura pura bura *bura

One example with initial /*b₂/ has undergone irregular metathesis:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*b₂- b p h
crow sp.[*b₂akua] kaba kapua ~
pakua [FLP]
hakua

Initial apical voiced stop /*d/ is retained as such in Makasae, Makalero and Oirata but devoiced and palatalized in Fataluku to /c/, merging with the reflex of laminal affricate /*dz/ (below):

East Timor Makasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*d- d d c d *d
winnow/grind*didik cicik-e [JH] didk-e
pick/harvest*dida cica dida
frog *dila dila dila cila dila
sit (pl.) *d[i/u]gar diʔa(ra)diar cuar(-e) [*diar]
call/answer *der der cer(-u) [JH] der(-u)
partner(s) *deren ceren(-u) deren
pandanus sp.*de[ji]n[i]deini cén(-u)
hair of head*dagu caʔu dau [*Dake]
flint *dajin cain(-e) [VA]
cain(-u) [JH]
dain(i)
spear *doro coro doro
bamboo sp. *dudu[g] cucu [JH] ~
cucuʔ-e [VA]
dudu
wake up *duwur dur dur cur(-e) [JH] duːr(-e)
finish/end *dula dula cula [JH] dula

Initial laminal voiced affricate /*dz/ is uncommon. It observes correspondences similar to those of both apical stop /*d/ (above) and fricative /*s/ (below,) yielding /d/ in Makasae but /s/ (not [h]) in Makalero, and /c/ in Fataluku but zero in Oirata, indicating /*dz/ in both subgroups of East Timor:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*dz- d s c ø *D
flower *dzibi cipi ihi
wife *dza da sa
head/hair*dzage daʔe saʔe [*Dake]
eel sp. *dzuwan cuan [JH]uan
rat/mouse*dzura dura sura cura ura *Dura

The quality of the Fataluku-Oirata consonant is confirmed by a loan from … Another loan from an unknown source, “pineapple”, likewise indicates initial /*dz/:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*dz- c ø
pineapple[*dzeden] cecen [JH]eden
needle [*dzarum] cárum-a arum-a

Initial velar voiced stop /*g/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*g- g ø ø
*…

There is also an initial velar voiced stop correspondence found only in loans which we show here as /*g₂/. …:

East TimorMakasae MakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*g₂- g k k k
cold [*g₂agar] gaʔar(a)kaʔar kaʔar(-e)
sugar*… [*g₂ula] kula

Initial laminal voiceless fricative /*s/ …:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*s- s h h ø *s
plait *sina sina [AS]hina [AS]hina ina *sina
tie/bind *sil hil hil-u [FLP] iːl(-e)
trap/snare *sili hili [JH] iːl(i)
above/upon *siga hiʔa ia(-a)
pay *sijar hiar(-e) iar(-e)
pour out/cast*seber heper-e [JH] eher-e
Ficus sp. *sama sama hama hama [*sama]
half *sapar -hafarika apr-a
snake *saba hapa
Aleurites sp.*sag[i/e] sae haʔi ai
sharp/point *sagat haʔat-e [JH] aʔat(a) ~ aat-e
hunt *sawar havar-e [JH] waːr-e
place/room *saliwana halivana [JH] aluana
war *sala sala hala hál(-u) ~ halú aːl(-a)
bone *s[a/o]p[a/o]safa hafa hafa opo [*safa]
Pandanus sp. *so so ho
heap/pile *sobu hopu [JH] uhu
wild/bush *soto hoto oto
tusk/horn *soru soru horu horu urʔru (?)
yes *so[wo] ho
steam/vapor *sumVn humain(-u) [JH]umoun
crown of head*sunut hunut unut(-u)
spirit *sutu hutu utu
thorn *suku huku uku

One example has an initial indistinguishable from /*s/, but it is a loan from Tetum /ho/ “with” (Huber 2011: 556):

Tetum MakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
h- h h ø
withho ho ho o

… /*s₂/ … loans …:

Tetum Makasae MakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
s₂-
gourd spp.[*s₂eb₂u]sebu ~ -hebusepu sepu

Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is occluded to labiodental /v/ in Fataluku and retained as /w/ elsewhere:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*w- w w [u] v w *w
peel/unhusk *wira[k][u] virak-e [JH] wirau
stumble *weter veter(-u) weter(-u)
shroud *wetur vetur(-e) [FLP] wetur
edge/coast *we[s]e vehe [JH] we(ʔ)e
left *weli[k][a]weli ueli vélika welia
skin/bark *wele vele wele
cave *weraka véraka weraʔa
blood *waⁱs wai uei vehe we *waj
youngest *waⁱsula waihula véhula weula
night *wanat vana [FLP] wanat
coconut *wata wata uata vata wata *wa(t,D)a
sun *wadu watu watu vacu wadu *waTu
tooth *wasin wasi wasi vahin(-u) wain *wasi
bean sp. *wasa vaha ~
vaah-u [JH]
wa *wa
wash *wasu vahu wau *weru
eel sp. *wasu wasu vahu
deer *waka vaka waka
pregnant *wagi vaʔi [FLP] waʔi
carry on back*wagit waʔir(i) vaʔit(-e) wait-e
basket/winnow*wagat vaʔat(-e) waʔat
now/today *wagadzi waʔasi vaci wati (?)
possess *wa[ga]l[e] uale vál-e waːl(-e)
paddle/oar *wajin wain- vain(-e/-u) [FLP] wain
ear *wali[k] walakuː uali valik(-u) wali [*wali]
hear *walig waliʔi ualiʔ ~ ualih
stone *war uar uar- *war
dew *war vari [JH]
var-u [FLP]
war-a
hear *war[i] vari war-e
nest *wari wari uari vari wari
clean/clear *warV[ts/s] varese [JH] wara ~ waːr-e
resin/juice *waja vaja waja
hang *wajak vaiak(-e) [JH]
vaia-
waja-

Initial lateral non-stop /*l/ …:

East TimorMakasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*l- l l l l
bag/basket *lita lita [JH] lita
sprinkle/drizzle*liri liri liri(-liri) [JH]lir-liri
throw *lijan lian(a) lien-e len-e
turn/transform *lijar liar(-e) liar(-e)
flat *leben lepen(-e/u) [JH]lehen(-e)
field *leku leku leku
sing/song *legul leu leu leʔul(-e) leul(-e/-u) *le(k)u(l) [14]
spread out *lewer lever-e [JH] lewer-u
man's sister *leren leren(-u) leren(-e)
big *lap[aji] laf(ai) lapai
many/much *lapan lafan(-e) lapan(-e)
black *lakuwar lakuvar(e) lauar(-e)
root *larin larin(-u) larin(-i)
centipede *larun lalu- (?)td> larun(-u) larun
long/deep *losaji lóhai lowai
medicine *logon loʔon- loːn(-e/-o)
fat/grease *lolats lola lolos(-u) lolos
speak *lolo lol-in(i) lolo(-ini)lolo
good *lolo lolo-n- lolo(-n(-o))
straight/level *lolor lolor(o) lolor-e lolor
pond/puddle *lori lori lori
speech/word *luku luku luku
monkey *luga luʔa luʔa lua
insect *luga-luga luʔa-luʔa lua-lua

Initial rhotic non-stop /*r/ is uncommon, and has not been found in words with Timor-Alor-Pantar etymologies. It is retained as such in all descendants:

East Timor MakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*r- r r r r
cut/chop up *rekits rekis(-e) reks-(e)
good *raᵘ rau rau rau roː
hundred *ras[a] rasa rasa ráh(-u) ra-
fry *raka[ts/s] rakas(-e/u) raʔa-je
ancestral (?)*ra[ga]ta rata rata raːt(-a)
shake *rotso roso [JH] roso
already *roso roho(-n(-e))ro(-n)
stop/sit down*ruwas ruah-e rua

Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*j- d s ø [i]ø [i]*D
dog*j[e]bar defa sefar ipar(-u) ihar(-a) *Depar

Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-m- m m m m *m
red *imir imi ~ imir(i)imir mimir- mimir- ~ memr-
think/remember *ederemu eceremu ederemu
breast *ami ami *hami [14]
louse *amin ame amin (h)amin(-u) amin
wing *amir amir(-u) amir(-i)
swidden/garden *ama[r] ama ama *(u)mar
body *amu amu amu amu [JH] amu
tuber sp. *amu amu amu
yawn *ag[i/e]mu aʔimu áemu
kiss *umig umuʔ-e miʔ-e
who? *uman[i] uman(i) uman(i)
spirit (living)*umas umas-uma umahara
die *umu umu umu umu umu *-umV
man/male *nami -nami nami nami nami
big/very (?) *numu numu numu numu
hot/fever *timin timin(-e) tim(i)n(-i)
suck/suckle *tim[i/e]ts timis(-e) times-e
burden/carry *tsem[a/o]nseman(-a) heman ~
-seman
somon-e ~
homon(-e)
somon(-e)
Ficus sp. *sama sama hama hama [*sama]

Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:

East TimorMakasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-n- n n n n *n
do/make *-ini g-ini (k)-ini *-inV
eye *ina ina ina ina
give *ina ina ina *-inV
what? *ina(-gi) na-ʔi ina ina(-ʔi)
sand/flour *inuk inu inuk inik(-u) ini
see *ena ena ena
one *ukani úkan(i) auni ~ uani *uneki [14]
next to/follow*mini mini mini minj-
neck/throat *mani mani- mani mani- mani
fruit *mana mana mana
nose *munik muni mini minik(-u)
bedbug *banatika panatika hanatia
pain/disease *banak panak(-e) hanak
panak(-e) (?)
calf/forearm *buna puna [JH] huna
ridgepole *buwigina puiʔina huiːna
delicious *pani fani fani fani pan-e ~ pani-
female *panar -fana fanar -fanar(-u) panar *fana
face/front *panu fanu fanu fanu [JH] panu *fenu
snake sp. *nana nana nana nana
older sibling *nana nana
wake *tan[i/e] tane tane tani *Tani
right (side) *tanen tane tanen tenen(-u) tenen [*tanen]
hand/arm *tana tana tana tana tana *tana
roll up/fold *tunu tunu [JH] tunu
fish sp. *tsunu sunu [FLP] sunu
plait *sina sina [AS]hina [AS]hina ina *sina
place/room *saliwana halivana [JH]aluana
crown of head *sunut hunut unut(-u)
night *wanat vana [FLP] wanat

Medial bilabial voiceless srop /*p/ is, like inital /*p/ (above,) fricated to /f/ in Makasae, Makalero and Fataluku:

East Timor Makasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-p- f f f p *f
worm/grub *ipi ifi ipi
fall *ipa ifa [JH] ipa
1 pl. incl.*api-i fi-ø [AC]
pi-ø [JH]
fi-ø afi-ø api-ø
dream *upar(-ena) ufar-ena ofar-anaufar-ana upar(-ana) *ufar(ana) [14]
foam/froth *uput ufut- uput(u)
easy *mapes mafeh-e mapeh-e
bean *popon fofon [JH] popon
run *tipar tifar(-e) tipar-e *tifar
break/part *tepel tefel(-e) tepel(-e) [JH]
break down *tepu tefu tepu-e [JH]
stab/pound *tapa tafa tafa tafa tapa [*tafa]
half *sapar -hafarika apr-a
bone *s[a/o]p[a/o]safa hafa hafa opo [*safa]
fragment *kapi[gi] kafiʔina [JH]kapi
big *lap[aji] laf(ai) lapai
many/much *lapan lafan(-e) lapan(-e)

Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:

East Timor Makasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-t- t t t t *t
bottom/deep *itim itin(-e) [JH] itim ~ itin(i)
tortoise sp. *itib itip(-u) itih
near *ita ita ita(-a)
three *itu -itu itu utu(-e) [JH] utu
misplace *ete ete- [JH] ete
tree *ate ate ate ete ete *hote
chop/chop up *atar atar(-e) atar(-e)
excrement *atu atu atu atu [JH] atu *a[t, D]u [14]
draw water *otu -utu -otu utu utu
bean *[o/u]t[e/a]uta uta ote *uTa
weave *uta uta ita
cover *uta uta- [JH] uta
block/cover *utu -utu utu- [JH] utu
clew *matar matar(-u) matar *matar [14]
Pterocarpus sp.*matari mater [AS]mater matari-a [FLP] *ma(t,T)ar
torch *muti muti mutu mutu
thigh/lap *patu fatu fatu- [JH] patu
swell *patu fatu fatu [JH]
cooked *patu fatu patu
termite *putu futu [JH] putu
strong *betel petel-e [JH] hetel-e
bedbug *banatika panatika hanatia
dry *titil titil titil(-e) titl-(e)
drum sp. *titir titir(-u) [FLP] titi(:)r(i)
meet/find *tatan tatan(-e) tatan-e
split *totol totol(-e/u) [JH]totol(-e)
drink *tutu tutu tutu
like/desire *tutu tutu tutu tutu
post/pole *tutu tutu [FLP] tutu
wild/bush *soto hoto oto
spirit *sutu hutu utu
stem *kete -kete kete
stumble *weter veter-u weter-u
shroud *wetur vetur-e [FLP wetur(-u)
coconut *wata wata uata vata wata *wa(t,D)a
bag/basket *lita lita [JH] lita

Medial laminal voiceless affricate /*ts/ is reflected as fricative /s/ [s] in all descendants:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-ts- s s s s *s
go down *itsi isi isa isi
roast *itsa -isa -isa isa isa
prawn *atsi asi asi asi
leaf *atsa[p] asa hasa asa asah ~ asa [*hasa]
swallow *motsVl mosal mosil-e
lick/suck *mutsu[k] mus musu musu ~
mus(-u)k-e
wither/wilt*tsatsak sasak(-e)sasak-e *sasar
shake *rotso roso [JH]roso

…:

East Timor MakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-[ts/s]- s ø
clean/clear*warV[ts/s] varese [JH]wara ~ waːr-e
fry *raka[ts/s] rakas(-e/u)raʔa-je

Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such except in Oirata, where it is sporadically reflected as glottal stop [ʔ] or zero. Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven (2012, 2014) do not recognize this correspondence:

East Timor MakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-k- k k k k [k ʔ ø]
digging stick *ika ika ika
armpit *ilikuwa[r] ilikuara [FLP] ilikua
one *ukani úkan(i) auni ~ uani *uneki [14]
bedbug *banatika panatika hanatia
blister *bokel[er] pokeler-e [JH] hokol(-e)
mosquito *nikin niki nikin(-u) [JH] nikin
younger sibling*noko noko noko noko noʔo
flea *tikuwa tíkua tikua
half c. shell *towo-takur to-takur(-u) [JH]to-tokur
thorn *suku huku uku
cook/steam *kurukets kurukes-e [JH] kurukes-e
cave *weraka véraka weraʔa
deer *waka vaka waka
field *leku leku leku
black *lakuwar lakuvar(e) lauar(-e)
speech/word *luku luku luku
cut/chop up *rekits rekis(-e) reks-(e)
fry *raka[ts/s] rakas(-e/u) raʔa-je

Medial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ … :

East Timor Makasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-b- f f p h *p
*-be
star *ibi fi ifi ipi ihi ipi-bere
fly (v.) *ibil ipil(-e) ihil(-e)
tongue *ibul ifi- ifil ipil(-u) uhul *ipul
fish *abi afi afi api ahi *api
rock *aba afa afa [AS]apa -aha *apa
carry/with *abur -afu [AS](k)-afu apur [JH] ahur-e [*-apu]
no/not *ube upe uhe
sugarcane *uba ufa ufa upa uha *upa
complete *ubas upah(-e) [JH] uha
back *ubu upu uhu
fly (n.) *ubur ufu uful (?)upur(-u) uhur
take care of *bijabara piapara [JH] hiahara
great g.parent*babu papu hahu
partition *bobon popon-u [JH] hohon
but *naba hapa [JH] naha
mountain *t[e]ber teher(-e)
true *tabi[r] tafiru tafi tapi(r(-u)) tahi
woman/sister *tubur tufu tufur tupur(-u) tuhur(-u)
new *[ts/s]ubarsufa hofar *(t,s)ifa
pour out/cast *seber heper-e [JH] eher-e
snake *saba hapa
heap/pile *sobu hopu [JH] uhu
flower *dzibi cipi ihi
bad *kabar kapar(-e) kahar(-e)
flat *leben lepen(-e/u) [JH]lehen(-e)
dog *j[e]bar defa sefar ipar(-u) ihar(-a) *Depar

… /*b₂/ … found only in loans:

East Timor Makasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-b₂- b p p h
water buffalo[*arab₂au] arabau arapou
heart [*uwa-b₂oku[r]]wa-boku ua-poku
cucumber sp. [*b₂ab₂…] baboras hahula
drum sp. [*tib₂al] tiba tipal tipal(-u) tihal(-a)
calm/quiet [*teb₂ar] tepar teper-e [FLP]teher(-e)
citrus sp. [*tsab₂uraka] saburaka sapu sapuraka sahuraki
gourd spp. [*s₂eb₂u] sebu ~ -hebusepu sepu

Medial apical voiced stop /*d/ is devoiced and merged with /t/ in Makasae and Makalero and palatalized to /c/ in Fataluku, being retained as /d/ only in Oirata:

East Timor Makasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-d- t t c d *T/*D
foot/leg *idi iti
also *ede -ete éce ede
think/remember*ederemu eceremu ederemu
contact *ada -ata [AS]-ata(ʔ) aca ada *-aTa
fire *ada ata ata aca ada *haTa
sorcerer *adar acar-e [JH] adar
cuscus *adur acur-u [JH] adur(-u) *(a)Dura
hit/affect *odo oco [JH] odo
plantation *odo oco odo
kill *uda -uta uta uca uda *-uTa
egg *udu ucu udu *uTa
up/above *medV mece mede, medai
palate/throat *meduk mecik(-u) [JH] meduk
eat (intr.) *made mace mede
child *m[a/o]d[a/o]mata mata moco modo *moTo
inside *mudu mutu mutu mucu mudu *mi
wedge *nadi naci [FLP] nadi
winnow/grind *didik cicik-e [JH] didk-e
pick/harvest *dida cica dida
bamboo sp. *dudu[g] cucu [JH] ~
cucuʔ-e [VA]
dudu
wall/box *kodo koco kodo
sun *wadu watu watu vacu wadu *waTu

Medial laminal voiced affricate /*dz/ is realized, like voiceless /*ts/ (above,) as voiceless fricative /s/ in Makasae, Makalero and Oirata but, like apical stop /*d/ (above,) as palatal /c/ in Fataluku:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-dz- s s c s *D
heart *idza isa ica isa
some/part of*idza ica [JH] isa
smother *edze ece ese
see/look *adzi aci asi *aDa
bird/fowl *adza asa asa aca asa *haDa
beeswax *udzu usu usu ucu usu *wiDu(n)
ask for *udzut ucut-e [JH]ust-e
go up/above *midza misa misa mica
now/today *wagadzi waʔasi vaci wati (?)

Medial velar voiced stop /*g/ is reflected as glottal stop /ʔ/ and sporadically realized as zero in all descendants:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-g- ʔ [ʔ ø] ʔ [ʔ ø] ʔ [ʔ ø] ʔ [ʔ ø] *k/*g/*ʔ
what? *ina-gi na-ʔi ina-ʔi
laugh *ig[e/a] iʔa ~ hiʔa [JS]hiʔe ~ -niʔe *hika
laugh *ig[a] iʔa ~ iʔe ~ iʔihiʔe *hika
path *iga[r] iʔa hiʔa iʔa ia® *hika
yawn *ag… agan(a) akan aʔimu áemu
two *age -aʔe eʔe-n
bite *agel g-aʔele [JS] k-aʔel *gakel
steal *agots (k)-ako (?) oʔos(-e) aʔoj-e
mouth *[a/o]g[a/o]aʔa haʔa ~ -haa oʔo oʔo *aka®
raw/green *ugur uʔur(u) uʔur-eke uʔur(-aka) *ugar
loud sound *meg[e] meʔe [JH] meʔe(-n)
hang (tr.) *wajak-magi vaja-maʔi waja-maʔi
hear/know *magen maʔene maʔen *make(n)
likeness *magar[o] maʔar(-u) maro
come *magu maʔu maʔu maʔu maʔu
long (time) *mugit muʔit [*mukir]
earth/ground *muga muʔa muʔa muʔa mua *muka
banana *mugu muʔu muʔu muʔu muː ~ mu [*muku]
make/do *pagi faʔi pai
ridgepole *buwigina puiʔina huiːna
just/only *nagu naʔu nau [FLP] naʔu
heavy *tigir tiʔir(i) tiʔir ciʔir(-e) tiʔir- [*Tiʔir]
trample *tigal tiʔal tiel-e [FLP] tial-e ~ tiel-e
axe/adze *taga taʔa taʔa taʔa ta
count *taga taʔa taʔa
ten *taga-n taʔán-e taʔan
sit (pl.) *d[i/u]gar diʔa(ra) diar cuar(-e) [*diar]
hair of head *dagu caʔu dau [*Dake]
above/upon *siga hiʔa ia(-a)
Aleurites sp.*sag[i/e] sae haʔi ai
sharp/point *sagat haʔat-e [JH] aʔat(a) ~ aat-e
rust *tsagi saʔ-e sai(j-e:)
head/hair *dzage daʔe saʔe [*Dake]
knock fruit *kegil keili keʔil(-e) keit-e (?)
stairs/ladder*keger keʔer(-u) ke:r-e
thirsty *kagats kás(-e) kaːs(-e/-a)
burst/explode*kagun ka(ʔ)un(-e) [JH]kaun(-e/-u)
pregnant *wagi vaʔi [FLP] waʔi
carry on back*wagit waʔir(i) vaʔit(-e) wait-e
basket/winnow*wagat vaʔat(-e) waʔat
now/today *wagadzi waʔasi vaci wati (?)
sing/song *legul leu leu leʔul(-e) leul(-e/-u) *le(k)u(l) [14]
medicine *logon loʔon- loːn(-e/-o)
monkey *luga luʔa luʔa lua
insect *luga-luga luʔa-luʔa lua-lua
keep *riga riʔa ria ria

A correspondence shown here as /*g₂/ is found only in loans; here Makasae and Makalero retain occlusion as /g k/ respectively while Fataluku … :

East TimorMakasae Makalero Fataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*-g₂- g k ʔ *g
sour/acid *…g₂… agah(a) akah(-e) aʔa-je
wife's parent*b₂ag₂in bagi paːkin paʔin(-u)
difficult *seg₂e sege heke ~ -sekeheʔe
look for *sag₂a saga ~ hagahaka ~ -sakahaʔa *saga

Medial laminal voiceless fricative /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/ in Fataluku and dropped entirely in Oirata:

East TimorMakasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-s- s s h ø *s
hope/wait *isir ihir-e [JH] iːr-e
fruit/seed *isu isu isu
pus/infection*asin ahin- ain
for *-asu (k)-asu ahu- ~ hau [JH] *-asu
fear *masan masan mahan-e man-e
mucus *musi musa muhi
sneeze *pasin fasin(i) fasin fahin(-e)
husk *pasu fasu fasu fahu pau
meat/muscle *pusu fusu [WS] fuhu [JH]
tooth *wasin wasi wasi vahin(-u) wain *wasi
bean sp. *wasa vaha ~
vaah-u [JH]
wa *wa
wash *wasu vahu wau *weru
eel sp. *wasu wasu vahu
cut *lasi lasi [AS]lasi laʔi [AS] lai [AS][*lasi]
long/deep *losaji lóhai lowai
already *roso roho(-n(-e)) ro(-n)

One example in which word-medial /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/ in Makasae may reflect a compound of /*waⁱs/ “blood” and /*ula/ “tail;” here Makasae would have dropped final /*s/ in isolation (below):

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*-s- h h ø
youngest*waⁱsula waihula véhula weula

… bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-w-
penis *awa awa ava aua
eat/drink *nawa nawa nua nava nawa *nua [14]
increase *tawa tava(n-(e)) [JH]tawa(-n)
hunt *sawar havar-e [JH] waːr-e
spread out*lewer lever-e [JH] lewer-u

… /*w/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-w-
above/below*uwa g-ua (k)-uaʔ ~ (k)-ua-ua ua(-a)
hang/droop *bowol pol-e [JH] hoːl-e
ridgepole *buwigina puiʔina huiːna
chase away *newur neur-e nour-e
flea *tikuwa tíkua tikua
male (bird)*taralewu -taraleu taraleu
bellows *towo-towo toto [FLP] towotowo
break *towot tot(-e) [FLP] toːte
crowd *towur tour(-e/-u) [FH]tour(-u)
wake up *duwur dur dur cur(-e) [JH] duːr(-e)
mucus *tsuwun sun-e [JH] suːn(-u)
eel sp. *dzuwan cuan [JH] uan
place/room *saliwana halivana [JH] aluana
scratch/dig*kawur kaur(u)kaur kaur(-e) kaur(-e)
dark *kowun koun(-u) koun-e
black *lakuwar lakuvar(e) lauar(-e)

Medial lateral non-stop /*l/ is retained as such in all descendants:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-l- l l l l *l
rock *ili ili ili ili
navel *ilu ilu ilu ulu [JH] ulu
cold *elew[e] éleve elewe
again *ali -ali- al(i) ali
small bird *olo olo olo olo
tail *ula ula ula ula- ula- *ula(ʔ)
vex/ruin *mila mila [JH] mila
cross-cousin *mali mali mali mali mali
narrow/tight *malet málet-e malet-e
spicy/bitter *malar malar(-e) malar(-e)
outside *malu malu malu
broad/wide *malu-ara malar(a) malu-er-e [JH] malu-ara
forget *malup maluf(-e) malp-e
lose/lost *molu molu [AC] molu molu [JH] mul-e
palm/sole *pele fele pele
rattan whip *palu falu [FLP] palu
blunt *polo folo [JH] polo
sprout/seed *pula fula pula
spit/spittle *pulum fulun fulum(-e) [VA]
fulun(-i/u) [JH]
*fulu(k,n) [14]
taboo *[p/b₁]alunfalun [AS]falun *falu(n)
lacking *bali pali hali(n-(i))
lap/groin *bolo polo holo
peel (v.) *tila[k] tilaka tila
male (bird) *taralewu -taraleu taraleu
help *tulun tulun tulun- [JH] tuln-e
frog *dila dila dila cila dila
finish/end *dula dula cula [JH] dula
trap/snare *sili hili [JH] iːl(i)
place/room *saliwana halivana [JH] aluana
war *sala sala hala hál(-u) ~ halú aːl(-a)
cricket *k[i/e]la kela -kila
laugh *k[aⁱ]l kel-e ke:l-e
embrace *kolew kolev-e [JH] kolew-e
left *weli[k][a]weli ueli vélika welia
skin/bark *wele vele wele
youngest *waⁱsula waihula véhula weula
ear *wali[k] walakuː uali valik(-u) wali [*wali]
hear *walig waliʔi ualiʔ ~ ualih
fat/grease *lolats lola lolos(-u) lolos
speak *lolo lol-in(i) lolo(-ini) lolo
good *lolo lolo-n- lolo(-n(-o))
straight/level*lolor lolor(o) lolor-e lolor

Medial rhotic non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in all descendants:

East Timor Makasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-r- r r r r *r
urine *iri iri irih (?)iri iri
forest *irim irin(-u) irim(i)
old *irim irin-e [JH] irim(i)
urinate *irits iris-e [JH] ir(i)s-e
anus *irik irik(-u) [JH] iri
water *ira ira ira ira ira *ira
chin *ijara iara [JH] iara
liver *ari ari ari ari
root *arig ari ariʔ
base/stem *ara ara [JH] ara
vagina/vulva *aru aru aru aru *aru
moon *uru uru uru uru uru *huru
Pterocarpus sp. *matari mater [AS] mater matari-a [FLP] *ma(t,T)ar
go *mara mara mara mara mara *mara
laugh at *moru moru moru
lie (n.) *biri piri hir-e
leaf *bira -pira hira
take care of *bijabara piapara [JH] hiahara
sated *boreg poreʔ(-e) hore
surround *boron poron-e horon-
bunch/bundle *borot porot [JH] horot(-e)
weevil *buruk puruk(-u) huruk
so/then *nara nara [JH] nara
dig hole/grave *naru naru [JH] naru-n-u
fence *tari tari [JH] tari
beginning *tara tara [FLP] tara
male (bird) *taralewu -taraleu taraleu
rattan/rope *taru taru taru taru
bury *taru[n] taru(nu) taru
partner(s) *deren ceren(-u) deren
spear *doro coro doro
rat/mouse *dzura dura sura cura ura *Dura
tusk/horn *soru soru horu horu urʔru (?)
mushroom *kiri-kiri kiri-kiri kiri-kiri [JH] -kiri-kiri
cook/steam *kurukets kurukes-e [JH] kurukes-e
unripe *koron koron-e [JH] koron(-e)
peel/unhusk *wira[k][u] virak-e [JH] wirau
cave *weraka véraka weraʔa
nest *wari wari uari vari wari
clean/clear *warV[ts/s] varese [JH] wara ~ waːr-e
sprinkle/drizzle*liri liri liri(-liri) [JH]lir-liri
man's sister *leren leren(-u) leren(-e)
root *larin larin(-u) larin(-i)
centipede *larun lalu- (?)td> larun(-u) larun
pond/puddle *lori lori lori

Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

East Timor Makasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-j-/a_a j [i j] j [i]
rain *aja ae ae aja aja
raptor sp. *maja[n] mai majan
tired/fatigued*kajar kaiar-e [JH] kajar(-e/-a)
resin/juice *waja vaja waja
hang *wajak vaiak(-e) [JH]
vaia-
waja-
lie down/sleep*taja taʔe ~ taetia taja taja *tia®

Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

East Timor MakasaeMakalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-j-/i_aø ø ø
chin *ijara iara [JH] iara
take care of *bijabara piapara [JH] hiahara
bite/chew *tija tia tia tia
pay *sijar hiar(-e) iar(-e)
throw *lijan lian(a) lien-e len-e
turn/transform*lijar liar(-e) liar(-e)
*-j-/a_i ø ø ø
finish/end *tsaji[l] haiʔ ~ saiʔsai (sai-)sail-e
paddle/oar *wajin wain- vain(-e/-u) [FLP]wain
long/deep *losaji lóhai lowai

… /*j/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*-j- ø j
grass/weeds*pojes foeh(-u)poje

Final consonants ….

Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is uncommon …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-m n n ~ m m ~ n *n
bottom/deep *itim itin(-e) [JH] itim ~ itin(i)
forest *irim irin(-u) irim(i)
old *irim irin-e [JH] irim(i)
spit/spittle*pulum fulun fulum(-e) [VA]
fulun(-i/u) [JH]
*fulu(k,n) [14]

Loans from Austronesian languages with root-final /*m/ …:

East Timor MakasaeMakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*-m ø n m ~ nm
indigo[*[t/d]arum]daru darunakocarun(-u)taruma
needle[*dzarum] cárum-a arum-a

Final apical nasal /*n/ …:

East TimorMakasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-n ø n ø n n
mosquito *nikin niki nikin(-u) [JH] nikin
fear *masan masan mahan-e man-e
bean *popon fofon [JH] popon
partition *bobon popon-u [JH] hohon
right (side) *tanen tane tanen tenen(-u) tenen [*tanen]
meet/find *tatan tatan(-e) tatan-e
ten *taga-n taʔán-e taʔan
help *tulun tulun tulun- [JH] tuln-e
partner(s) *deren ceren(-u) deren
mucus *tsuwun sun-e [JH] suːn(-u)
eel sp. *dzuwan cuan [JH] uan
steam/vapor *sumVn humain(-u) [JH] umoun
burst/explode*kagun ka(ʔ)un(-e) [JH]kaun(-e/-u)
dark *kowun koun(-u) koun-e
unripe *koron koron-e [JH] koron(-e)
tooth *wasin wasi wasi vahin(-u) wain *wasi
flat *leben lepen(-e/u) [JH]lehen(-e)
man's sister *leren leren(-u) leren(-e)
many/much *lapan lafan(-e) lapan(-e)
root *larin larin(-u) larin(-i)
centipede *larun lalu- (?)td> larun(-u) larun
medicine *logon loʔon- loːn(-e/-o)

… /*n/ …:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-n n n n n *(n)
hear/know *magen maʔene maʔen *make(n)
sneeze *pasin fasin(i) fasin fahin(-e)
taboo *[p/b₁]alunfalun [AS]falun *falu(n)
hot/fever *timin timin(-e) tim(i)n(-i)
burden/carry*tsem[a/o]nseman(-a) heman ~
-seman
somon-e ~
homon(-e)
somon(-e)
paddle/oar *wajin wain- vain(-e/-u) [FLP] wain
throw *lijan lian(a) lien-e len-e

Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*-p f p
forget*malup maluf(-e)malp-e

Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-t ø t t t *t
foam/froth *uput ufut- uput(u)
narrow/tight *malet málet-e malet-e
stand (sg.) *nat na nat nat(-e) nat-e *nat
bunch/bundle *borot porot [JH] horot(-e)
break *towot tot(-e) [FLP]toːte
sharp/point *sagat haʔat-e [JH] aʔat(a) ~ aat-e
crown of head*sunut hunut unut(-u)
night *wanat vana [FLP] wanat
basket/winnow*wagat vaʔat(-e) waʔat

… /*t/ …:

East TimorMakasae MakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*-t r t t *t
carry on back*wagit waʔir(i) vaʔit(-e)wait-e

… /*t/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirata Schapper et al.
*-t ø t r r *t
sit (sg.)*mit mi mit mir(-e) mir(-e)*mit

Final laminal voiceless affricate /*ts/ …:

East Timor MakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-ts ø s s
urinate *irits iris-e [JH] ir(i)s-e
suck/suckle *tim[i/e]ts timis(-e) times-e
carve/sharpen*tsets ses-e ses-e
stairs/ladder*keger keʔer(-u) ke:r-e
thirsty *kagats kás(-e) kaːs(-e/-a)
cook/steam *kurukets kurukes-e [JH]kurukes-e
fat/grease *lolats lola lolos(-u) lolos
cut/chop up *rekits rekis(-e) reks-(e)

Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-k ø ø k k
palate/throat*meduk mecik(-u) [JH]meduk
nose *munik muni mini minik(-u)
pain/disease *banak panak(-e) hanak
panak(-e) (?)
weevil *buruk puruk(-u) huruk
winnow/grind *didik cicik-e [JH] didk-e
deshell *tsek sek-e sek-e
wither/wilt *tsatsak sasak(-e) sasak-e *sasar

… /*k/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*-[k] ø k ø
anus*irik irik(-u) [JH]iri
ear *wali[k] walakuːuali valik(-u) wali [*wali]

… /*k/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*-[k] ø k k ø
sand/flour*inuk inu inuk inik(-u)ini

Final bilabial voiced stop /*b/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*-b p h
tortoise sp. *itib itip(-u)itih
morning/morrow*nob nóp(-e) noh-e

Final apical voiced stop /*d/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*-d
*…

Final laminal voiced affricate /*dz/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*-dz
*…

Final velar voiced stop /*g/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-g ø ʔ ʔ ʔ ø
root *arig ari ariʔ
kiss *umig umuʔ-e miʔ-e
voice *mag maʔ-a
sated *boreg poreʔ(-e)hore
breath *nag náʔ-e naʔ(-e/a)
poke hole/plant*tug tuʔ-e tu-e

Final laminal fricative /*s/ …:

East TimorMakasae MakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*-s ø ø h ø
spirit (living)*umas umas-uma umahara
complete *ubas upah(-e) [JH]uha
grass/weeds *pojes foeh(-u) poje
boil/cook *b[o/u]s poh-e hu-je
blood *waⁱs wai uei vehe we *waj
stop/sit down *ruwas ruah-e rua

… /*s/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*-s ø ø h ø
betel pepper[*malus] malu malu maluh(-u)malu

… /*s/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirata Schapper et al.
*-s h h
easy*mapes mafeh-e mapeh-e

Final bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-w v w
embrace*kolew kolev-e [JH]kolew-e

Final lateral non-stop /*l/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-l ø ø l l
strong *betel petel-e [JH] hetel-e
hold/join (?)*bal pal-e (ha-)hal-e
hang/droop *bowol pol-e [JH] hoːl-e
break/part *tepel tefel(-e) tepel(-e) [JH]
split *totol totol-(e/-u) [JH]totol-(e)
sing/song *legul leu leu leʔul(-e) leul(-e/-u) *le(k)u(l) [14]

… /*l/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-l l l l l
swallow *motsVl mosal mosil-e
dry *titil titil titil(-e) titl-(e)
trample *tigal tiʔal tiel-e [FLP]tial-e ~ tiel-e
tie/bind *tsil hil ~ -sili-sil-e
tie/bind *sil hil hil-u [FLP] iːl(-e)
knock fruit*kegil keili keʔil(-e) keit-e (?)

Final rhotic non-stop /*r/ …:

East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-r ø r ~ ør r *r
red *imir imi imir mimir- mimir- ~ memr-
carry/with *abur -afu [AS](k)-afu apur [JH] ahur-e [*-apu]
fly (n.) *ubur ufu uful (?) upur(-u) uhur
clew *matar matar(-u) matar *matar [14]
spicy/bitter *malar malar(-e) malar(-e)
lay down *mor mor-e [JH] mor-e
female *panar -fana fanar -fanar(-u) panar *fana
flat/level *ne[s/g]er neʔer(-e) [JH]
neher(-e) [FLP]
ne:r-e
chase away *newur neur-e nour-e
follow/after *ner ner-e ner-e
run *tipar tifar(-e) tipar-e *tifar
drum sp. *titir titir(-u) [FLP] titi(:)r(i)
mountain *t[e]ber teher(-e)
half c. shell *towo-takur to-takur(-u) [JH] to-tokur
crowd *towur tour(-e/-u) [FH] tour(-u)
woman/sister *tubur tufu tufur tupur(-u) tuhur(-u)
sit (pl.) *d[i/u]gar diʔa diar cuar(-e) [*diar]
call/answer *der der cer(-u) [JH] der(-u)
pay *sijar hiar(-e) iar(-e)
pour out/cast *seber heper-e [JH] eher-e
half *sapar -hafarika apr-a
hunt *sawar havar-e [JH] waːr-e
bad *kabar kapar(-e) kahar(-e)
tired/fatigued*kajar kaiar-e [JH] kajar(-e/-a)
stumble *weter veter(-u) weter(-u)
shroud *wetur vetur(-e) [FLP] wetur
stone *war uar uar- *war
dew *war vari [JH]
var-u [FLP]
war-a
turn/transform*lijar liar(-e) liar(-e)
spread out *lewer lever-e [JH] lewer-u
black *lakuwar lakuvar(e) lauar(-e)
dog *j[e]bar defa sefar ipar(-u) ihar(-a) *Depar

… /*r/ …:

East TimorMakasae MakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*-r r r r r *r
red *imir imir(i) imir mimir- mimir- ~ memr-
raw/green *ugur uʔur(u) uʔur-eke uʔur(-aka) *ugar
stand (pl.) *naser nahara naser -neher(-e) [*naser]
heavy *tigir tiʔir(i)tiʔir ciʔir(-e) (?)tiʔir- [*Tiʔir]
sit (pl.) *d[i/u]gardiʔara diar cuar(-e) [*diar]
wake up *duwur dur dur cur(-e) [JH] duːr(-e)
scratch/dig *kawur kaur(u) kaur kaur(-e) kaur(-e)
straight/level*lolor lolor(o) lolor-e lolor

… /*r/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*-r r ø r ø ø
true*tabi[r] tafiru tafi tapi ~
tapir(-u)
tahi

Vowels and diphthongs …

High front vowel /*i/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*i
*…

High back rounded vowel /*u/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*u
*…

… /*i/ … /*u/ … suggest differences in stress which are otherwise unattested …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*ˈiCu iCuiCu iCi iCi
sand/flour*ˈinuk inu inuk inik(-u) ini
*iˈCu iCuiCu uCu uCu
three *iˈtu -itu itu utu(-e) [JH]utu
navel *iˈlu ilu ilu ulu [JH] ulu
*ˈuCi uCi uCu uCu
torch *ˈmuti muti mutu mutu
*uˈCi uCiiCi iCi
nose *muˈnik muni mini minik(-u)

Mid front vowel /*e/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*e
*…

Mid back rounded vowel /*o/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*o
*…

… /*e/ … /*o/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*…
*…

Low central vowel /*a/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*a
*…

…:

East Timor MakasaeMakalero FatalukuOirata Schapper et al.
*[a/o]C[a/o]aCaaCa oCo oCo*aCa
mouth*[a/o]g[a/o] aʔa haʔa ~ -haaoʔo oʔo *aka®

Front rising diphthong /*aⁱ/ … These reflexes are distinct from those of sequence /*aji/ (above):

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*aⁱ aⁱ eⁱ e: [e: e] e: [e: e]*ei *aj
name *naⁱ nai nei nai [AC]
ne: [JH]
ne:ne *-nei
blood *waⁱs wai uei vehe we *waj
youngest*waⁱsula waihula véhula weula

… loans … /*aⁱ/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
*aⁱ aⁱ eⁱ [eⁱ e]e: [e: e]e: [e: e]
bow/arrow[*paⁱl] fel fel(-u) pe:l(e)
river [*waⁱr] wai(ri)ueir ver(-u) wer-
house [*laⁱ] le le ~ le:

… /*aᵘ/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirataSchapper et al.
*aᵘ aᵘ aᵘ aᵘ
good*raᵘ rau rau rau roː

… /*aᵘ/ …:

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku OirataSchapper et al.
*aᵘ aᵘ oː [oː o]
civet[*laᵘ] lau lo [AC]
loː [JH]

Pronouns

[under construction]

… :

baseobliquealienableemphatic 1emphatic 2
1 sg. *an *an-i
2 sg. *a *a-i
3 sg. ? ?
1 pl. excl.*in *in-i
1 pl. incl.*ap *ap-i
2 pl. *i *i-i
3 pl. *gi *gi-i

… with Makasae attestations drawn from Huber (2008: 26-28, q.v. Arnaud and Campagnolo 1997: 798-806, Sarmento 2005, Capell 1944: 317,) Makalero from Huber (2011: 218-227,) Fataluku from Heston (2015: 18-20) and Oirata from de Josselin de Jong (1937: 192-195, 199-pages):

…:

East TimorMakasae Makalero FatalukuOirata
1 sg. *an-i an-i an-i a an-i
2 sg. *a-i a-i e-i e-ø eː-i
3 sg. [*gi-i] gi-ø ki-ø-loː tawa ue-i
1 pl. excl.*in-i in-i in-i in-i in-i
1 pl. incl.*api-i fi-ø [AC]
pi-ø [JH]
fi-ø afi-ø api-ø
2 pl. *i-i i-ø i-ː i-ø i-i
3 pl. *gi-i era ki-ø-loː-raːtawa-r uaje-i

… :

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirata
1 sg. *…
2 sg. *…
3 sg. *…
1 pl. excl.*…
1 pl. incl.*…
2 pl. *…
3 pl. *…

… :

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirata
1 sg. *…
2 sg. *…
3 sg. *…
1 pl. excl.*…
1 pl. incl.*…
2 pl. *…
3 pl. *…

… :

East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirata
1 sg. *…
2 sg. *…
3 sg. *…
1 pl. excl.*…
1 pl. incl.*…
2 pl. *…
3 pl. *…


Verbal morphology

[under construction]

… verbalizing suffix …



… third person object …



… stem alternation … bound forms … Van Engelenhoven (2009: 337-338) and Huber (2011: 135-137) … Fataluku and Makalero respectively …

East Timor Makalero Fataluku +*-n- East Timor Makalero Fataluku
*ø- ø ø *-n-ø- *-n- n ?
*p- f f *-n-p- *-b- f p
*t- t t *-n-t- *-d- d c
*ts- h s *-n-ts- *-dz- s c
*s- h h *-n-s- *-dz- s c

These changes parallel the denasalization of West Bomberai prenasalized stops to plain voiced stops in Timor-Alor-Pantar and further confirm the relative values of our proto-East Timor consonants as outlined here. Presumably whatever difference might have existed between root-initial nasals /*m *n/ and voiced stops /*b *d *dz/ and their bound equivalents with preceding /*-n-/ would no longer be discernible. There is no /*-n-k-/ because Timor-Alor-Pantar has dropped West Bomberai root-initial /*k/.

Loans from Austronesian languages

[under construction]

… with Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP) and Central Malayo-Polynesian forms drawn from Blust (2013):

PMP East Timor Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
mother *ina [*ina] ina ina ná-l(-u) na(-le)
four *əpat [*pat] fa ~ -há fat fát-e pat(-a)
fat/oil *miɲak [*mina] mina mina mina
tide *ma-qəti [*meti] meti meti meti [FLP] meti
old *ma-tuqah[*matu] -matu matu
flying fox *… [*mad[a]] maca mada *maTa [14]
salty *ma-qasin[*magat] mataʔ maʔat(-e) maʔat(-e)
loincloth *malaw [*mal] mál(-u) maːl(-a)
seven *pitu [*pitu] fitu fitu fitu pitu
feed [*…] *pan fan fan-e [JH] pan-e
seed *binəhiq [*w[i/e]n] ven-u [JH] win-u
boil (n.) *bisul [*wisul] vihil(-u) [FLP]wil
copper *… [*b₂ira] bira pira hira
bamboo sp. *bətuŋ [*b₂etun] betu petun petun(-u) hetun
pig *babuj [*b₂aji] bai pai pai hai *baj
trunk of tree *bataŋ [*b₂ata] bata pata pata hata
cross-cousin *… [*b₁agin] fai fain paʔin(-u) hain(-i)
wife's parent *… [*b₂ag₂in] bagi paːkin paʔin(-u)
garden/swidden*bala [*bala] pala hala
pigeon sp. *baluɡʲ [*walur] valur(-u) walur
dry season *… [*b₂ar[i/e]r]barere pare parir(-e) harir
widow *balu [*b₂a[l/r]u] baru paːr- paru [JH] halu ~ haru
wrap/wind *… [*b₂or[o]] por ~ pora poro-poro [JH] horo
fruit *buaq [*uwan] wa- ua- uan(-u) uan-
sell/price *… [*b₂ura] bura pura pura bura *bura
know *… [*nawar] navar(-e) nawar-e
drum sp. *tibal [*tib₂al] tiba tipal tipal(-u) tihal(-a)
calm/quiet *… [*teb₂ar] tepar teper-e [FLP] teher(-e)
gecko *təktək [*toke] toke toke toke toko
sea *tasik [*tasi] tahi tai
indigo *taʁum [*[t/d]arum] daru darunako carun(-u) taruma
half c. shell *… [*towo] toː [JH] to
deaf *… [*diku] diku ceu diku
wall *… [*sidin] sidi hir *sirin
hearth *dapuʁ [*dap₂ur] dafuru dapur capur-u [JH] dapuru
hearth *dapuʁ [*lapur] lafur(-u) lapur(-u)
noble caste *datu [*ratu] 'rata [AC] ratu ratu
nine *siwa [*tsiwa] siwa siua ~ siwa siva siwa
difficult *… [*seg₂e] sege heke ~ -sekeheʔe
spoon/ladle *sudu [*sulV] sulu [WS] hulu hula [JH] ulia *sula
spoon out *sudu [*usulew] uhulev-e ulew-e
needle *dʒaʁum [*dzarum] cárum-a arum-a
nail/claw *… [*kelets] -keles(-u) keles(-e)
skin *kulit [*ulit] -uli ulit ~ uli
breadfruit *kuluʁ [*[k]ulur] kulu ulur(-u) kulur
lime *qapuʁ *a[g]ur aur(-u) [JH] aʔur(u)
salt *qasiʁa [*gatsir] asi ~ gasikasi asir(-u) asir
rain (v.) *qudʒan [*uta] uta -uta [JH] -uta
worm *quləɡʲ [*ura] ura ura ura
west *habaʁat [*warat] varat-e [FLP] warat(-a)
bee/honey *wani [*wani] wani uani vani wani
river *wahiʁ [*waⁱr] wai(ri) ueir ver(-u) wer-
five *lima [*lima] lima lima lima limi
sky *laŋit [*laⁱn] nél(-u) leːn(e)
go/walk *lakaw [*laga] laʔa laʔa laʔa *lakor
fly (v.) *… [*lor] lor [AS] lor *lore
moss/green *lumut [*lumur] lumuru lumur(-e) [FLP]
mortar *lusuŋ [*lutu] lutu lutu
thousand *ʁibu [*ri[h]un] rihu(nu) rihun rehun(-u) riun(u)
house *ʁuma [*uma] uma

Reflexes of Malayo-Polynesian /*b/ include /*b, *b₂ *w/, necessitating at least three distinct immediate sources for Malayo-Polynesian vocabulary, leading in some instances to doublets:

PMP East TimorMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata Schapper et al.
cross-cousin *… [*b₁agin] fai fain paʔin(-u) hain(-i)
wife's parent*… [*b₂ag₂in]bagi paːkin paʔin(-u)
hearth *dapuʁ[*dap₂ur] dafuru dapur capur-u [JH]dapuru
hearth *dapuʁ[*lapur] lafur(-u) lapur(-u)

…regional…with Tetun drawn from Morris (1984,) Tetun and Waima'a from Belo, Bowden, Hajek, Himmelmann and Tilman (1999: 11-78) and Maku'a from Sudana, Indra, Aridawati and Taum (1996: 65-83.) …:

Tetun Waima'a Maku'a Makasae Makalero Fataluku Oirata
ivory odas ocoh-u [FLP] odo
sea/tide meti meti meti meti meti
shadow mahon moː ~ mo moː ~ mo
betel pepper malus malu malu malu maluh(-u) malu
greens modo modo modo modo
bedbug nati nati panatika hanatia
heart fuan wuo-boku wa-boku ua-poku uan(-u) uan-tapul
goat bibi bibi pipikewa bibi pipi pipi hihi
mat biti biti biti piti pét(-u) he:t(e)
candle badut badu badu padu pacu
palm wine tua tuo tuʔa tua tua
wall sidi sidi hir
noble caste dato dato 'rata [AC] ratu ratu
bell/gong dadir dadili dadili dadil cacil(-u) dadil-a
gourd spp. sebu sebu ~ -hebusepu sepu
citrus sp. saburaka saburakasap(u)rake(wa)saburaka sapu sapuraka sahuraki
look for saga saga ~ haga haka ~ -sakahaʔa
pineapple hedan dei-dai cecen cecen [JH] eden
crow sp. kaoa ~ kauabau-kˀua kaba kapua ~
pakua [FLP]
hakua
eight kaha afo afo kafa kapa
water buffalokarau karabau arpowa arabau arapou
worm ular ulo ura ura ura
house uma umo uma
bee/honey uani ~ baniwani wani uani vani wani
house laː-hai le le ~ le:
crocodile lafaek lawahae lavei lawahae lávei laʔui
mortar lesu lesun lutu lutu
moss/green lumut lumu lumuru lumur(-e) [FLP]
fence/wall lutu lˀutu lutur lutur(-u) lut(u)r(-e)

In at least few instances, Waima'a looks to have borrowed from East Timor:

East TimorWaima'a
grass*pojes hae
name *naⁱ nai

… Malay or Indonesian …:

IndonesianMakasaeMakaleroFataluku Oirata
kitchendapur dafuru dapur capur-u [JH]dapuru
needle dʒarum cárum-a arum-a
sugar gula kula

… Sanskrit via Malay or Indonesian…:

SanskritIndonesianMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirata
horsekuda kuda kuca kuda

… Sanskrit via Malay must be immediately from Waima'a, else Oirata /ala/ (cf. “needle” above):

SanskritIndonesianWaima'aMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirata
casting netdʒala dala cala dala

… Portuguese … standard orthography …:

PortugueseTetun Waima'aMakasaeMakalero FatalukuOirata
oil óleo óleu oli voru wuru
one um u u ~ un
pigeon sp. pombo pombu bombu faho hoho
tobacco tabaco tabakutabaku tabaku ta(ː)pakucápaku
raise/care forcriar kria kria ria [JH]ria

At least one comparison comes ultimately from Dutch (de Josselin de Jong 1937: 267):

DutchMakasaeMakaleroFatalukuOirata
arrowpijl fel fel(-u) peːl(e)