Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
[under construction]
The Awyu family consists of anywhere from five to eleven languages spoken along and around the watercourses of New Guinea's southwestern lowlands, from the Digul river to the east and south … Indonesia's Papua province.
The internal classification of Awyu is as follows:
Awyu
South Awyu
Bamgi River Awyu
Ia River Awyu
Southeast Awyu
Edera River Awyu
Lower Kia River Awyu
Upper Kia River Awyu
Central and West Awyu
North Awyu
Central Awyu
Mappi River Awyu
Pasue River Awyu
West Awyu
Wildeman River Awyu
Asue River Awyu
Miaro River Awyu
Kewet River Awyu
As no North Awyu data is currently available to us, its placement here is based upon the lexical similarity figures given in Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 29-30 after Susanto 2004.)
Voorhoeve (2000: 362) provides the following lexicostatistical figures for Awyu:
| Siagha | Pisa | Aghu | |
| Siagha | — | 52 | 52 |
| Pisa | 52 | — | 68 |
| Aghu | 55 | 68 | — |
These are substantially lower than those given by Healey (1970: 1009):
| Syiagha | Yenimu | Pisa | Aghu | |
| Syiagha | — | 86 | 78 | 73 |
| Yenimu | 86 | — | 83 | 78 |
| Pisa | 78 | 83 | — | 91 |
| Aghu | 73 | 78 | 91 | — |
Stokhof ed. (1982: 133-140) comparative vocabulary of Digul Mappi (Mappi River) after van Doorn (collected 1931-1932)
Nevermann (1940) Oser (Bamgi River) (unobtained)
Drabbe (1947) grammar of Pisà (Wildeman River)
Boelaars (1950: 68-76) English language recension of Drabbe (1947)
Drabbe (1950) grammar and (pp. 131-142) 408 comparative terms for Sjìagha (Ia River,) Jénimu (Bamgi River) and Pisà
Drabbe (1954: 231-255) 100 comparative terms for Sjìagha, Jénimu and Pisà
Drabbe (1957) grammar and (pp. 47-51) 401 comparative terms for Aghu (Mappi River)
Drabbe (1959: 62-181) 431 comparative terms for Sjìagha, Jénimu, Pisà and Aghu
Shafer (1965: 340-348) reconstruction of Auyuan
Healey (1970) reconstruction of Proto Awyu-Dumut
Voorhoeve (1975: 374-379) brief general descriptions of Awyu-Dumut languages
Voorhoeve (2000) revision of Healey's (1970) Awyu-Dumut, including (pp. 372-381) 108 reconstructed terms
Voorhoeve (2005) comparison of Proto-Awyu-Dumut to Proto-Asmat and Proto-Ok
Lebold, Kriens and de Vries (2010: 46-52) 97 comparative terms for South Awyu of Salamepe village (Bamgi River)
Kriens and Lebold (2010: 40-53) 239 comparative terms for Awyu of Busiri village (Wildeman River) and Ketah, Nohon and Taim villages (Pasue River)
Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 54-66) 240 comparative terms for Asue Awyu of Juvo Besar/Kabu, Juvo Kecil, Keru and Khanami villages, 62 comparative terms for Asaren, Isage, Aboge, Kopi, Kiki, Eci, Homang, Amenda, Omuro, Khaibu and Kasima villages
Kriens, Lebold and Menanti (2011: 44-51) 239 comparative terms for Asue Awyu of Amagatsu village, 50 comparative terms for Sogope, Katage and Yagatsu villlages (Kewet River)
Lebold, Kriens and Susanto (2013: 36-47) 239 comparative terms for South Awyu of Yeloba and Konebi (Jas) villages (Bamgi River,) Edera Awyu of Meto, Ujung Kia, Yame and Bhakti villages and for Jair Awyu of Ujung Kia and (pp. 48-50) 60 comparative terms for South Awyu of Banamepe and Konebi (Homeme) (Bamgi River)
de Vries, Wester and van den Heuvel (2012) Greater Awyu (Digul River) comparative pronouns and verbal morphology
Wester (2014) Awyu-Dumut comparative morphology including (pp. 195-210) 430 comparative terms for Shiaxa, Yenimu, Pisa and Aghu after Drabbe (1959: 162-181)
[under construction]
The presentation which follows is indebted to the reconstruction presented in Healey (1970.) It should also be highlighted that, five years prior to the publication of Healey's proto-Awyu-Dumut, Shafer (1965: 340-348) published perfectly servicable tables of correspondence for Awyuan, alongside a surprising number of other New Guinea families, which have been unjustly ignored. We present an independent reconstruction of Awyu and its subgroups, for which new data, including several previously unattested languages, has been made available in recent years in the form of survey vocabularies from researchers with the Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Proto-Awyu had 15 to 19 consonants and 8 vowels as follows:
| *m | *n | |||
| *p | *t | *k | *kʷ | |
| *b | *d | *g | ||
| [*mb] | [*nd] | [*ŋg] | ||
| *ɸ | *s | *x | [*xʷ] | |
| *w | *ɾ | *j |
| *i | *u | |
| *e̝ | *o̝ | |
| *ɛ | *ɜ | *ɔ |
| *a |
In addition to the simple vowels given above, … diphthongs are found as follows:
…
The status of prenasalized stops /*mb *nd *ŋg/ depends upon whether they are to be analyzed as unit phonemes or as clusters, as they are in Healey (1970.) That of aspirated labial glide /*xʷ/, which is found only in loans from Marind-Yaqay, depends upon whether these loans are to be considered established by the time of Proto-Awyu.
Rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ is uncommon, but must be posited to account for an otherwise irregular correspondence between [*a *ɔ] in /*kʷatiN/ “sweat”; cf. Kombai /xʷari/ id (q.v. de Vries 1993: 6.) It was historically present in /*xɔxɔⁱ/ “ghost,” presumbly reflecting /*kɔp-kʷaⁱ/ (cf. Kombai /xʷaⁱ/, Mountain Ok /*kʷeⁱs/,) but here it's not clear that /*kʷ/ should be reconstructed at the proto-Awyu level. There is no voiced counterpart /*gʷ/ because Central Digul River initial voiced prenasalized /*ŋgʷ/ has been merged with /*w/; e.g. /*wati/ “snake” from /*ŋgʷati/.
This inventory may be compared with that of Healey (1970: 1000-1002,) who gives 14 consonants and 7 vowels for proto-Awyu in their original transcriptions as follows:
| *m | *n | ||
| *p | *t | *k | |
| *b | *d | *g | |
| *f | *s | *x | |
| *w | *r | *y |
| *i | *ü | *u |
| *e | *o | |
| *ɛ | ||
| *a |
The most significant difference between the reconstruction presented here and its predecessors is the interpretation and systemic arrangement of vowel qualities. Both Healey and Voorhoeve posit a high central rounded vowel /*y/ <ü> which is backed to /*u/ in South Awyu, alongside an /*u/ which is lowered to /*o/ in Drabbe's Sjiàgha (Ia River.) The framework advanced here has these movements occuring in the opposite direction (Shafer 1965: 346,) with the fronting of /*u/ seen as a recent phenomenon, probably in codevelopment with the Asmat languages to the west which typically front Asmat-Kamoro /*u/ to /i/ as well as with the languages to the north as far as Kaure.
There are several reasons for this reinterpretation. First, the dispositions of our high mid vowels /*e̝ *o̝/ and low mid /*ɛ *ɔ/ are entirely parallel in all descendants, a symmetry which is broken if our /*ɔ *o̝ / are treated as /*o *u/, as they are in Healey's system. Even if Healeys <ü> is to be considered to be central rather than back, this would simply mean that Awyu had no /*u/; there doesn't seem to be much justification for raising the qualities of the mid back vowels other than to avoid what would otherwise seem a curious gap.
Second, the identification of our /*u *o̝/ as such, rather than as /* ʉ *u/, is supported by the disposition of loans from Yaqay and Marind, in which borrowed /*u/ is reflected as /*u/ [u ʉ] (e.g. “canoe”) and /*o/ as /*o̝ / [o u] (e.g. “moon”.)
One consequence of this rearrangement is that a very small number of forms that would otherwise have been assigned to /*u/, as opposed to /*o̝/ or /*ʉ/, are left stranded; these are those given as <u> both in Drabbe's Sjiàgha and in Drabbe's Aghu. The most conspicuous of these is “louse,” alongside “inside” and “bile.” These are far fewer examples than would be expected from a simple phoneme /*u/.
There was most likely a phonemic [ʉ]-like sound, but it's rare, having been identified only in the terms for “heart” and “young man,” where it yields /*i/ rather than /*u/ in South Awyu. It is tentatively given as /*ʉ/ below, but might easily have been a diphthong /*iᵘ/ or the like. The originality of this sound is supported by outcomparison to Ok, where the cognate term for “heart” likewise requires the reconstruction of a high central quality.
Shafer's (1965: 345-347) Awyuan and Healey's (1970: 1000-1002) Proto-Awyu vowels correlate to those given here as follows:
| Usher | Healey | Shafer |
| *i | *i | *i |
| [*ʉ] | *ü | — |
| *u | *ü | *u |
| *e̝ | *e | *ė |
| — | — | *ö |
| *o̝ | *ö | *u̇ |
| *ɛ | *ɛ | *e |
| *ɜ | *æ | — |
| *ɔ | *o | *o |
| *ɔ | *o | *ọ |
| *a | *a | *a |
| *… | *u | *u̇ |
The most fundamental phonological division between Awyu subgroups is that between South Awyu and Southeast Awyu on the one hand, which maintain, more or less, the original vowel qualities, and Central Awyu and West Awyu on the other, which have generally fronted /*u/ to /*ʉ/, filled the resulting gap by raising /*o̝/ to /*u/, and, in parallel with the raising of /*o̝/, raised /*e̝/ to merge with /*i/. The distinction between mid height values having been lost, low mid vowels /*ɛ *ɔ/ are then generalized as /*e *o/. The end stage of this process is a 6 or 7 vowel system as follows:
| *i | *ʉ | *u |
| *e | [*ɜ] | *o |
| *a |
Healey's (1970: 1000-1002) vowel system (above) is, in essence, a backdated modification of this historically secondary arrangement to account for the contrast between high and low mid front vowels /*e̝ *ɛ/.
The second widespread trend to be discussed is the palatalization, deocclusion and loss of apical non-stop /*ɾ/. This affects the dialects of Southeast Awyu and Central Awyu, although /*ɾ/ must nevertheless be reconstructed for both protolanguages. In Southeast Awyu, /*ɾ/ is typically palatalized to [j]; in Central Awyu it is just as often dropped altogether. This is very conspicuous in Drabbe (1959: 162-181) where /*ɾ/ is invariably dropped in Aghu.
Like the fronting of /*u/, the movement of /*ɾ/ precipitates changes in structurally adjacent sounds, in this instance beginning with apical voiced stop /*d/, which is then free to lenit to [r] in the dialects of Southeast Awyu and Pasue River. This is in Southeast Awyu followed by the general lenition of medial voiced stops /*b *d *g/, and even prenasalized /*mb *nd *ŋg/, to [β r ɣ] (q.v. Lebold, Kriens and Susanto (2013: 36-47,) an equivalence not found in other Awyu subfamilies.
The third significant change to be discussed is the palatization and frication of /*t/, when followed by high and high mid vowels /*i *u *e̝ *o̝/, to merge with /*s/. In Central Awyu and in the Wildeman River and Asue River varieties of West Awyu, this process is complete (Healey 1970: 1001;) in Kewet River /*t/ is still distinguished as affricate [tʃ]. In Southeast Awyu, the process is complete in Lower Kia River and mostly so in Edera of Bhakti village, with Upper Kia River like Kewet distinguishing palatalized /*t/ as [tʃ] and Edera of Yame apparently unaffected.
It may be observed that all three changes propagate in either direction along to a chain running counterclockwise from South Awyu to Southeast, Central, and finally West Awyu.
Initial consonants correspond as follows:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey |
| *m- | *m | *m | *m | *m | *m |
| *n- | *n | *n | *n | *n | *n |
| *p- | *p | *p | *p | *p | *p |
| *t- | *t | *t | *t | *t | *t |
| *t-/_i u e̝ o̝ | *t | *t | *s | *t | *t |
| *k- | *k | *k | *k | *k | *k |
| *kʷ- | *k | *k | *k | *k | *k |
| *b- | *b | *b | *b | *b | *b |
| *d- | *d | *d | *d | *d | *d |
| *g- | *g | *g | *g | *g | *g |
| *ɸ- | *ɸ | *ɸ | *ɸ | *ɸ | *f |
| *s- | *s | *s | *s | *s | *s |
| *x- | *x | *x | *x | *x | *x |
| *w- | *w | *w | *w | *w | *w |
| *ɾ- | *ɾ | *ɾ [j ø] | *ɾ | *ɾ | *r |
| *j- | *j | *j | *j | *j | *y |
Medial consonants correspond as follows:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey |
| *-m- | *m | *m | *m | *m | *m |
| *-n- | *n | *n | *n | *n | *n |
| *-p- | *p | *p | *p | *p | *p |
| *-t- | *t | *t | *t | *t | *t |
| *-t-/_i u e̝ o̝ | *t | *t | *s | *t | *t |
| *-k- | *k | *k | *k | *k | *k |
| *-b- | *b | *b | *b | *b | *b |
| *-d- | *d | *d | *d | *d | *d |
| *-g- | *g | *g | *g | *g | *g |
| *-mb- | *mb | *mb | *mb | *mb | *mb |
| *-nd- | *nd | ? | *nd | ? | *nd |
| *-ŋg- | *ŋg | *ŋg | *ŋg | *ŋg | *ng |
| *-ɸ- | *ɸ | *ɸ | *ɸ | *ɸ | *f |
| *-s- | *s | *s | *s | *s | *s |
| *-x- | *x | *x | *x | *x | *x |
| *-xʷ- | *ɸ | *ɸ | *xʷ | *xʷ | *f |
| *-w- | *w | *w | *w | *w | *w |
| *-ɾ- | *ɾ | *ɾ [j ø] | *ɾ | *ɾ | *r |
| *-j- | *j | *j | *j | *j | *y |
Final consonants of nominals and other non-bound word classes correspond as follows:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey |
| *-N | *… | *… | *N | *N | *n |
| *-t | *t | *ø | *ø | *ø | *t |
| *-x | *x | *ø | *ø | *ø | *x |
| *-ɾ | *ɾ | *ø | *ø | *ø | *r |
Final consonants of verb roots correspond as follows:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey |
| *-N- | *N | *N | *N | *N | *k |
| *-C- | *ø | *ø | *C | *ø | *k- |
Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey |
| *i | *i | *i | *i | *i | *i |
| [*ʉ] | *i | *ʉ | *ʉ | *ʉ | *ü |
| *u | *u | *… | *ʉ | *ʉ | *ü |
| *u/k_ | *u | *ʉ | *u | *ü | |
| *e̝ | *e̝ | *e̝ | *i | *i | *e |
| *e̝/j_ | *i | *e̝ | *i | *i | *u |
| *o̝ | *o̝ | *o̝ | *u | *u | *u |
| *o̝/_x | *ɔ | *o̝ | *u | *u | *o *u |
| *ɛ | *ɛ | *ɛ | *e | *e | *ɛ |
| *ɜ | *a | *ɜ | *a | *ɜ | *æ *a |
| *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | *o | *o | *o |
| *a | *a | *a | *a | *a | *a *aa |
| *a/_u | *ɔ | *a | *a | *a | *a *ɔ *o |
| *a/w_ | *a | *a | *ɔ | *a | *ɔ |
| *ɛⁱ | *i | *i | *i | *ɛⁱ | *i *e |
| *ɔⁱ | *ɔⁱ | *ɔⁱ | *ɔⁱ | *oi | |
| *aⁱ | *aⁱ | *a | *aⁱ | *aⁱ | *ai |
| *aᵉ | *aᵉ | *aᵉ | *aᵉ | *aᵉ | |
| *ɔᵘ | *o̝ | *u | *ʉ | *u |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows.
[under construction]
Any consonant can occur initially., excepting possibly rounded velar fricative /*xʷ/ which is found only in loans from Marind (below.)
Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *m- | *m | *m | *m | *m | *m | |
| drink (realis) | *mi[N/C]- | *miN- | *mi[N]- | *miC- | *mi- | *mik-/*min- |
| star/firefly | *miN | *mi | *mi[N] | *miN | *miN | — |
| morning | *mimiN | *mimi | *mimiN | *mimiN | *mimin | |
| tail | *minu | *minu | — | |||
| thigh | *midiN | *midi | *midi[N] | *midiN | *midi(n) | |
| forehead | *mika | *mika | *mika | — | ||
| swallow | *miko̝N- | *miko̝N- | *mikuN- | *m[i]kuN- | *mikun- | |
| tendon | *mɛ | *mɛ | *mɛ | *mɛ | ||
| cooked | *ma | *ma | *ma | *ma | ||
| get up/stand up | *mato̝C- | *m[a]to̝- | *mat[u]- | — | ||
| beard | *matu | *masʉ | *mas[i] | *masi/*mati *masü/*matü |
||
| stomach | *madu | *mɔdu | *m[a]du | *madʉ | *madʉ | *modü |
| teeth | *maga | *maga | *maga | *maga | *maga | *maga |
| behind | *mɔ | *mɔ | *mɔ | *mɔ | *mɔ | — |
| afraid | *mɔke̝ | *mɔke̝ | *mɔke̝ | *mɔki | *mɔki | — |
| earth/below | *mɔkaN | *mɔkaN | *makaN | *makaN | *mɔkaN | *makan/*mokan |
| cheek | *mɔxɔN | *mɔxɔN | *mɔxɔ[N] | *mɔxɔN | *moxo(n) | |
| all | *mo̝ | *mo̝- | *-mu | — | ||
| hair | *mo̝x | *mɔx | *m[o̝] | *mu | *mox/*mux | |
| elbow | *mo̝[wɔ] | *mo̝wɔ | *mu | — | ||
| not want | *mo̝N- | *mo̝N- | *muN- | *mun- | ||
| neck | *mu | *mu | *mʉ | *m[ʉ] | *mü | |
| back | *mu | *mu | *mʉ | *mü | ||
| egg | *mugɔ | *mugɔ | *mʉgɔ | *mugɔ | *mügo |
Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups. It is much less common than initial bilabial /*m/ (above):
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *n- | *n | *n | *n | *n | *n | |
| mother | *ni | *ni | *ni | *ni | — | |
| this/here | *nɛ(-gɔ) | *nɛ-(gɔ) | *nɛ(-gɔ) | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ(-gɔ) |
| 1 sg. poss. | *na | *na | *na (?) | *na | *na | *na |
| eat (imperative) | *na | *na | *na[N] | *na | — | |
| knowledge | *n[a]ɸaN | *naɸa | *n[a]ɸaN | *naɸaN | *naɸaN | — |
| crocodile | *nagaɾo̝ | *nagaɾu | — | |||
| go (imperative) | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | — |
| 1 sg. | *no̝ | *no̝ | *no̝ | *nu | *nu | *nu |
| 1 pl. | *n[o̝/u]go̝ | *no̝go̝ | *no̝go̝ | *nʉgu | *nugu | *nügu/*nugu |
Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is uncommon. It is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *p- | *p | *p | *p | *p | *p | |
| long | *pe̝ɾe̝ | *pe̝ɾe̝ | *pe̝ɾe̝ | *piɾi | *piɾi | *pere |
| sore/wound | *pɛsɔ | *pɛsɔ | *pɛsɔ | *pɛso | ||
| coconut | *pɜjɔ | *pajɔ | *p[ɜ]jɔ | *pajɔ | *pɜjɔ | *pæyo |
| old (thing) | *patu | *patu | *pasʉ | *patʉ | — | |
| be cooked | *pax-ne̝C- | *pax[a]-ne̝C- | *pa[x]-niC- | *paxnek-/*paxnik- | ||
| excrement | *pax[a] | *pax[a] | *pax[a] | *pax[a] | *paxa |
Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ when followed by low and low mid vowels /*ɛ *ɔ *ɜ *a/ or (at least) diphthing /*ɔᵘ/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *t-/_ɛ | *t | *t | *t | *t | *t | |
| chin | *tɛɾɛ | *tɛɾɛ | *tɛɾɛ | *tɛɾɛ | ||
| *t-/_ɔᵘ | *t | — | ||||
| sour | *tɔᵘŋgi | — | ||||
| *t-/_ɔ | *t | *t | *t | *t | *t | |
| hole | *tɔ | *tɔ | *tɔ | *tɔ | *tɔ | *to |
| armpit | *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN | *tɔgɔ | *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN | *tɔgɔN | *togon/*toxon *tongon |
|
| finger/toe | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔ | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔN | *toron |
| *t-/_a | *t | *t | *t | *t | *t | |
| tired/crippled | *taxaN | *taxa | *taxaN | *taxaN | *taxan | |
| tooth | *taɾe̝ | *taɾe̝ | *taɾe̝ | — | ||
| cold | *taɾ[u] | *tɔɾu | *taɾ[u] | *taɾʉ | *taɾu | *tɔrü |
When initial /*t/ is followed by high and high mid vowels /*i *u *e̝ *o̝/, it is fricated and merged with /*s/ in Central Awyu:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *t-/_i | *t | *t | *s | *t | *t | |
| plait | *ti- | *ti- | *si- | *ti- | *ti- | |
| cough/sneeze | *tiC- | *ti- | *ti- | *siC- | *ti- | *tik- |
| *t-/_u | *t | *t | *s | *t | *t | |
| urinate | *tu- | *tu- | *tʉ- | *tü- | ||
| banana | *tu | *tu | *tʉ | *sʉ | *tʉ | *tü |
| *t-/_e̝ | *t | *t | *s | *t | *t | |
| areca nut | *te̝ | *te̝ | *te̝(te̝) | — | ||
| leech | *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N | *t[ɛ]se̝ | *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N | *s[i]siN | *tiɾiN | *tese |
| penis | *t[e̝/ɛ]ge̝ | *te̝ge̝ | *s[ɛ]gi | *tigi | *tege | |
| *t-/_o̝ | *t | *t | *s | *t | *t | |
| corpse | *to̝ | - | *tu | — | ||
| go up | *(a-)to̝C- | *ɔto̝- | *asuC- | *tu- | *otuk- | |
| hide | *(a-)to̝ɾo̝-mɔ- | *(a-)to̝ɾo̝mɔ- | *atuɾumɔ- | *aturumo- | ||
| ear | *to̝ɾo̝N | *to̝ɾo̝ | *to̝ɾo̝N | *suɾuN | *tuɾuN | *turun |
Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *k- | *k | *k | *k | *k | *k | |
| bathe/swim | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kin- |
| wind | *kiɸɛⁱ | *kiɸi | *k[i]ɸi | *kiɸi | *kɛɸi (?) | *kifi |
| foot/leg | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kito |
| be | *ke̝C- | *ke̝- | *kiC- | *ki- | *ke- | |
| flower | *ke̝t | *ke̝t | *ki | *ki | *ket | |
| marsupial | *ke̝sɔ | *ke̝sɔ | *… | *kisɔ | *kisɔ | *kiso/*kuso |
| ankle | *ke̝N | *ke̝nɔ-bɔge̝ | *kiN | *kin | ||
| side | *ke̝N-ke̝N | *ke̝ŋge̝ | *kikiN | — | ||
| tear(s) | *ke̝n-(ɔxɔ) | *ke̝n-ɔx | *kin-ɔxɔ | *kin-ɜjɜ | *ken-ox | |
| rope | *ke̝ke̝N | *kikiN | *kikiN | *keken/*kikin | ||
| eye | *ke̝ɾɔ | *ke̝ɾɔ | *k[e̝]ɾɔ | *kiɾɔ | *kiɾɔ | *kero |
| sharp | *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N | *k[e̝]te̝ | *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N | *k[i/ɛ]siN | *k[i/ɛ]tiN | *kesen/*keten *kisin/*kitin |
| bad/evil | *k[e̝/ɛ]jɔN | *k[i]j[ɛ/a] | *k[i]jɔN | *k[i/ɛ]jɔN | *k[i/ɛ]jɔN | — |
| carry | *kɛko̝N- | *kɛko̝N- | *kɛkuN- | *kɛkuN- | *kɛkun- | |
| dry | *kɛɾa | *kɛɾa | *k[a]ɾa | — | ||
| face | *kɜtɔ | *katɔ | *kɜtɔ | — | ||
| moon | *kamo̝ | *kamo̝ | *kamo̝ | *kamu | — | |
| alive/awake | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadaxae | ||
| belly | *kaku | *kɔku | *kakʉ | *kaku | *kɔkü | |
| red | *kaŋgɔN | *kaŋgɔ | *kaŋg[o̝] | *kaŋgɔN | *kaŋgɔN | *kango(n) |
| paddle (n.) | *kaxʷe̝ | *kaɸe̝ | *kaɸe̝ | *kaxʷi | *kaxʷi | *kafe/*kɛfe |
| and/also | *-ko̝ | *-ko̝ | *-ku | — | ||
| wash | *ko̝N- | *ko̝N- | *ko̝N- | *kuN- | *kuN- | *kun- |
| plant (v.) | *ko̝N- | *ko̝N- | *kuN- | *kun- | ||
| gather | *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N- | *gigi-ko̝N- | *gigi[jɔ] kuN- | *gigio kun- | ||
| sleep (n.) | *ko̝no̝N | *ko̝no̝N | *ko̝no̝N | *kunuN | *kunuN | *kunun |
| dig | *ku- | *ku- | *ku- | *kʉ- | *ku- | *küox- |
| sugarcane | *kuN | *kuN | *kʉN | *kuN | *kün | |
| die (sg.) | *kuN- | *kuN- | *kuN- | *kʉN- | *kuN- | *kün- |
| goura pigeon | *kutɛ | *kʉtɛ | *kutɛ | *(ü)kütɛ | ||
| younger sibling | *kudɜ | *kuda | *kudɜ | *kʉda | *kudɜ | *küda |
Initial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *kʷ- | *k | *k | *k | *k | *k | |
| sweat (n.) | *kʷate̝N | *ko̝te̝ | *kasiN | *kasiN | *kɔten | |
| flesh | *kʷado̝ | *kɔdɔ | *ko̝do̝ | *kadu | *kadu | *kɔdu |
… /*kʷ/ …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *kʷ- | *k | *k | *k | *k | *k | |
| theft | *kʷuⁱ | *kuⁱ | *ki | *ki | *kui |
Initial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *b- | *b | *b | *b | *b | *b | |
| shin | *biN | *biN | *biN | *biN | *bin | |
| moon | *b[i/e̝]d[i/e̝]N | *bidiN | *bidiN | *beden/*bidin | ||
| chest | *be̝N | *biN | — | |||
| hand/arm | *b[e̝]d[ɔ] | *be̝d[ɜ/ɔ] | *b[ɛ]d[ɔ] | *bɛdɔ | *bidɜ | **bedo |
| outside | *bVt[a]xa | *be̝taxa | *be̝t[a]x[a] | *bɛtaxa | *butaxa | **betaxa |
| sit | *ba- | *ba- | *ba- | *ba- | *ba- | *bæx- |
| male | *baxtiN | *baxti[N] | *batiN | *basiN | *b[a]tiN | *baxtin |
| short/blunt | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bago |
| bone | *b[a/ɔ]ge̝ | *bɔge̝ | *b[a/ɔ]g[e̝] | *b[ɛ]gi | *bagi | *bɔge |
| father | *bɔ | *bɔ | *bɔ | — | ||
| shiver | *bɔbVN- | *bɔbɔN- | *bɔbiN- | *bobin-/*bobon- | ||
| spirit/soul | *bɔna | *bɔna | *bɔna | *b[a]na | *bɔna | |
| heavy | *bɔd[ʉ/u] | *bɔd[i/u] | *bɔdʉ | *bodü | ||
| knee/elbow | *bɔkiN | *bɔkiN | *bɔki[N] | *bɔkiN | *bün/*bun | |
| heel | *bo̝ | *bo̝ | *bu | *bu | ||
| black | *bo̝xo̝N | *b[o̝]x[o̝] | — | |||
| fly (v.) | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *buɾuN- | *buɾuN- | *burun- |
| village | *b[o̝/u]tu | *b[o̝/u]tu | *… | *bʉsʉ | *b[ʉ/u]sʉ | — |
| knee/elbow | *buN | *buN | *bʉN | *buN | *bün/*bun | |
| go out (of fire) | *buniC- | *buni- | *bun[u]C- | *buni- | *bünik- |
Initial apical voiced stop /*d/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *d- | *d | *d | *d | *d | *d | |
| not | *dɛ | *dɛ | *dɛ | *dɛ | — | |
| come | *dɜ- | *dɜ- | *da- | *dɜ- | *dæx- | |
| heart | *d[ʉ]b-ɾɔ | *dibɔ | *d[i/ʉ]bɾɔ | *dʉb[u]ɾɔ | *dübro | |
| salt | *daN- | *da | *daN | *daN- | — | |
| hear | *daC- | *da- | *da- | *daC- | *da- | *dak- |
| get up/stand up | *datɔ- | *datɔ- | *d[a]tɔ- | *dɔtɔ- | *dɔtɔ- | *dɔtox- |
| sago | *d[ɔᵘ] | *do̝ | *du | *dʉ | *du | *dü/*du |
| burn (intr.) | *dɔ- | *dɔ- | *dɔ- | *dɔ- | *dɔ- | — |
| nail | *dɔx | *dɔx | *dɔx | — | ||
| cook/burn | *du- | *dʉ- | *dʉ- | — | ||
| island | *dub[i/e̝] | *dʉbi | *d[ʉ]bi | *dübe/*dübi |
Initial velar voiced stop /*g/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *g- | *g | *g | *g | *g | *g | |
| scratch/scrape | *gi- | *gi- | *gi- | *gi- | *gi- | — |
| gather | *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N- | *gigi-ko̝N- | *gigi[jɔ] kuN- | *gigio kun- | ||
| sand | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *geren/*girin | |
| snap (tr.) | *gɛ-mɛ- | *-gɛmɛ- | *-gɛmɛ- | *-gɛm[ɛ]- | *gɛme-/*gɛmo- | |
| garden | *gijɔN | *gij[ɛ/a] | *gijɔN | *gijɔN | *giɔn | |
| snap (intr.) | *gɛ-ne̝C- | *gɛne̝- | *gɛniC- | *gɛni- | *gɛne- | |
| 2 sg. poss. | *ga | *ga | *ga | *ga | *ga | |
| chin/jaw | *gando̝N | *gando̝ | — | |||
| blood | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gon |
| incorrect | *gɔbaN | *gɔba | — | |||
| forget | *gɔbaN- | *gɔbaN- | — | |||
| 2 sg. | *go̝ | *go̝ | *go̝ | *gu | *gu | *gu |
| nape | *go̝be̝N | *gubiN | — | |||
| 2 pl. | *g[o̝/u]go̝ | *go̝go̝ | *go̝go̝ | *gʉgu | *g[ɔ]g[ʉ] | *gügu/*gugu |
| navel | *guN | *gu | *gʉN | *g[ʉ]N | *gün | |
| brain | *guN | *gu | *gʉN | *g[ʉ]N | *gün |
Initial bilabial fricative /*ɸ/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *ɸ- | *ɸ | *ɸ | *ɸ | *ɸ | *f | |
| name | *ɸi | *ɸi | *ɸi | *ɸi | *ɸi | *fi |
| think/know | *ɸiN-mi- | *ɸimi- | *ɸimi- | *ɸim[i]- | *fimi- | |
| bamboo | *ɸe̝-ɔ | *ɸe̝jɔ | *ɸijɔ | *ɸijɔ | — | |
| see | *ɸe̝tɛ- | *ɸe̝tɛ- | *ɸe̝t[ɛ]- | *ɸit[ɛ]- | *ɸit[ɛ]- | **fɛtɛox- |
| not | *ɸa | *ɸa | *ɸa | — | ||
| tongue | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *fagɛ |
| bird of paradise | *ɸɔdɔ | *ɸɔdɔ | — | |||
| stink | *ɸɔxɔ-mɔ- | *ɸɔxɔmɔ- | *ɸɔxɔmɔ- | foxomo- | ||
| stab/kill (fut.) | *ɸu- | *… | *ɸʉ- | — |
Initial fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *s- | *s | *s | *s | *s | *s | |
| nose | *siN | *si | *siN | *siN | *siN | *sin |
| mucus | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *sin-ifo | |
| high/above | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siri |
| black | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *sere/*siri *tere/*tiri |
| torch | *sija | *sija | *sija | *sija | *sia | |
| spine | *se̝ | *se̝ | *si | *se | ||
| ashes | *se̝na | *se̝na | *sina | *sena | ||
| pinkie/nail | *sɛ | *sɛ | *-sɛ | *-sɛ | *se | |
| widower | *sɛN | *sɛ | *sɛN | *sɛN | *sɛn | |
| young man | *s[ʉ]baN | *sib[a]N | *s[ʉ]baN | *sʉbaN | *sʉbaN | *süban |
| in front | *samaN | *samaN | *samaN | *samaN | — | |
| sun | *sawɜ | *s[a]wɜ | *sawa | *sawɜ | *sɔwɔ | |
| wallaby | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *[sV]b[a]xaⁱ | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *baxae/*baxai | |
| dry | *sɔ | *sɔ | *sɔ | *sɔ | *so | |
| earth/ground | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *soxo |
| slow | *so̝ko̝m[a/ɔ]N | *so̝ko̝m[ɔ] | *sukum[a]N | *sukumɔn |
Initial velar fricative /*x/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *x- | *x | *x | *x | *x | *x | |
| skin/bark | *xa | *xa | *xa | *xa | *xa | *xa |
| give birth | *xaⁱ- | *xaⁱ- | *xaⁱ- | *xaⁱ- | *xai | |
| house | *xaⁱN | *-x[aⁱ]N | *-xaN | *x[aⁱ]N | *xaⁱN | — |
| head | *xaⁱbaN | *xaⁱba | *xabaN | *xaⁱbaN | *xaⁱbaN | *xaiban |
| fence | *xaⁱti | *x[aⁱ]ti | *xaⁱti | *xaⁱti | **xaiti | |
| lime | *xame̝[N] | *xame̝ | *xame̝ | *xami | — | |
| widow | *xamɔ | *xamɔ | *xam[ɜ] | *xam- | ||
| friend | *xabe̝N | *xabe̝ | *xabe̝N | *xabiN | — | |
| stone axe | *xabo̝ | *xabo̝ | *xabu | *xabu | *xabu | |
| palate | *xanaN | *xa[na]N | — | |||
| spear | *xati | *x[a]ti | *xasi | *xati | *xati | |
| saliva/spittle | *xate̝ | *xate̝ | *xasi | *xate | ||
| mouth | *xat[ɛ/ɜ] | *xatɛ-tɔ | *xatɜ | *xatɔ | *xatɜ | *xatɛ |
| centipede | *xax | *xax | *xa | *xax | ||
| far | *xaxaN | *xaxa | *xaxaN | — | ||
| husband | *xaxo̝ | *xaxo̝ | *xɔxu | — | ||
| drumming | *xaxɸɛ | *xaxɸɛ | *xa[x]ɸɛ | *xaxfɛ | ||
| fence/wall | *xaɾi | *xɛɾi | *xaɾi | *xaɾi | — | |
| be enough | *xaɾe̝-ne̝C- | *xaɾi-niC- | *xaɾi-ni- | xare nek- xari nik- |
||
| break (intr.) | *xaɾ[ɔ]-ne̝C- | *xaɾ[a]-ni- | — | |||
| crocodile | *xajambo̝ | *xajambo̝ | *xajambu | *xajambu | *xayambu | |
| white | *xajɔ | *xajɔ | *xajɜ | *xajɔ | *xaja | *xayɔ |
| cloud/sky | *xɔᵘ[t](-tɔ) | *xɔᵘ[t](-tɔ) | *xɔᵘ(-tɔ) | *xɔᶶ(-tɔ) | *xɔᶶ | *xoü; *xuito |
| over there | *xɔ | *xɔ- | *xɔ- | *xɔ | — | |
| man | *xɔ | *xɔ | *xɔ | *xɔ | *xɔ | *xo |
| walk/go | *xɔ- | *xɔ- | *xɔ- | *xɔ- | *xɔ- | *xox- |
| far | *xɔmaN | *xamaN | *x[a]maN | — | ||
| die (pl.) | *xɔsV[ŋ]gi- | *xɔs[i]gi- | *xɔs[a]ŋgi- | — | ||
| flying fox | *xɔŋge̝ | *xɔŋge̝ | *xɔŋgi | *xɔŋgi | *xonge | |
| ghost | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xoxoi | |
| husband | *xo̝ | *xo̝ | *xu | *xu | — | |
| milk | *xo̝N | *xo̝N | *xu[N] | *xu[N] | *xu |
Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *w- | *w | *w | *w | *w | *w | |
| pig | *wɛⁱ | *wi | *wi | *wi | *wɛⁱ | *wi |
| worm | *wɛɾu | *wɛɾu | *… | *wɛɾʉ | *wɛɾʉ | — |
| left/lame | *wɜ | *wa | *wɜ | *wa | *wɜ | — |
| 3 sg. poss. | *wa | *wa | *wa (?) | *wa | *wa | *wa |
| night | *wamiN | *wɔmiN | — | |||
| snake | *wati | *wɛti | *wVti | *wisi | *wati | *wati/*witi |
| river | *wadɛⁱ | *w[i]di | *w[i]di | *w[i]di | *wadɛⁱ | *wadi/*widi |
| thumb/big toe | *wadɔ | *wɔdɔ | *wadɔ | *wɔdo | ||
| bamboo knife | *waki | *waki | *wɔki | *waki | — | |
| war | *waki | *wɛki | *waki | **wæki | ||
| ripe/yellow | *waxamaN | *waxama | *waxamaN | *waxaman | ||
| break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | *waxarmo- | ||
| liver | *wɔᵘN | *wɔᵘ | *wɔᶶN | *wɔᶶN | *wün | |
| inside | *wɔm… | *wɔmu | *wɔmu | *wɔm[u] | *wɔm[u] | *womu |
| tail | *wɔbu | *wɔbu | *wɔbu | *wɔbʉ | *wɔbʉ | *wobu |
| testicle(s) | *wɔbu-ɾɔ | *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ | *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ | *wobü-ro | ||
| stab/kill | *wu- | *wu- | *… | *wʉ- | *wʉ- | *wü-/*wu- |
Initial apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *ɾ- | *ɾ | *ɾ | *ɾ | *ɾ | *r | |
| rib(s) | *ɾiN | *ɾiN | *ɾiN | *ɾiN | *rin | |
| twist rope | *ɾiN- | *ɾiN- | *ɾiN- | *rin- | ||
| call/sing | *ɾiC- | *ɾi | *ɾiC | *ɾi | *rik- | |
| lie down | *ɾe̝- | *ɾe̝- | *ɾ[e̝]- | *ɾi- | *ɾi- | *reg- |
| take/hold | *ɾa- | *ɾa- | *ɾa- | *ɾa- | *ræx- | |
| woman/wife | *ɾaN | *ɾa | *ɾaN | *ɾaN | *ɾaN | *ran |
| fruit/seed | *ɾɔ | *ɾɔ | *ɾɔ | *ɾɔ | *ɾɔ | *ro |
| hair/leaf/feather | *ɾɔN | *ɾɔN | *ɾɔN | *ɾɔN | *ron | |
| weep/cry | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ron- |
| say/speak | *ɾɔ[x]- | *ɾɔxɔ- | *ɾɔ- | *ɾɔ- | *rox- | |
| voice/speech | *ɾo̝x | *ɾɔx | *ɾ[o̝] | *ɾu | *ɾu | *rux |
| boil (n.) | *ɾuN | *ɾuN | *ɾʉN | *ɾʉN | *rün | |
| chop down | *ɾuC- | *ɾu- | *ɾʉC- | *ɾʉ- | *rük- |
Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *j- | *j | *j | *j | *j | *y | |
| bird | *je̝ | *ji | *j[e̝] | *ji | *ji | *yi |
| tree/firewood | *je̝N | *jiN | *je̝N | *jiN | *jiN | *yin |
| love/desire | *jɜ | *ja | *jɜ | **ya *yæ | ||
| thorn | *jam[ɔ]xɔN | *jɔmɔ | *jamɔxɔN | *jɔmɔxɔN | *jamɔxɔN | *yɔmo |
| good | *jaɸe̝ | *jaɸi | — | |||
| lie (n.) | *jaxamɔ | *jaxamɔ | *jaxam[ɔ] | — | ||
| older brother | *jaxɔ | *jaxɔ | *jaxɔ | *j[a]xɔ | **yaxo | |
| canoe | *jaxʷuN | *j[a]ɸ[u]N | *jaxʷʉN | *jaxʷʉN | *yɔfün | |
| scabies/tinea | *j[a/ɔ]miN | *j[ɔ]miN | *j[a]miN | *yɔmin | ||
| copulate | *jɔN- | *jɔN- | *jɔN- | *jɔN- | *yon- | |
| 3 pl. | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *yoxo |
| rattan/rope | *jɔxo̝ | *jɔx[o̝] | *j[o̝]xo̝ | *jɔxu | *jɔxu | — |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *[ɾ/j]- | *j | *j | *j | *[ɾ/j] | *y | |
| breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔt | *j[ɔ]w[ɔ]t | *jaw[ɔ]t | *jawɔ[N] (?) | *[ɾ/j]awɔ | *yɔwɔt |
Any consonant can occur medially, excepting perhaps rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ which has not been found in medial position.
Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-m- | *m | *m | *m | *m | *m | |
| do/make | *-mɔ- | *-mɔ- | *-mɔ- | *-mɔ- | *-mɔ- | *-mo |
| gall/bile | *[e̝/ɛ]tim[o̝/u]N | *[e̝/ɛ]timu (?) | *[i]simu (?) | *[i]timuN | *etumün *etimun |
|
| young woman | *ame̝ge̝ | *amigi | *amigi | *amgi | ||
| son | *amut | *amut | *[a]mʉ | *[a]mʉ | **amu | |
| two | *ɔkɾo̝maN | *ɔko̝ma | *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma | *… | *kɔɾumaN | **okrumɔ(n) |
| morning | *mimiN | *mimi | *mimiN | *mimiN | *mimin | |
| think/know | *ɸiN-mi- | *ɸimi- | *ɸimi– | *ɸim[i]- | *fimi- | |
| in front | *samaN | *samaN | *samaN | *samaN | — | |
| slow | *so̝ko̝m[a/ɔ]N | *so̝ko̝m[ɔ] | *sukum[a]N | *sukumɔn | ||
| moon | *kamo̝ | *kamo̝ | *kamo̝ | *kamu | — | |
| lime | *xame̝[N] | *xame̝ | *xame̝ | *xami | — | |
| widow | *xamɔ | *xamɔ | *xam[ɜ] | *xam- | ||
| far | *xɔmaN | *xamaN | *x[a]maN | — | ||
| night | *wamiN | *wɔmiN | — | |||
| ripe/yellow | *waxamaN | *waxama | *waxamaN | *waxaman | ||
| inside | *wɔm… | *wɔmu | *wɔmu | *wɔm[u] | *wɔm[u] | *womu |
| thorn | *jam[ɔ]xɔN | *jɔmɔ | *jamɔxɔN | *jɔmɔxɔN | *jamɔxɔN | *yɔmo |
| lie (n.) | *jaxamɔ | *jaxamɔ | *jaxam[ɔ] | — | ||
| scabies/tinea | *j[a/ɔ]miN | *j[ɔ]miN | *j[a]miN | *yɔmin |
Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-n- | *n | *n | *n | *n | *n | |
| be/become | *-ne̝C- | *-ne̝- | *-niC- | *-ni- | *-nek-/*-nik- | |
| do/make (imp.) | *-no̝ | *-no̝ | *-no̝ | *-nu | *-nu | — |
| older sister | *ani | *ani | *ani | *ani | *ɛni/*ni/*nɛni | |
| leaf | *ana | *ana | *ana | — | ||
| tail | *minu | *minu | — | |||
| spirit/soul | *bɔna | *bɔna | *bɔna | *b[a]na | *bɔna | |
| go out (of fire) | *buniC- | *buni- | *bun[u]C- | *buni- | *bünik- | |
| mucus | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *sin-ifo | |
| ashes | *se̝na | *se̝na | *sina | *sena | ||
| sleep (n.) | *ko̝no̝N | *ko̝no̝N | *ko̝no̝N | *kunuN | *kunuN | *kunun |
| palate | *xanaN | *xa[na]N | — |
Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is, like initial /*p/, uncommon. It is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-p- | *p | *p | *p | *p | *p | |
| mother's mother | *api | *api | *api | — | ||
| butterfly | *apɜ(-ɾɔ) | *apa | *ap[a]ɾɔ | *apɜɾɔ | *aprɔ | |
| hot | *apat | *apat | *apat | *apa | *apa | *apat |
Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ when followed by low and low mid vowels /*ɛ *ɜ *ɔ *a/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-t-/_ɛ | *t | *t | *t | |||
| see | *ɸe̝tɛ- | *ɸe̝tɛ- | *ɸe̝t[ɛ]- | *ɸit[ɛ]- | *ɸit[ɛ]- | **fɛtɛox- |
| goura pigeon | *kutɛ | *kʉtɛ | *kutɛ | *(ü)kütɛ | ||
| *-t-/_[ɛ/ɜ] | *t | *t | *t | *t | *t | |
| mouth | *xat[ɛ/ɜ] | *xatɛ-tɔ | *xatɜ | *xatɔ | *xatɜ | *xatɛ |
| *-t-/_ɜ | *t | *t | *t | |||
| face | *kɜtɔ | *katɔ | *kɜtɔ | — | ||
| *-t-/_ɔ | *t | *t | *t | *t | *t | |
| vagina | *a-tɔ | *a-tɔ | *a-tɔ | *a-tɔ | *aato(p) | |
| get up/stand up | *datɔ- | *datɔ- | *d[a]tɔ- | *dɔtɔ- | *dɔtɔ- | *dɔtox- |
| foot/leg | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kito |
| *-t-/_a | *t | *t | *t | *t | *t | |
| outside | *bVt[a]xa | *be̝taxa | *be̝t[a]x[a] | *bɛtaxa | *butaxa | **betaxa |
When medial /*t/ is followed by high and high mid vowels /*i *u *e̝ *o̝/, it is fricated and merged with /*s/ in Central Awyu:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-t-/_i | *t | *t | *s | *t | *t | |
| gall/bile | *[e̝/ɛ]tim[o̝/u]N | *[e̝/ɛ]timu (?) | *[i]simu (?) | *[i]timuN | *etumün *etimun |
|
| male | *baxtiN | *baxti[N] | *batiN | *basiN | *b[a]tiN | *baxtin |
| fence | *xaⁱti | *x[aⁱ]ti | *xaⁱti | *xaⁱti | **xaiti | |
| spear | *xati | *x[a]ti | *xasi | *xati | *xati | |
| snake | *wati | *wɛti | *wVti | *wisi | *wati | *wati/*witi |
| *-t-/_u | *t | *t | *s | *t | *t/*s | |
| dream | *axtu | *axatu | *axsʉ | — | ||
| beard | *matu | *masʉ | *mas[i] | *masi/*mati *masü/*matü |
||
| old (thing) | *patu | *patu | *pasʉ | *patʉ | — | |
| village | *b[o̝/u]tu | *b[o̝/u]tu | *… | *bʉsʉ | *b[ʉ/u]sʉ | — |
| *-t-/_e̝ | *t | *t | *s | *t | *t/*s | |
| tail of bird | *ɔte̝-ɾɔN | *ɔt[ɔ]ɾɔ | *ɔsiɾ[ɔN] | *ɔtiɾɔN | **o=tirɔ(n) | |
| sharp | *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N | *k[e̝]te̝ | *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N | *k[i/ɛ]siN | *k[i/ɛ]tiN | *kesen/*keten *kisin/*kitin |
| sweat (n.) | *kʷate̝N | *ko̝te̝ | *kasiN | *kasiN | *kɔten | |
| saliva/spittle | *xate̝ | *xate̝ | *xasi | *xate | ||
| *-t-/_o̝ | *t | *t | *s | *t | *t | |
| daughter | *[ɔ]to̝b-ɾaN | *[ɔ]to̝b-ɾa | *sub-ɾaN | *tub-ɾaN | *tub®an | |
| get up/stand up | *mato̝C- | *m[a]to̝- | *mat[u]- | — |
Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-k- | *k | *k | *k | *k | *k | |
| smoke | *aku | *ɔku | *aku | *[a]k[ʉ] | *aku | *aku/*üku |
| two | *ɔkɾo̝maN | *ɔko̝ma | *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma | *… | *kɔɾumaN | **okrumɔ(n) |
| forehead | *mika | *mika | *mika | — | ||
| swallow | *miko̝N- | *miko̝N- | *mikuN- | *m[i]kuN- | *mikun- | |
| afraid | *mɔke̝ | *mɔke̝ | *mɔke̝ | *mɔki | *mɔki | — |
| earth/below | *mɔkaN | *mɔkaN | *makaN | *makaN | *mɔkaN | *makan/*mokan |
| knee/elbow | *bɔkiN | *bɔkiN | *bɔki[N] | *bɔkiN | *bün/*bun | |
| slow | *so̝ko̝m[a/ɔ]N | *so̝ko̝m[ɔ] | *sukum[a]N | *sukumɔn | ||
| rope | *ke̝ke̝N | *kikiN | *kikiN | *keken/*kikin | ||
| carry | *kɛko̝N- | *kɛko̝N- | *kɛkuN- | *kɛkuN- | *kɛkun- | |
| belly | *kaku | *kɔku | *kakʉ | *kaku | *kɔkü | |
| bamboo knife | *waki | *waki | *wɔki | *waki | — | |
| war | *waki | *wɛki | *waki | **wæki |
Rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ has not been found to occur medially.
Medial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-b- | *b | *b | *b | *b | *b | |
| laughter | *abɛN | *abV | *abV | *ab[ɛN] | *ab[VN] | *ab(ɛ) |
| daughter | *[ɔ]to̝b-ɾaN | *[ɔ]to̝b-ɾa | *sub-ɾaN | *tub-ɾaN | *tub®an | |
| shiver | *bɔbVN- | *bɔbɔN- | *bɔbiN- | *bobin-/*bobon- | ||
| heart | *d[ʉ]b-ɾɔ | *dibɔ | *d[i/ʉ]bɾɔ | *dʉb[u]ɾɔ | *dübro | |
| island | *dub[i/e̝] | *dʉbi | *d[ʉ]bi | *dübe/*dübi | ||
| young man | *s[ʉ]baN | *sib[a]N | *s[ʉ]baN | *sʉbaN | *sʉbaN | *süban |
| wallaby | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *[sV]b[a]xaⁱ | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *baxae/*baxai | |
| incorrect | *gɔbaN | *gɔba | — | |||
| forget | *gɔbaN- | *gɔbaN- | — | |||
| nape | *go̝be̝N | *gubiN | — | |||
| head | *xaⁱbaN | *xaⁱba | *xabaN | *xaⁱbaN | *xaⁱbaN | *xaiban |
| friend | *xabe̝N | *xabe̝ | *xabe̝N | *xabiN | — | |
| stone axe | *xabo̝ | *xabo̝ | *xabu | *xabu | *xabu | |
| tail | *wɔbu | *wɔbu | *wɔbu | *wɔbʉ | *wɔbʉ | *wobu |
| testicle(s) | *wɔbu-ɾɔ | *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ | *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ | *wobü-ro |
Medial apical voiced stop /*d/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-d- | *d | *d | *d | *d | *d | |
| tie | *ad[awɔ]C- | *adɔ- | *adV- | *adaC- | *ad[awɔ]- | *adɔk- |
| body | *adu | *adu | *adʉ | *adü/*adu | ||
| thigh | *midiN | *midi | *midi[N] | *midiN | *midi(n) | |
| stomach | *madu | *mɔdu | *m[a]du | *madʉ | *madʉ | *modü |
| moon | *b[i/e̝]d[i/e̝]N | *bidiN | *bidiN | *beden/*bidin | ||
| hand/arm | *b[e̝]d[ɔ] | *be̝d[ɜ/ɔ] | *b[ɛ]d[ɔ] | *bɛdɔ | *bidɜ | **bedo |
| heavy | *bɔd[ʉ/u] | *bɔd[i/u] | *bɔdʉ | *bodü | ||
| bird of paradise | *ɸɔdɔ | *ɸɔdɔ | — | |||
| alive/awake | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadaxae | ||
| younger sibling | *kudɜ | *kuda | *kudɜ | *kʉda | *kudɜ | *küda |
| flesh | *kʷado̝ | *kɔdɔ | *ko̝do̝ | *kadu | *kadu | *kɔdu |
| river | *wadɛⁱ | *w[i]di | *w[i]di | *w[i]di | *wadɛⁱ | *wadi/*widi |
| thumb/big toe | *wadɔ | *wɔdɔ | *wadɔ | *wɔdo |
Medial velar voiced stop /*g/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-g- | *g | *g | *g | *g | *g | |
| 3 sg. | *ɛ-ge̝ | *ɛge̝ | *ɛge̝ | *ɛ-gi | *ɛge/*ɛke | |
| young woman | *ame̝ge̝ | *amigi | *amigi | *amgi | ||
| correct/true | *aga | *aga | *aga-ni- | — | ||
| seek | *ago̝C- | *aguC- | *agu- | *agok- | ||
| teeth | *maga | *maga | *maga | *maga | *maga | *maga |
| egg | *mugɔ | *mugɔ | *mʉgɔ | *mugɔ | *mügo | |
| short/blunt | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bago |
| bone | *b[a/ɔ]ge̝ | *bɔge̝ | *b[a/ɔ]g[e̝] | *b[ɛ]gi | *bagi | *bɔge |
| tongue | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *fagɛ |
| crocodile | *nagaɾo̝ | *nagaɾu | — | |||
| 1 pl. | *n[o̝/u]go̝ | *no̝go̝ | *no̝go̝ | *nʉgu | *nugu | *nügu/*nugu |
| penis | *t[e̝/ɛ]ge̝ | *te̝ge̝ | *s[ɛ]gi | *tigi | *tege | |
| gather | *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N- | *gigi-ko̝N | *gigi[jɔ] kuN | *gigio kun- | ||
| 2 pl. | *g[o̝/u]go̝ | *go̝go̝ | *go̝go̝ | *gʉgu | *g[ɔ]g[ʉ] | *gügu/*gugu |
Medial bilabial fricative /*ɸ/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-ɸ- | *ɸ | *ɸ | *ɸ | *ɸ | *f | |
| break/split (tr.) | *axaɸuN- | *axaɸuN- | *axaɸʉN- | *axaɸʉN- | *axafün- | |
| knowledge | *n[a]ɸaN | *naɸa | *n[a]ɸaN | *naɸaN | *naɸaN | — |
| mucus | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *sin-ifo | |
| wind | *kiɸɛⁱ | *kiɸi | *k[i]ɸi | *kiɸi | *kɛɸi (?) | *kifi |
| good | *jaɸe̝ | *jaɸi | — |
Medial fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-s- | *s | *s | *s | *s | *s | |
| one | *e̝sijɔ | *e̝sijɔ | *isijɔ | *isijɜ | — | |
| mosquito | *ɛⁱsɜ | *is[i] | *ɛⁱsɜ | *ese/*ete *isi/*iti |
||
| sneeze (n.) | *asiN | *si | *asiN | *asiN | *asin | |
| night/dark | *as[ij]u | *as[ij]u | *asʉ | *asʉ | *asʉ | *asü |
| sore/wound | *pɛsɔ | *pɛsɔ | *pɛsɔ | *pɛso | ||
| leech | *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N | *t[ɛ]se̝ | *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N | *s[i]siN | *tiɾiN | *tese |
| marsupial | *ke̝sɔ | *ke̝sɔ | *… | *kisɔ | *kisɔ | *kiso/*kuso |
| die (pl.) | *xɔsV[ŋ]gi- | *xɔs[i]gi- | *xɔs[a]ŋgi- | — |
Medial velar fricative /*x/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-x- | *x | *x | *x | *x | *x | |
| fish | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaɛ |
| break/split (tr.) | *axaɸuN- | *axaɸuN- | *axaɸʉN- | *axaɸʉN- | *axafün- | |
| dream | *axtu | *axatu | *axsʉ | — | ||
| water | *ɔxɔ | *ɔxɔ | *ɔxɔ | *ɔxɔ | *ɔx | |
| cheek | *mɔxɔN | *mɔxɔN | *mɔxɔ[N] | *mɔxɔN | *moxo(n) | |
| excrement | *pax[a] | *pax[a] | *pax[a] | *pax[a] | *paxa | |
| outside | *bVt[a]xa | *be̝taxa | *be̝t[a]x[a] | *bɛtaxa | *butaxa | **betaxa |
| black | *bo̝xo̝N | *b[o̝]x[o̝] | — | |||
| stink | *ɸɔxɔ-mɔ- | *ɸɔxɔmɔ- | *ɸɔxɔmɔ- | *foxomo- | ||
| go (imperative) | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | — |
| tired/crippled | *taxaN | *taxa | *taxaN | *taxaN | *taxan | |
| wallaby | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *[sV]b[a]xaⁱ | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *baxae/*baxai | |
| earth/ground | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *soxo |
| alive/awake | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadaxae | ||
| far | *xaxaN | *xaxa | *xaxaN | — | ||
| husband | *xaxo̝ | *xaxo̝ | *xɔxu | — | ||
| ghost | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔxɔⁱ | — | |
| ripe/yellow | *waxamaN | *waxama | *waxamaN | *waxaman | ||
| break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | *waxarmo- | ||
| lie (n.) | *jaxamɔ | *jaxamɔ | *jaxam[ɔ] | — | ||
| older brother | *jaxɔ | *jaxɔ | *jaxɔ | *j[a]xɔ | **yaxo | |
| 3 pl. | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *yoxo |
| rattan/rope | *jɔxo̝ | *jɔx[o̝] | *j[o̝]xo̝ | *jɔxu | *jɔxu | — |
Medial rounded velar fricative /*xʷ/ is found only in loans from Marind, where it reflects proto-Marind /*w/ [hʷ] (below):
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-xʷ- | *ɸ | *ɸ | *xʷ | *xʷ | *f | |
| paddle (n.) | *kaxʷe̝ | *kaɸe̝ | *kaɸe̝ | *kaxʷi | *kaxʷi | *kafe/*kɛfe |
| canoe | *jaxʷuN | *j[a]ɸ[u]N | *jaxʷʉN | *jaxʷʉN | *yɔfün |
Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-w- | *w | *w | *w | *w | *w | |
| sun | *sawɜ | *s[a]wɜ | *sawa | *sawɜ | *sɔwɔ | |
| breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔt | *j[ɔ]w[ɔ]t | *jaw[ɔ]t | *jawɔ[N] (?) | *[ɾ/j]awɔ | *yɔwɔt |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-w- | — | |||||
| elbow | *mo̝[wɔ] | *mo̝wɔ | *mu | — |
Medial apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is very common It is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-ɾ- | *ɾ | *ɾ | *ɾ | *ɾ | *r | |
| rainbow | *e̝ɾe̝N | *iɾiN | — | |||
| earthquake | *e̝ɾ[i]ɾi | *e̝ɾiɾi | *iɾ[ɛ]ɾi | *iɾiɾi | *yeriri | |
| stone | *ɛⁱɾɔ | *iɾɔ | *iɾɔ | *iɾɔ | *ɛⁱɾɔ | *ero/*iro |
| light/bright | *[a]ɾa | *aɾa | — | |||
| long | *pe̝ɾe̝ | *pe̝ɾe̝ | *pe̝ɾe̝ | *piɾi | *piɾi | *pere |
| fly (v.) | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *buɾuN- | *buɾuN- | *burun- |
| crocodile | *nagaɾo̝ | *nagaɾu | — | |||
| chin | *tɛɾɛ | *tɛɾɛ | *tɛɾɛ | *tɛɾɛ | ||
| tooth | *taɾe̝ | *taɾe̝ | *taɾe̝ | — | ||
| cold | *taɾ[u] | *tɔɾu | *taɾ[u] | *taɾʉ | *taɾu | *tɔrü |
| finger/toe | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔ | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔN | *toron |
| hide | *(a-)to̝ɾo̝-mɔ- | *(a-)to̝ɾo̝mɔ- | *atuɾumɔ- | *aturumo- | ||
| ear | *to̝ɾo̝N | *to̝ɾo̝ | *to̝ɾo̝N | *suɾuN | *tuɾuN | *turun |
| high/above | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siri |
| black | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *sere/*siri *tere/*tiri |
| eye | *ke̝ɾɔ | *ke̝ɾɔ | *k[e̝]ɾɔ | *kiɾɔ | *kiɾɔ | *kero |
| dry | *kɛɾa | *kɛɾa | *k[a]ɾa | — | ||
| break (intr.) | *xaɾ[ɔ]-ne̝C- | *xaɾ[a]-ni- | — | |||
| sand | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *geren/*girin | |
| fence/wall | *xaɾi | *xɛɾi | *xaɾi | *xaɾi | — | |
| be enough | *xaɾe̝-ne̝C- | *xaɾi-niC- | *xaɾi-ni- | xare nek- xari nik- |
||
| worm | *wɛɾu | *wɛɾu | *… | *wɛɾʉ | *wɛɾʉ | — |
Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-j- | *j | *j | *j | *j | *y *ø | |
| one | *e̝sijɔ | *e̝sijɔ | *isijɔ | *isijɜ | — | |
| water spirit | *ɜjɜ | *aja | *ɜjɜ | *ɜjɜ | — | |
| coconut | *pɜjɔ | *pajɔ | *p[ɜ]jɔ | *pajɔ | *pɜjɔ | *pæyo |
| torch | *sija | *sija | *sija | *sija | *sia | |
| bad/evil | *k[e̝/ɛ]jɔN | *k[i]j[ɛ/a] | *k[i]jɔN | *k[i/ɛ]jɔN | *k[i/ɛ]jɔN | — |
| garden | *gijɔN | *gij[ɛ/a] | *gijɔN | *gijɔN | *giɔn | |
| crocodile | *xajambo̝ | *xajambo̝ | *xajambu | *xajambu | *xayambu | |
| white | *xajɔ | *xajɔ | *xajɜ | *xajɔ | *xaja | *xayɔ |
Prenasalized stops [*mb *nd *ŋg] are found only medially, where they now contrast with the denasalized reflexes /*b *d *g/ of Cental Digul River voiced prenasalized /*mb *nd *ŋg/.
Medial bilabial voiced prenasalized stop [*mb] …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-mb- | *mb | *mb | *mb | *mb | *mb | |
| crocodile | *xajambo̝ | *xajambo̝ | *xajambu | *xajambu | *xayambu |
Medial apical voiced prenasalized stop [*nd] …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-nd- | *nd | *nd | — | |||
| become (fut.) | *-nde̝- | *-ndi- | — | |||
| chin/jaw | *gando̝N | *gando̝ | — |
Medial velar voiced prenasalized stop [*ŋg] is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-ŋg- | *ŋg | *ŋg | *ŋg | *ŋg | *ng | |
| dog | *aŋg[i] | *aŋg[i] | *aŋg[i] | *aŋgi | *aŋgi | *(y)ange *(y)angi |
| sour | *tɔᵘŋgi | — | ||||
| red | *kaŋgɔN | *kaŋgɔ | *kaŋg[o̝] | *kaŋgɔN | *kaŋgɔN | *kango(n) |
| flying fox | *xɔŋge̝ | *xɔŋge̝ | *xɔŋgi | *xɔŋgi | *xonge |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-[ŋ]g- | *g | *[ŋ]g | *g | *g *x *ng | ||
| armpit | *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN | *tɔgɔ | *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN | *tɔgɔN | *togon/*toxon *tongon |
|
| *-[ŋ]g- | *g | *ŋg | — | |||
| die (pl.) | *xɔsV[ŋ]gi- | *xɔs[i]gi- | *xɔs[a]ŋgi- | — |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *… | *g | *ŋg | *ŋg | *ŋg | ||
| louse | *[aŋ]gV | *gu | *[aŋ]go̝ | *aŋgu | *aŋgu | *angu |
… final consonants …:
Final nasal archiphoneme /*N/ …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-N | *… | *… | *N | *N | *n | |
| gall/bile | *[e̝/ɛ]tim[o̝/u]N | *[e̝/ɛ]timu (?) | *[i]simu (?) | *[i]timuN | *etumün *etimun |
|
| rainbow | *e̝ɾe̝N | *iɾiN | — | |||
| laughter | *abɛN | *abV | *abV | *ab[ɛN] | *ab[VN] | *ab(ɛ) |
| sneeze (n.) | *asiN | *si | *asiN | *asiN | *asin | |
| breast | *ɔN | *ɔN | *ɔN | *ɔN | *ɔN | *om |
| two | *ɔkɾo̝maN | *ɔko̝ma | *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma | *… | *kɔɾumaN | **okrumɔ(n) |
| star/firefly | *miN | *mi | *mi[N] | *miN | *miN | — |
| morning | *mimiN | *mimi | *mimiN | *mimiN | *mimin | |
| thigh | *midiN | *midi | *midi[N] | *midiN | *midi(n) | |
| earth/below | *mɔkaN | *mɔkaN | *makaN | *makaN | *mɔkaN | *makan/*mokan |
| cheek | *mɔxɔN | *mɔxɔN | *mɔxɔ[N] | *mɔxɔN | *moxo(n) | |
| shin | *biN | *biN | *biN | *biN | *bin | |
| chest | *be̝N | *biN | — | |||
| moon | *b[i/e̝]d[i/e̝]N | *bidiN | *bidiN | *beden/*bidin | ||
| male | *baxtiN | *baxti[N] | *batiN | *basiN | *b[a]tiN | *baxtin |
| knee/elbow | *bɔkiN | *bɔkiN | *bɔki[N] | *bɔkiN | *bün/*bun | |
| black | *bo̝xo̝N | *b[o̝]x[o̝] | — | |||
| knee/elbow | *buN | *buN | *bʉN | *buN | *bün/*bun | |
| knowledge | *n[a]ɸaN | *naɸa | *n[a]ɸaN | *naɸaN | *naɸaN | — |
| leech | *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N | *t[ɛ]se̝ | *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N | *s[i]siN | *tiɾiN | *tese |
| tired/crippled | *taxaN | *taxa | *taxaN | *taxaN | *taxan | |
| armpit | *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN | *tɔgɔ | *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN | *tɔgɔN | *togon/*toxon *tongon |
|
| finger/toe | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔ | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔN | *toron |
| ear | *to̝ɾo̝N | *to̝ɾo̝ | *to̝ɾo̝N | *suɾuN | *tuɾuN | *turun |
| salt | *daN- | *da | *daN | *daN- | — | |
| nose | *siN | *si | *siN | *siN | *siN | *sin |
| widower | *sɛN | *sɛ | *sɛN | *sɛN | *sɛn | |
| young man | *s[ʉ]baN | *sib[a]N | *s[ʉ]baN | *sʉbaN | *sʉbaN | *süban |
| in front | *samaN | *samaN | *samaN | *samaN | — | |
| slow | *so̝ko̝m[a/ɔ]N | *so̝ko̝m[ɔ] | *sukum[a]N | *sukumɔn | ||
| ankle | *ke̝N | *ke̝nɔ-bɔge̝ | *kiN | *kin | ||
| side | *ke̝N-ke̝N | *ke̝ŋge̝ | *kikiN | — | ||
| rope | *ke̝ke̝N | *kikiN | *kikiN | *keken/*kikin | ||
| sharp | *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N | *k[e̝]te̝ | *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N | *k[i/ɛ]siN | *k[i/ɛ]tiN | *kesen/*keten *kisin/*kitin |
| bad/evil | *k[e̝/ɛ]jɔN | *k[i]j[ɛ/a] | *k[i]jɔN | *k[i/ɛ]jɔN | *k[i/ɛ]jɔN | — |
| red | *kaŋgɔN | *kaŋgɔ | *kaŋg[o̝] | *kaŋgɔN | *kaŋgɔN | *kango(n) |
| sand | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *geren/*girin | |
| garden | *gijɔN | *gij[ɛ/a] | *gijɔN | *gijɔN | *giɔn | |
| sweat (n.) | *kʷate̝N | *ko̝te̝ | *kasiN | *kasiN | *kɔten | |
| sleep (n.) | *ko̝no̝N | *ko̝no̝N | *ko̝no̝N | *kunuN | *kunuN | *kunun |
| sugarcane | *kuN | *kuN | *kʉN | *kuN | *kün | |
| chin/jaw | *gando̝N | *gando̝ | — | |||
| blood | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gon |
| incorrect | *gɔbaN | *gɔba | — | |||
| nape | *go̝be̝N | *gubiN | — | |||
| navel | *guN | *gu | *gʉN | *g[ʉ]N | *gün | |
| brain | *guN | *gu | *gʉN | *g[ʉ]N | *gün | |
| house | *xaⁱN | *-x[aⁱ]N | *-xaN | *x[aⁱ]N | *xaⁱN | — |
| head | *xaⁱbaN | *xaⁱba | *xabaN | *xaⁱbaN | *xaⁱbaN | *xaiban |
| friend | *xabe̝N | *xabe̝ | *xabe̝N | *xabiN | — | |
| palate | *xanaN | *xa[na]N | — | |||
| far | *xaxaN | *xaxa | *xaxaN | — | ||
| far | *xɔmaN | *xamaN | *x[a]maN | — | ||
| milk | *xo̝N | *xo̝N | *xu[N] | *xu[N] | *xu | |
| night | *wamiN | *wɔmiN | — | |||
| ripe/yellow | *waxamaN | *waxama | *waxamaN | *waxaman | ||
| liver | *wɔᵘN | *wɔᵘ | *wɔᶶN | *wɔᶶN | *wün | |
| rib(s) | *ɾiN | *ɾiN | *ɾiN | *ɾiN | *rin | |
| woman/wife | *ɾaN | *ɾa | *ɾaN | *ɾaN | *ɾaN | *ran |
| hair/leaf/feather | *ɾɔN | *ɾɔN | *ɾɔN | *ɾɔN | *ron | |
| boil (n.) | *ɾuN | *ɾuN | *ɾʉN | *ɾʉN | *rün | |
| tree/firewood | *je̝N | *jiN | *je̝N | *jiN | *jiN | *yin |
| thorn | *jam[ɔ]xɔN | *jɔmɔ | *jamɔxɔN | *jɔmɔxɔN | *jamɔxɔN | *yɔmo |
| canoe | *jaxʷuN | *j[a]ɸ[u]N | *jaxʷʉN | *jaxʷʉN | *yɔfün | |
| scabies/tinea | *j[a/ɔ]miN | *j[ɔ]miN | *j[a]miN | *yɔmin |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-t | *t | *t | *ø | *ø | *t *ø | |
| son | *amut | *amut | *[a]mʉ | *[a]mʉ | **amu | |
| hot | *apat | *apat | *apat | *apa | *apa | *apat |
| flower | *ke̝t | *ke̝t | *ki | *ki | *ket | |
| breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔt | *j[ɔ]w[ɔ]t | *jaw[ɔ]t | *jawɔ[N] (?) | *[ɾ/j]awɔ | *yɔwɔt |
| *-x | *x | *ø | *ø | *ø | *x | |
| hair | *mo̝x | *mɔx | *m[o̝] | *mu | *mox/*mux | |
| nail | *dɔx | *dɔx | *dɔx | *dɔx- | — | |
| centipede | *xax | *xax | *xa | *xa | *xax | |
| voice/speech | *ɾo̝x | *ɾɔx | *ɾ[o̝] | *ɾu | *ɾu | *rux |
| *-ɾ | *ɾ | *ø | *ø | *ø | *r | |
| excrement | *ɔɾ | *ɔɾ | *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | *or |
In verb roots, two final archiphonemes are found, nasal /*N/ and non-nasal /*C/.
… /*N/ …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-N- | *N | *N | *N | *N | *n | |
| eat | *ɛN- | *ɛN- | *ɛN- | *ɛn- | ||
| break/split (tr.) | *axaɸuN- | *axaɸuN- | *axaɸʉN- | *axaɸʉN- | *axafün- | |
| swallow | *miko̝N- | *miko̝N- | *mikuN- | *m[i]kuN- | (mikun- | |
| not want | *mo̝N- | *mo̝N- | *muN- | *mun- | ||
| shiver | *bɔbVN- | *bɔbɔN- | *bɔbiN- | *bobin-/*bobon- | ||
| fly (v.) | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *buɾuN- | *buɾuN- | *burun- |
| bathe/swim | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kin- |
| carry | *kɛko̝N- | *kɛko̝N- | *kɛkuN- | *kɛkuN- | *kɛkun- | |
| wash | *ko̝N- | *ko̝N- | *ko̝N- | *kuN- | *kuN- | *kun- |
| plant (v.) | *ko̝N- | *ko̝N- | *kuN- | *kun- | ||
| die (sg.) | *kuN- | *kuN- | *kuN- | *kʉN- | *kuN- | *kün- |
| gather | *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N- | *gigi-ko̝N- | *gigi[jɔ] kuN- | *gigio kun- | ||
| forget | *gɔbaN- | *gɔbaN- | — | |||
| twist rope | *ɾiN- | *ɾiN- | *ɾiN- | *rin- | ||
| weep/cry | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ron- |
| copulate | *jɔN- | *jɔN- | *jɔN- | *jɔN- | *yon- |
Final archiphoneme /*C/ is only known to be discernible in Central Awyu …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-C- | *ø | *ø | *C | *ø | *k | |
| stand | *ɛC- | *ɛ- | *ɛC- | *ɛk- | ||
| bite | *at[i]C- | *ati- | *ati- | *asiC- | *asu- | *atik- |
| tie | *ad[awɔ]C- | *adɔ- | *adV- | *adaC- | *ad[awɔ]- | *adɔk- |
| go out (of fire) | *buniC- | *buni- | *bun[u]C- | *buni- | *bünik- | |
| seek | *ago̝C- | *aguC- | *agu- | *agok- | ||
| be/become | *-ne̝C- | *-ne̝- | *-niC- | *-ni- | *-nek-/*-nik- | |
| cough/sneeze | *tiC- | *ti- | *ti- | *siC- | *ti- | *tik- |
| go up | *(a-)to̝C- | *ɔto̝- | *asuC- | *tu- | *otuk- | |
| hear | *daC- | *da- | *da- | *daC- | *da- | *dak- |
| be | *ke̝C- | *ke̝- | *kiC- | *ki | *ke- | |
| call/sing | *ɾiC- | *ɾi- | *ɾiC- | *ɾi- | *rik- | |
| chop down | *ɾuC- | *ɾu- | *ɾʉC- | *ɾʉ- | *rük- |
Consonant clusters are most usually found in compounds. Pobably all examples indicate a compound, but if so the meaning of their constitutents isn't always apparent, and in any event these were already established by the time of proto-Awyu. Besides voiced prenasalized stops /*mb *nd *ŋg/, which while secondary appear to be unit phonemes at the proto-Awyu level, clusters are avoided by modern speakers, and are either separated by an interpolated vowel or simplified to a single consonant.
In a number of instances, these clusters reveal the qualities of final consonants which have been lost in proto-Awyu free forms. For example, /*a/ “nest” descends from Awyu-Dumut /*ap/ “house.” When this is root is found in compounds, rather than being dropped, bilabial stop /*p/ is fricated to /*ɸ/ as is medial /*p/ rather than being dropped. Awyu-Dumut final nasals /*m *n/ are most usually indistiguishable in Awyu, both yielding nasal archiphoneme /*N/ (above,) but in clusters with second member apical non-stop /*ɾ/, they behave differently, with final bilabial /*m/ being denasalized to voiced stop /*b/ while final /*n/ is dropped.
…
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-b-ɾ- | *br | |||||
| heart | *d[ʉ]b-ɾɔ | *dibɔ | *d[i/ʉ]bɾɔ | *dʉb[u]ɾɔ | *dübro | |
| *-ɸ-t- | *n=x | |||||
| doorway | *aɸ-tɔ | *aɸ[i]-tɔ | — | |||
| *-ɸ-x- | *n=x | |||||
| house | *aɸ-xaⁱN | *aɸɔ-x[aⁱ]N | *aɸ[a]-xaN | *aɸ[a]-x[aⁱ]N | *aɸ[a]-xaⁱN | — |
| *-N-x- | *n=x | |||||
| lip(s) | *bɔN-xa | *bɔ[m/n]-xa | *bɔn-xa | *bɔ[m/n]-xa | *bV[m/n]-xa | *bon=xa |
| bark of tree | *je̝N-xa | — | ||||
| *-N-ɾ- | *r | |||||
| eye | *ke̝N-ɾɔ | *ke̝ɾɔ | *k[e̝]ɾɔ | *kiɾɔ | *kiɾɔ | *kero |
| *-kɾ- | *kr | |||||
| two | *ɔkɾo̝maN | *ɔko̝ma | *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma | *… | *kɔɾumaN | **okrumɔ(n) |
| *-x-ɸ- | *xf | |||||
| drumming | *xaxɸɛ | *xaxɸɛ | *xa[x]ɸɛ | *xaxfɛ | ||
| *-x-n- | *xn | |||||
| be cooked | *pax-ne̝C- | *pax[a]-ne̝C- | *pa[x]-niC- | *paxnek-/*paxnik- | ||
| *-xt-/_i u | *xt | |||||
| dream | *axtu | *axatu | *asʉ | — | ||
| male | *baxtiN | *baxti[N] | *batiN | *basiN | *b[a]tiN | *baxtin |
| *-x-s- | — | |||||
| nail | *dɔx-sɛ | *dɔx-sɛ | *dɔx-sɛ | *dɔx-sɛ | — | |
| *-ɾ-m- | *rm | |||||
| break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | *waxarmo- |
… vowels …
High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *i | *i | *i | *i | *i | *i | |
| name | *ɸi | *ɸi | *ɸi | *ɸi | *ɸi | *fi |
| mother | *ni | *ni | *ni | *ni | — | |
| plait | *ti- | *ti- | *si- | *ti- | *ti- | |
| scratch/scrape | *gi- | *gi- | *gi- | *gi- | *gi- | — |
| star/firefly | *miN | *mi | *mi[N] | *miN | *miN | — |
| drink (realis) | *mi[N/C]- | *miN- | *mi[N]- | *miC- | *mi- | *mik-/*min- |
| shin | *biN | *biN | *biN | *biN | *bin | |
| cough/sneeze | *tiC- | *ti- | *ti- | *siC- | *ti- | *tik- |
| nose | *siN | *si | *siN | *siN | *siN | *sin |
| bathe/swim | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kiN- | *kin- |
| rib(s) | *ɾiN | *ɾiN | *ɾiN | *ɾiN | *rin | |
| twist rope | *ɾiN- | *ɾiN- | *ɾiN- | *rin- | ||
| call/sing | *ɾiC- | *ɾi- | *ɾiC- | *ɾi- | *rik- | |
| think/know | *ɸiN-mi- | *ɸimi- | *ɸimi– | *ɸim[i]- | *fimi- | |
| high/above | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siri |
| black | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *siɾi | *sere/*siri *tere/*tiri |
| morning | *mimiN | *mimi | *mimiN | *mimiN | *mimin | |
| thigh | *midiN | *midi | *midi[N] | *midiN | *midi(n) | |
| sand | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *giɾiN | *geren/*girin | |
| tail | *minu | *minu | — | |||
| swallow | *miko̝N- | *miko̝N- | *mikuN- | *m[i]kuN- | *mikun- | |
| gather | *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N- | *gigi-ko̝N- | *gigi[jɔ] kuN- | *gigio kun- | ||
| wind | *kiɸɛⁱ | *kiɸi | *k[i]ɸi | *kiɸi | *kɛɸi (?) | *kifi |
| foot/leg | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kito |
| garden | *gijɔN | *gij[ɛ/a] | *gijɔN | *gijɔN | *giɔn | |
| mucus | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *sin-ifo | |
| forehead | *mika | *mika | *mika | — | ||
| torch | *sija | *sija | *sija | *sija | *sia | |
| go out (of fire) | *buniC- | *buni- | *bun[u]C- | *buni- | *bünik- | |
| earthquake | *e̝ɾiɾi | *e̝ɾiɾi | *iɾ[ɛ]ɾi | *iɾiɾi | *yeriri | |
| gall/bile | *[e̝/ɛ]tim[o̝/u]N | *[e̝/ɛ]timu (?) | *[i]simu (?) | *[i]timuN | *etumün *etimun |
|
| one | *e̝sijɔ | *e̝sijɔ | *isijɔ | *isijɜ | — | |
| sour | *tɔᵘŋgi | — | ||||
| knee/elbow | *bɔkiN | *bɔkiN | *bɔki[N] | *bɔkiN | *bün/*bun | |
| scabies/tinea | *j[a/ɔ]miN | *j[ɔ]miN | *j[a]miN | *yɔmin | ||
| die (pl.) | *xɔsV[ŋ]gi- | *xɔs[i]gi- | *xɔs[a]ŋgi- | — | ||
| fence | *xaⁱti | *x[aⁱ]ti | *xaⁱti | *xaⁱti | **xaiti | |
| mother's mother | *api | *api | *api | — | ||
| older sister | *ani | *ani | *ani | *ani | *ɛni/*ni/*nɛni | |
| spear | *xati | *x[a]ti | *xasi | *xati | *xati | |
| fence/wall | *xaɾi | *xɛɾi | *xaɾi | *xaɾi | — | |
| snake | *wati | *wɛti | *wVti | *wisi | *wati | *wati/*witi |
| bamboo knife | *waki | *waki | *wɔki | *waki | — | |
| war | *waki | *wɛki | *waki | **wæki | ||
| sneeze (n.) | *asiN | *si | *asiN | *asiN | *asin | |
| night | *wamiN | *wɔmiN | — | |||
| male | *baxtiN | *baxti[N] | *batiN | *basiN | *b[a]tiN | *baxtin |
…
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *[ʉ] | *i | *ʉ | *ʉ | *ʉ | *ü | |
| heart | *d[ʉ]b-ɾɔ | *dibɔ | *d[i/ʉ]bɾɔ | *dʉb[u]ɾɔ | *dübro | |
| young man | *s[ʉ]baN | *sib[a]N | *s[ʉ]baN | *sʉbaN | *sʉbaN | *süban |
High back rounded vowel /*u/ is generally fronted to [*ʉ] in both Central and West Awyu:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *u | *u | *… | *ʉ | *ʉ | *ü | |
| neck | *mu | *mu | *mʉ | *m[ʉ] | *mü | |
| back | *mu | *mu | *mʉ | *mü | ||
| stab/kill (fut.) | *ɸu- | *… | *ɸʉ- | — | ||
| urinate | *tu- | *tu- | *tʉ- | *tü- | ||
| banana | *tu | *tu | *tʉ | *sʉ | *tʉ | *tü |
| cook/burn | *du- | *dʉ- | *dʉ- | — | ||
| stab/kill | *wu– | *wu- | *… | *wʉ- | *wʉ- | *wü-/*wu- |
| knee/elbow | *buN | *buN | *bʉN | *buN | *bün/*bun | |
| navel | *guN | *gu | *gʉN | *g[ʉ]N | *gün | |
| brain | *guN | *gu | *gʉN | *g[ʉ]N | *gün | |
| boil (n.) | *ɾuN | *ɾuN | *ɾʉN | *ɾʉN | *rün | |
| chop down | *ɾuC- | *ɾu- | *ɾʉC- | *ɾʉ- | *rük- | |
| go out (of fire) | *buniC- | *buni- | *bun[u]C- | *buni- | *bünik- | |
| island | *dub[i/e̝] | *dʉbi | *d[ʉ]bi | *dübe/*dübi | ||
| egg | *mugɔ | *mugɔ | *mʉgɔ | *mugɔ | *mügo | |
| tail | *minu | *minu | — | |||
| night/dark | *as[ij]u | *as[ij]u | *asʉ | *asʉ | *asʉ | *asü |
| village | *b[o̝/u]tu | *b[o̝/u]tu | *… | *bʉsʉ | *b[ʉ/u]sʉ | — |
| worm | *wɛɾu | *wɛɾu | *… | *wɛɾʉ | *wɛɾʉ | — |
| tail | *wɔbu | *wɔbu | *wɔbu | *wɔbʉ | *wɔbʉ | *wobu |
| testicle(s) | *wɔbu-ɾɔ | *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ | *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ | *wobü-ro | ||
| body | *adu | *adu | *adʉ | *adü/*adu | ||
| dream | *axtu | *axatu | *asʉ | — | ||
| stomach | *madu | *mɔdu | *m[a]du | *madʉ | *madʉ | *modü |
| old (thing) | *patu | *patu | *pasʉ | *patʉ | — | |
| son | *amut | *amut | *[a]mʉ | *[a]mʉ | **amu | |
| break/split (tr.) | *axaɸuN- | *axaɸuN- | *axaɸʉN- | *axaɸʉN- | *axafün- |
When preceded by voicless velar stop /*k/, /*u/ is fronted in Central Awyu but not in West Awyu:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *u/k_ | *u | *u | *ʉ | *u | *ü *u | |
| dig | *ku- | *ku- | *ku- | *kʉ- | *ku- | *küox- |
| sugarcane | *kuN | *kuN | *kʉN | *kuN | *kün | |
| die (sg.) | *kuN- | *kuN- | *kuN- | *kʉN- | *kuN- | *kün- |
| goura pigeon | *kutɛ | *kʉtɛ | *kutɛ | *(ü)kütɛ | ||
| younger sibling | *kudɜ | *kuda | *kudɜ | *kʉda | *kudɜ | *küda |
| smoke | *aku | *ɔku | *aku | *[a]k[ʉ] | *aku | *aku/*üku |
| belly | *kaku | *kɔku | *kakʉ | *kaku | *kɔkü |
…
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *… | *u (?) | *o̝ | *u | *u | *u | |
| louse | *[aŋ]gV | *gu (?) | *[aŋ]go̝ | *aŋgu | *aŋgu | *angu |
| *[o̝/u] (?) | *u (?) | ? | *u | *u | *ü/*u | |
| gall/bile | *[e̝/ɛ]tim[o̝/u]N | *[e̝/ɛ]timu (?) | *[i]simu (?) | *[i]timuN | *etumün *etimun |
|
| … | *u | *u | *u (?) | *u (?) | *u | |
| inside | *wɔm… | *wɔmu | *wɔmu | *wɔm[u] | *wɔm[u] | *womu |
High mid front vowel /*e̝/ is raised and merged with the reflexes of high front /*i/ in Central and West Awyu:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *e̝ | *e̝ | *e̝ | *i | *i | *e | |
| areca nut | *te̝ | *te̝ | *te̝(te̝) | — | ||
| become (fut.) | *-nde̝- | *-ndi- | — | |||
| spine | *se̝ | *se̝ | *si | *se | ||
| lie down | *ɾe̝- | *ɾe̝- | *ɾ[e̝]- | *ɾi- | *ɾi- | *reg- |
| chest | *be̝N | *biN | — | |||
| be/become | *-ne̝C- | *-ne̝- | *-niC- | *-ni- | *-nek-/*-nik- | |
| ankle | *ke̝N | *ke̝nɔ-bɔge̝ | *kiN | *kin | ||
| tear(s) | *ke̝n- | *ke̝n-ɔx | *kin-ɔxɔ | *kin-ɜjɜ | *ken-ox | |
| be | *ke̝C- | *ke̝- | *kiC- | *ki- | *ke- | |
| flower | *ke̝t | *ke̝t | *ki | *ki | *ket | |
| long | *pe̝ɾe̝ | *pe̝ɾe̝ | *pe̝ɾe̝ | *piɾi | *piɾi | *pere |
| rainbow | *e̝ɾe̝N | *iɾiN | — | |||
| rope | *ke̝ke̝N | *kikiN | *kikiN | *keken/*kikin | ||
| side | *ke̝N-ke̝N | *ke̝ŋge̝ | *kikiN | — | ||
| earthquake | *e̝ɾiɾi | *e̝ɾiɾi | *iɾ[ɛ]ɾi | *iɾiɾi | *yeriri | |
| one | *e̝sijɔ | *e̝sijɔ | *isijɔ | *isijɜ | — | |
| see | *ɸe̝tɛ- | *ɸe̝tɛ- | *ɸe̝t[ɛ]- | *ɸit[ɛ]- | *ɸit[ɛ]- | **fɛtɛox- |
| bamboo | *ɸe̝-ɔ | *ɸe̝jɔ | *ɸijɔ | *ɸijɔ | — | |
| marsupial | *ke̝sɔ | *ke̝sɔ | *… | *kisɔ | *kisɔ | *kiso/*kuso |
| eye | *ke̝ɾɔ | *ke̝ɾɔ | *k[e̝]ɾɔ | *kiɾɔ | *kiɾɔ | *kero |
| tear(s) | *ke̝n-ɔxɔ | *ke̝n-ɔx | *kin-ɔxɔ | *ken-ox | ||
| ashes | *se̝na | *se̝na | *sina | *sena | ||
| nape | *go̝be̝N | *gubiN | — | |||
| penis | *t[e̝/ɛ]ge̝ | *te̝ge̝ | *s[ɛ]gi | *tigi | *tege | |
| leech | *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N | *t[ɛ]se̝ | *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N | *s[i]siN | *tiɾiN | *tese |
| sharp | *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N | *k[e̝]te̝ | *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N | *k[i/ɛ]siN | *k[i/ɛ]tiN | *kesen/*keten *kisin/*kitin |
| snap (intr.) | *gɛ-ne̝C- | *gɛne̝- | *gɛniC- | *gɛni- | *gɛne- | |
| afraid | *mɔke̝ | *mɔke̝ | *mɔke̝ | *mɔki | *mɔki | — |
| tail of bird | *ɔte̝-ɾɔN | *ɔt[ɔ]ɾɔ | *ɔsiɾ[ɔN] | *ɔtiɾɔN | **o=tirɔ(n) | |
| flying fox | *xɔŋge̝ | *xɔŋge̝ | *xɔŋgi | *xɔŋgi | *xonge | |
| bone | *b[a/ɔ]ge̝ | *bɔge̝ | *b[a/ɔ]g[e̝] | *b[ɛ]gi | *bagi | *bɔge |
| eat (future) | *a[n]de̝- | *ade̝- | *ade̝- | *a[n]di[N]- | *a[n]di- | — |
| tooth | *taɾe̝ | *taɾe̝ | *taɾe̝ | — | ||
| paddle (n.) | *kaxʷe̝ | *kaɸe̝ | *kaɸe̝ | *kaxʷi | *kaxʷi | *kafe/*kɛfe |
| saliva/spittle | *xate̝ | *xate̝ | *xasi | *xate | ||
| good | *jaɸe̝ | *jaɸi | — | |||
| lime | *xame̝[N] | *xame̝ | *xame̝ | *xami | — | |
| friend | *xabe̝N | *xabe̝ | *xabe̝N | *xabiN | — | |
| sweat (n.) | *kʷate̝N | *ko̝te̝ | *kasiN | *kasiN | *kɔten | |
| young woman | *ame̝ge̝ | *amigi | *amigi | *amgi |
When /*e̝/ is preceded by palatal glide /*j/, it is raised and merged with high front /*i/ everywhere but Southeast Awyu:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *e̝/j_ | *i | *e̝ | *i | *i | *i | |
| bird | *je̝ | *ji | *j[e̝] | *ji | *ji | *yi |
| tree/firewood | *je̝N | *jiN | *je̝N | *jiN | *jiN | *yin |
In one example …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| * | * | * | * | * | *e | |
| hand/arm | *b[e̝]d[ɔ] | *be̝d[ɜ/ɔ] | *b[ɛ]d[ɔ] | *bɛdɔ | *bidɜ | **bedo |
Due to the merger described above, it's not possible to distinguish high mid front /*e̝/ from high front /*i/ where attestations are found in only Central Awyu and West Awyu and there is no outcomparison:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *[i/e̝] | *i | *i | *e/*i | |||
| moon | *b[i/e̝]d[i/e̝]N | *bidiN | *bidiN | *beden/*bidin | ||
| island | *dub[i/e̝] | *dʉbi | *d[ʉ]bi | *dübe/*dübi | ||
| be enough | *xaɾe̝-ne̝C- | *xaɾi-niC- | *xaɾi-ni- | xare nek- xari nik- |
High mid back rounded vowel /*o̝/ is raised to high back /*u/ in Central and West Awyu:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *o̝ | *o̝ | *o̝ | *u | *u | *u | |
| all | *mo̝ | *mo̝- | *-mu | — | ||
| heel | *bo̝ | *bo̝ | *bu | *bu | ||
| 1 sg. | *no̝ | *no̝ | *no̝ | *nu | *nu | *nu |
| do/make (imp.) | *-no̝ | *-no̝ | *-no̝ | *-nu | *-nu | — |
| corpse | *to̝ | - | *tu | — | ||
| and/also | *-ko̝ | *-ko̝ | *-ku | — | ||
| 2 sg. | *go̝ | *go̝ | *go̝ | *gu | *gu | *gu |
| husband | *xo̝ | *xo̝ | *xu | *xu | — | |
| not want | *mo̝N- | *mo̝N- | *muN- | *mun- | ||
| wash | *ko̝N- | *ko̝N- | *ko̝N- | *kuN- | *kuN- | *kun- |
| plant (v.) | *ko̝N- | *ko̝N- | *kuN- | *kun- | ||
| milk | *xo̝N | *xo̝N | *xu[N] | *xu[N] | *xu | |
| black | *bo̝xo̝N | *b[o̝]x[o̝] | — | |||
| fly (v.) | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *bo̝ɾo̝N- | *buɾuN- | *buɾuN- | *burun- |
| ear | *to̝ɾo̝N | *to̝ɾo̝ | *to̝ɾo̝N | *suɾuN | *tuɾuN | *turun |
| sleep (n.) | *ko̝no̝N | *ko̝no̝N | *ko̝no̝N | *kunuN | *kunuN | *kunun |
| nape | *go̝be̝N | *gubiN | — | |||
| elbow | *mo̝[wɔ] | *mo̝wɔ | *mu | — | ||
| hide | *(a-)to̝ɾo̝-mɔ- | *(a-)to̝ɾo̝mɔ- | *atuɾumɔ- | *aturumo- | ||
| slow | *so̝ko̝m[a/ɔ]N | *so̝ko̝m[ɔ] | *sukum[a]N | *sukumɔn | ||
| swallow | *miko̝N- | *miko̝N- | *mikuN- | *m[i]kuN | *mikun- | |
| gather | *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N- | *gigi-ko̝N- | *gigi[jɔ] kuN- | *gigio kun- | ||
| 1 pl. | *n[o̝/u]go̝ | *no̝go̝ | *no̝go̝ | *nʉgu | *nugu | *nügu/*nugu |
| 2 pl. | *g[o̝/u]go̝ | *go̝go̝ | *go̝go̝ | *gʉgu | *g[ɔ]g[ʉ] | *gügu/*gugu |
| carry | *kɛko̝N- | *kɛko̝N- | *kɛkuN- | *kɛkuN- | *kɛkun- | |
| rattan/rope | *jɔxo̝ | *jɔx[o̝] | *j[o̝]xo̝ | *jɔxu | *jɔxu | — |
| daughter | *[ɔ]to̝b-ɾaN | *[ɔ]to̝b-ɾa | *sub-ɾaN | *tub-ɾaN | *tub®an | |
| two | *ɔkɾo̝maN | *ɔko̝ma | *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma | *… | *kɔɾumaN | **okrumɔ(n) |
| moon | *kamo̝ | *kamo̝ | *kamo̝ | *kamu | — | |
| stone axe | *xabo̝ | *xabo̝ | *xabu | *xabu | *xabu | |
| husband | *xaxo̝ | *xaxo̝ | *xɔxu | — | ||
| flesh | *kʷado̝ | *kɔdɔ | *ko̝do̝ | *kadu | *kadu | *kɔdu |
| go up | *a-to̝C- | *ɔto̝- | *asuC- | *tu- | *otuk- | |
| seek | *ago̝C- | *aguC- | *agu- | *agok- | ||
| get up/stand up | *mato̝C- | *m[a]to̝- | *mat[u]- | — | ||
| chin/jaw | *gando̝N | *gando̝ | — | |||
| crocodile | *nagaɾo̝ | *nagaɾu | — | |||
| crocodile | *xajambo̝ | *xajambo̝ | *xajambu | *xajambu | *xayambu |
When followed by final velar fricative /*x/, high mid back rounded /*o̝/ is lowered to low mid /*ɔ/ in South Awyu :
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *o̝ | *ɔ | *o̝ | *u | *o/*u | ||
| hair | *mo̝x | *mɔx | *m[o̝] | *mu | *mox/*mux | |
| voice/speech | *ɾo̝x | *ɾɔx | *ɾ[o̝] | *ɾu | *ɾu | *rux |
In one example, …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| * | ||||||
| nipple/larynx | *t[e̝]b[ɔ] (?) | *t[ɛ/ɔ]bɔ (?) | *sɔb[ɔ/u] (?) | *sub[ɔ/u] | *tubo/*tubu |
Low mid front vowel /*ɛ/ is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *ɛ | *ɛ | *ɛ | *ɛ | *ɛ | *ɛ | |
| 3 sg. | *ɛ | *ɛ- | *ɛ- | *ɛ- | *ɛ- | *ɛ- |
| tendon | *mɛ | *mɛ | *mɛ | *mɛ | ||
| this/here | *nɛ | *nɛ- | *nɛ | *nɛ- | *nɛ- | *nɛ |
| not | *dɛ | *dɛ | *dɛ | *dɛ | — | |
| pinkie/nail | *sɛ | *sɛ | *-sɛ | *-sɛ | *se | |
| eat | *ɛN- | *ɛN- | *ɛN- | *ɛn- | ||
| stand | *ɛC- | *ɛ- | *ɛC- | *ɛk- | ||
| widower | *sɛN | *sɛ | *sɛN | *sɛN | *sɛn | |
| chin | *tɛɾɛ | *tɛɾɛ | *tɛɾɛ | *tɛɾɛ | ||
| snap (tr.) | *gɛ-mɛ- | *-gɛmɛ- | *-gɛmɛ- | *-gɛm[ɛ]- | *gɛme-/*gɛmo- | |
| worm | *wɛɾu | *wɛɾu | *… | *wɛɾʉ | *wɛɾʉ | — |
| snap (intr.) | *gɛ-ne̝C- | *gɛne̝- | *gɛniC- | *gɛni- | *gɛne- | |
| carry | *kɛko̝N- | *kɛko̝N- | *kɛkuN- | *kɛkuN- | *kɛkun- | |
| sore/wound | *pɛsɔ | *pɛsɔ | *pɛsɔ | *pɛso | ||
| this/here | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ-gɔ |
| goura pigeon | *kutɛ | *kʉtɛ | *kutɛ | *(ü)kütɛ | ||
| see | *ɸe̝tɛ- | *ɸe̝tɛ- | *ɸe̝t[ɛ]- | *ɸit[ɛ]- | *ɸit[ɛ]- | **fɛtɛox- |
| tongue | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *fagɛ |
| drumming | *xaxɸɛ | *xaxɸɛ | *xa[x]ɸɛ | *xaxfɛ | ||
| laughter | *abɛN | *abV | *abV | *ab[ɛN] | *ab[VN] | *ab(ɛ) |
…
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *… | *e | |||||
| penis | *t[e̝/ɛ]ge̝ | *te̝ge̝ | *s[ɛ]gi | *tigi | *tege | |
| leech | *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N | *t[ɛ]se̝ | *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N | *s[i]siN | *tiɾiN | *tese |
| sharp | *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N | *k[e̝]te̝ | *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N | *k[i/ɛ]siN | *k[i/ɛ]tiN | *kesen/*keten *kisin/*kitin |
| bad/evil | *k[e̝/ɛ]jɔN | *k[i]j[ɛ/a] | *k[i]jɔN | *k[i/ɛ]jɔN | *k[i/ɛ]jɔN | — |
Low mid central vowel /*ɜ/…
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *ɜ | *a | *ɜ | *a | *ɜ | *æ *a | |
| butterfly | *apɜ(-ɾɔ) | *apa | *ap[a]ɾɔ | *apɜɾɔ | *aprɔ | |
| come | *dɜ- | *dɜ- | *da- | *dɜ- | *dæx- | |
| left/lame | *wɜ | *wa | *wɜ | *wa | *wɜ | — |
| love/desire | *jɜ | *ja | *jɜ | **ya *yæ | ||
| water spirit | *ɜjɜ | *aja | *ɜjɜ | *ɜjɜ | — | |
| coconut | *pɜjɔ | *pajɔ | *p[ɜ]jɔ | *pajɔ | *pɜjɔ | *pæyo |
| face | *kɜtɔ | *katɔ | *kɜtɔ | — | ||
| younger sibling | *kudɜ | *kuda | *kudɜ | *kʉda | *kudɜ | *küda |
| sun | *sawɜ | *s[a]wɜ | *sawa | *sawɜ | *sɔwɔ |
Low mid back rounded vowel /*ɔ/ is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | *o | |
| behind | *mɔ | *mɔ | *mɔ | *mɔ | *mɔ | — |
| do/make | *-mɔ- | *-mɔ- | *-mɔ- | *-mɔ- | *-mɔ- | *-mo- |
| father | *bɔ | *bɔ | *bɔ | — | ||
| hole | *tɔ | *tɔ | *tɔ | *tɔ | *tɔ | *to |
| burn (intr.) | *dɔ- | *dɔ- | *dɔ- | *dɔ- | *dɔ- | — |
| dry | *sɔ | *sɔ | *sɔ | *sɔ | *so | |
| over there | *xɔ | *xɔ- | *xɔ- | *xɔ | — | |
| man | *xɔ | *xɔ | *xɔ | *xɔ | *xɔ | *xo |
| walk/go | *xɔ- | *xɔ- | *xɔ- | *xɔ- | *xɔ- | *xox- |
| fruit/seed | *ɾɔ | *ɾɔ | *ɾɔ | *ɾɔ | *ɾɔ | *ro |
| breast | *ɔN | *ɔN | *ɔN | *ɔN | *ɔN | *om |
| excrement | *ɔɾ | *ɔɾ | *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | *r |
| nail | *dɔx | *dɔx | *dɔx | *dɔx- | — | |
| blood | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gɔN | *gon |
| hair/leaf/feather | *ɾɔN | *ɾɔN | *ɾɔN | *ɾɔN | *ron | |
| weep/cry | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ɾɔN- | *ron- |
| say/speak | *ɾɔ[x]- | *ɾɔxɔ | *ɾɔ | *ɾɔ | *rox- | |
| copulate | *jɔN– | *jɔN- | *jɔN- | *jɔN- | *yon- | |
| water | *ɔxɔ | *ɔxɔ | *ɔxɔ | *ɔxɔ | *ɔx | |
| bird of paradise | *ɸɔdɔ | *ɸɔdɔ | — | |||
| earth/ground | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *sɔxɔ | *soxo |
| 3 pl. | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *yoxo |
| cheek | *mɔxɔN | *mɔxɔN | *mɔxɔ[N] | *mɔxɔN | *moxo(n) | |
| armpit | *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN | *tɔgɔ | *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN | *tɔgɔN | *togon/*toxon *tongon |
|
| /toe | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔ | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔN | *tɔɾɔN | *toron |
| stink | *ɸɔxɔ-mɔ- | *ɸɔxɔmɔ- | *ɸɔxɔmɔ- | *foxomo- | ||
| knee/elbow | *bɔkiN | *bɔkiN | *bɔki[N] | *bɔkiN | *bün/*bun | |
| die (pl.) | *xɔsV[ŋ]gi- | *xɔs[i]gi- | *xɔs[a]ŋgi- | — | ||
| shiver | *bɔbVN- | *bɔbɔN- | *bɔbiN- | *bobin-/*bobon- | ||
| heavy | *bɔd[ʉ/u] | *bɔd[i/u] | *bɔdʉ | *bodü | ||
| inside | *wɔm[u] | *wɔmu | *wɔmu | *wɔmu | *wɔmu | *womu |
| tail | *wɔbu | *wɔbu | *wɔbu | *wɔbʉ | *wɔbʉ | *wobu |
| testicle(s) | *wɔbu-ɾɔ | *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ | *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ | *wobü-ro | ||
| afraid | *mɔke̝ | *mɔke̝ | *mɔke̝ | *mɔki | *mɔki | — |
| flying fox | *xɔŋge̝ | *xɔŋge̝ | *xɔŋgi | *xɔŋgi | *xonge | |
| tail of bird | *ɔte̝-ɾɔN | *ɔt[ɔ]ɾɔ | *ɔsiɾ[ɔN] | *ɔtiɾɔN | **o=tirɔ(n) | |
| rattan/rope | *jɔxo̝ | *jɔx[o̝] | *j[o̝]xo̝ | *jɔxu | *jɔxu | — |
| go (imperative) | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | — |
| ghost | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xoxoi | |
| foot/leg | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kitɔ | *kito |
| mucus | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *siniɸɔ | *sin-ifo | |
| egg | *mugɔ | *mugɔ | *mʉgɔ | *mugɔ | *mügo | |
| bamboo | *ɸe̝-ɔ | *ɸe̝jɔ | *ɸijɔ | *ɸijɔ | — | |
| marsupial | *ke̝sɔ | *ke̝sɔ | *… | *kisɔ | *kisɔ | *kiso/*kuso |
| eye | *ke̝ɾɔ | *ke̝ɾɔ | *k[e̝]ɾɔ | *kiɾɔ | *kiɾɔ | *kero |
| stone | *ɛⁱɾɔ | *iɾɔ | *iɾɔ | *iɾɔ | *ɛⁱɾɔ | *ero/*iro |
| sore/wound | *pɛsɔ | *pɛsɔ | *pɛsɔ | *pɛso | ||
| this/here | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ-gɔ | *nɛ-gɔ |
| coconut | *pɜjɔ | *pajɔ | *p[ɜ]jɔ | *pajɔ | *pɜjɔ | *pæyo |
| face | *kɜtɔ | *katɔ | *kɜtɔ | — | ||
| butterfly | *apɜ-ɾɔ | *ap[a]ɾɔ | *apɜɾɔ | *aprɔ | ||
| short/blunt | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bago |
| get up/stand up | *datɔ- | *datɔ- | *d[a]tɔ- | *dɔtɔ- | *dɔtɔ- | *dɔtox- |
| widow | *xamɔ | *xamɔ | *xam[ɜ] | *xam- | ||
| thumb/big toe | *wadɔ | *wɔdɔ | *wadɔ | *wɔdo | ||
| older brother | *jaxɔ | *jaxɔ | *jaxɔ | *j[a]xɔ | **yaxo | |
| red | *kaŋgɔN | *kaŋgɔ | *kaŋg[o̝] | *kaŋgɔN | *kaŋgɔN | *kango(n) |
| breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔt | *j[ɔ]w[ɔ]t | *jaw[ɔ]t | *jawɔ[N] (?) | *[ɾ/j]awɔ | *yɔwɔt |
| thorn | *jam[ɔ]xɔN | *jɔmɔ | *jamɔxɔN | *jɔmɔxɔN | *jamɔxɔN | *yɔmo |
| lie (n.) | *jaxamɔ | *jaxamɔ | *jaxam[ɔ] | — | ||
| break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | *waxarmo- |
When low mid back rounded /*ɔ/ is followed by low central /*a/ in the next syllable, …. The originality of /*ɔ/ is supported by outcomparison to Wambon, as well as by the probable derivation of /*xɔman/ “far” from the distal demonstrative /*xɔ/ “over there”:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *ɔ/_Ca | *ɔ | *a | *ɔ *a | *ɔ *a | *a/*o | |
| spirit/soul | *bɔna | *bɔna | *bɔna | *b[a]na | *bɔna | |
| earth/below | *mɔkaN | *mɔkaN | *makaN | *m[ɔ/a]kaN | *mɔkaN | *makan/*mokan |
| incorrect | *gɔbaN | *gɔba | — | |||
| forget | *gɔbaN- | *gɔbaN- | — | |||
| far | *xɔmaN | *xamaN | *x[a]maN | — |
Two examples …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *ɔ/CVj_ | *[ɛ/a] | *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | |
| garden | *gijɔN | *gij[ɛ/a] | *gijɔN | *gijɔN | *giɔn | |
| bad/evil | *k[e̝/ɛ]jɔN | *k[i]j[ɛ/a] | *k[i]jɔN | *k[i/ɛ]jɔN | *k[i/ɛ]jɔN | — |
One seeming counterexample is historically a compound; cf. Wambon /*pe̝k-ɔp/:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | — | |
| bamboo | *ɸe̝-ɔ | *ɸe̝jɔ | *ɸijɔ | *ɸijɔ | — |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *ɔ/CVj_ | *ɔ | *ɜ | *ɔ | *a | *ɔ | |
| white | *xajɔ | *xajɔ | *xajɜ | *xajɔ | *xaja | *xayɔ |
Auxilliary /*-mɔ-/ …:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *-mɔ-/i_ | *mi- | |||||
| think/know | *ɸiN-mi- | *ɸimi- | *ɸimi- | *ɸim[i]- | *fimi– | |
| *-mɔ-/ɛ_ | *me-/*mo- | |||||
| snap (tr.) | *gɛ-mɛ- | *-gɛmɛ- | *-gɛmɛ- | *-gɛm[ɛ]- | *gɛme-/*gɛmo- | |
| *-mɔ-/o̝_ | *mo- | |||||
| hide | *(a-)to̝ɾo̝-mɔ- | *(a-)to̝ɾo̝mɔ- | *atuɾumɔ- | *aturumo- | ||
| *-mɔ-/ɔ_ | *mo- | |||||
| stink | *ɸɔxɔ-mɔ- | *ɸɔxɔmɔ- | *ɸɔxɔmɔ- | *foxomo- | ||
| *-mɔ-/a_ | *mo- | |||||
| break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | *waxarmo- |
Low central vowel /*a/ is generally retained as such in all subgroups:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *a | *a | *a | *a | *a | *a *aa | |
| rain | *a | *a | *a | *a | *a | *aa |
| nest | *a | *a | *a | *a | *aa | |
| cooked | *ma | *ma | *ma | *ma | ||
| sit | *ba- | *ba- | *ba- | *ba- | *ba- | *bæx- |
| not | *ɸa | *ɸa | *ɸa | — | ||
| 1 sg. poss. | *na | *na | *na (?) | *na | *na | *na |
| eat (imperative) | *na | *na | *na[N] | *na | — | |
| 2 sg. poss. | *ga | *ga | *ga | *ga | *ga | |
| skin/bark | *xa | *xa | *xa | *xa | *xa | *xa |
| 3 sg. poss. | *wa | *wa | *wa (?) | *wa | *wa | *wa |
| take/hold | *ɾa- | *ɾa- | *ɾa- | *ɾa- | *ræx- | |
| salt | *daN- | *da | *daN | *daN- | — | |
| hear | *daC- | *da- | *da- | *daC- | *da- | *dak- |
| woman/wife | *ɾaN | *ɾa | *ɾaN | *ɾaN | *ɾaN | *ran |
| centipede | *xax | *xax | *xa | *xa | *xax | |
| leaf | *ana | *ana | *ana | — | ||
| correct/true | *aga | *aga | *aga-ni- | — | ||
| light/bright | *[a]ɾa | *aɾa | — | |||
| teeth | *maga | *maga | *maga | *maga | *maga | *maga |
| excrement | *pax[a] | *pax[a] | *pax[a] | *pax[a] | *paxa | |
| hot | *apat | *apat | *apat | *apa | *apa | *apat |
| knowledge | *n[a]ɸaN | *naɸa | *n[a]ɸaN | *naɸaN | *naɸaN | — |
| tired/crippled | *taxaN | *taxa | *taxaN | *taxaN | *taxan | |
| in front | *samaN | *samaN | *samaN | *samaN | — | |
| palate | *xanaN | *xa[na]N | — | |||
| far | *xaxaN | *xaxa | *xaxaN | — | ||
| ripe/yellow | *waxamaN | *waxama | *waxamaN | *waxaman | ||
| mother's mother | *api | *api | *api | — | ||
| older sister | *ani | *ani | *ani | *ani | *ɛni/*ni/*nɛni | |
| dog | *aŋg[i] | *aŋg[i] | *aŋg[i] | *aŋgi | *aŋgi | *(y)ange *(y)angi |
| spear | *xati | *x[a]ti | *xasi | *xati | *xati | |
| bite | *at[i]C- | *ati- | *ati- | *asiC- | *asu- | *atik- |
| sneeze (n.) | *asiN | *si | *asiN | *asiN | *asin | |
| male | *baxtiN | *baxti[N] | *batiN | *basiN | *b[a]tiN | *baxtin |
| night/dark | *as[ij]u | *as[ij]u | *asʉ | *asʉ | *asʉ | *asü |
| body | *adu | *adu | *adʉ | *adü/*adu | ||
| beard | *matu | *masʉ | *mas[i] | *masi/*mati *masü/*matü |
||
| old (thing) | *patu | *patu | *pasʉ | *patʉ | — | |
| dream | *axtu | *axatu | *asʉ | — | ||
| son | *amut | *amut | *[a]mʉ | *[a]mʉ | **amu | |
| canoe | *jaxʷuN | *j[a]ɸ[u]N | *jaxʷʉN | *jaxʷʉN | *yɔfün | |
| break/split (tr.) | *axaɸuN- | *axaɸuN- | *axaɸʉN- | *axaɸʉN- | *axafün- | |
| eat (future) | *a[n]de̝- | *ade̝- | *ade̝- | *a[n]di[N]- | *a[n]di- | — |
| tooth | *taɾe̝ | *taɾe̝ | *taɾe̝ | — | ||
| paddle (n.) | *kaxʷe̝ | *kamake̝ | *kaɸe̝ | *kaxʷi | *kaxʷi | *kafe/*kɛfe |
| saliva/spittle | *xate̝ | *xate̝ | *xasi | *xate | ||
| good | *jaɸe̝ | *jaɸi | — | |||
| lime | *xame̝[N] | *xame̝ | *xame̝ | *xami | — | |
| friend | *xabe̝N | *xabe̝ | *xabe̝N | *xabiN | — | |
| be cooked | *pax-ne̝C- | *pax[a]-ne̝C- | *pa[x]-niC- | *paxnek-/*paxnik- | ||
| young woman | *ame̝ge̝ | *amigi | *amigi | *amgi | ||
| be enough | *xaɾe̝-ne̝C- | *xaɾi-niC- | *xaɾi-ni- | xare nek- xari nik- |
||
| louse | *[aŋ]gV | *gu | *[aŋ]go̝ | *aŋgu | *aŋgu | *angu |
| moon | *kamo̝ | *kamo̝ | *kamo̝ | *kamu | — | |
| stone axe | *xabo̝ | *xabo̝ | *xabu | *xabu | *xabu | |
| husband | *xaxo̝ | *xaxo̝ | *xɔxu | — | ||
| seek | *ago̝C- | *aguC- | *agu- | *agok- | ||
| get up/stand up | *mato̝C- | *m[a]to̝- | *mat[u]- | — | ||
| chin/jaw | *gando̝N | *gando̝ | — | |||
| crocodile | *nagaɾo̝ | *nagaɾu | — | |||
| crocodile | *xajambo̝ | *xajambo̝ | *xajambu | *xajambu | *xayambu | |
| tongue | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *ɸagɛ | *fagɛ |
| drumming | *xaxɸɛ | *xaxɸɛ | *xa[x]ɸɛ | *xaxfɛ | ||
| laughter | *abɛN | *abV | *abV | *ab[ɛN] | *ab[VN] | *ab(ɛ) |
| mouth | *xat[ɛ/ɜ] | *xatɛ-tɔ | *xatɜ | *xatɔ | *xatɜ | *xatɛ |
| butterfly | *apɜ(-ɾɔ) | *apa | *ap[a]ɾɔ | *apɜɾɔ | *aprɔ | |
| sun | *sawɜ | *s[a]wɜ | *sawa | *sawɜ | *sɔwɔ | |
| vagina | *a-tɔ | *a-tɔ | *a-tɔ | *a-tɔ | *aato(p) | |
| short/blunt | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bagɔ | *bago |
| widow | *xamɔ | *xamɔ | *xam[ɜ] | *xam- | ||
| white | *xajɔ | *xajɔ | *xajɜ | *xajɔ | *xaja | *xayɔ |
| older brother | *jaxɔ | *jaxɔ | *jaxɔ | *j[a]xɔ | **yaxo | |
| red | *kaŋgɔN | *kaŋgɔ | *kaŋg[o̝] | *kaŋgɔN | *kaŋgɔN | *kango(n) |
| breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔt | *j[ɔ]w[ɔ]t | *jaw[ɔ]t | *jawɔ[N] (?) | *[ɾ/j]awɔ | *yɔwɔt |
| lie (n.) | *jaxamɔ | *jaxamɔ | *jaxam[ɔ] | — | ||
| break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ-mɔ- | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | *waxarmo- | ||
| tie | *ad[awɔ]C- | *adɔ- | *adV- | *adaC- | *ad[awɔ]- | *adɔk- |
| break (intr.) | *xaɾ[ɔ]-ne̝C- | *xaɾ[a]-ni- | — | |||
| fish | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaɛ |
| alive/awake | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadaxae | ||
| forehead | *mika | *mika | *mika | — | ||
| torch | *sija | *sija | *sija | *sija | *sia | |
| young man | *s[ʉ]baN | *sib[a]N | *s[ʉ]baN | *sʉbaN | *sʉbaN | *süban |
| ashes | *se̝na | *se̝na | *sina | *sena | ||
| outside | *bVt[a]xa | *be̝taxa | *be̝t[a]x[a] | *bɛtaxa | *butaxa | **betaxa |
| dry | *kɛɾa | *kɛɾa | *k[a]ɾa | — | ||
| two | *ɔkɾo̝maN | *ɔko̝ma | *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma | *… | *kɔɾumaN | **okrumɔ(n) |
| spirit/soul | *bɔna | *bɔna | *bɔna | *b[a]na | *bɔna | |
| earth/below | *mɔkaN | *mɔkaN | *makaN | *makaN | *mɔkaN | *makan/*mokan |
| incorrect | *gɔbaN | *gɔba | — | |||
| forget | *gɔbaN- | *gɔbaN- | — | |||
| far | *xɔmaN | *xamaN | *x[a]maN | — | ||
| head | *xaⁱbaN | *xaⁱba | *xabaN | *xaⁱbaN | *xaⁱbaN | *xaiban |
When low central /*a/ is followed by high front /*i/ in the next syllable, it is typically fronted to low mid /*ɛ/ in South Awyu:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *a/_Ci | *ɛ | |||||
| fence/wall | *xaɾi | *xɛɾi | *xaɾi | *xaɾi | — | |
| snake | *wati | *wɛti | *wVti | *wisi | *wati | *wati/*witi |
| war | *waki | *wɛki | *waki | **wæki |
When low central /*a/ is followed by high back rounded /*u/ in the next syllable, it is typically backed to low mid /*ɔ/ in South Awyu:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *a/_Cu | *ɔ | *a | *a | *a | *a *ɔ *o | |
| smoke | *aku | *ɔku | *aku | *[a]k[ʉ] | *aku | *aku/*üku |
| beard | *matu | *masʉ | *mas[i] | *masi/*mati *masü/*matü |
||
| stomach | *madu | *mɔdu | *m[a]du | *madʉ | *madʉ | *modü |
| cold | *taɾ[u] | *tɔɾu | *taɾ[u] | *taɾʉ | *taɾu | *tɔrü |
| belly | *kaku | *kɔku | *kakʉ | *kaku | *kɔkü |
When low central /*a/ is preceded by initial rounded velar voiceless stop /* kʷ/ … :
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *a/kʷ_Ce̝ | *o̝ | *a | *a | *ɔ | ||
| sweat (n.) | *kʷate̝N | *ko̝te̝ | *kasiN | *kasiN | *kɔten | |
| *a/kʷ_Co̝ | *ɔ | *o̝ | *a | *a | *ɔ | |
| flesh | *kʷado̝ | *kɔdɔ | *ko̝do̝ | *kadu | *kadu | *kɔdu |
When /*a/ is preceded by initial bilabial non-stop /*w/, it is typically backed to /*ɔ/ in Central Awyu:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *a/w_ | *a | *a | *ɔ | *a | *ɔ | |
| night | *wamiN | *wɔmiN | — | |||
| thumb/big toe | *wadɔ | *wɔdɔ | *wadɔ | *wɔdo | ||
| bamboo knife | *waki | *waki | *wɔki | *waki | — |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *a/_Cɔ | *ɔ | *a | *ɔ | *a | *ɔ | |
| thorn | *jam[ɔ]xɔN | *jɔmɔ | *jamɔxɔN | *jɔmɔxɔN | *jamɔxɔN | *yɔmo |
Diphthongs /*uⁱ *ɛⁱ *ɔⁱ *aⁱ *aᵉ/ …
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *uⁱ | *uⁱ | ? | *i | *i | *ui | |
| theft | *kʷuⁱ | *kuⁱ | *ki | *ki | *kui |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *ɛⁱ | *i | *i | *i | *ɛⁱ | *i *e | |
| pig | *wɛⁱ | *wi | *wi | *wi | *wɛⁱ | *wi |
| mosquito | *ɛⁱsɜ | *is[i] | *ɛⁱsɜ | *ese/*ete *isi/*iti |
||
| stone | *ɛⁱɾɔ | *iɾɔ | *iɾɔ | *iɾɔ | *ɛⁱɾɔ | *ero/*iro |
| river | *wadɛⁱ | *w[i]di | *w[i]di | *w[i]di | *wadɛⁱ | *wadi/*widi |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *ɔⁱ | *ɔⁱ | *ɔⁱ | *ɔⁱ | *ɔⁱ | *oi | |
| go (imperative) | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | — |
| ghost | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔx[ɔⁱ] | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xɔxɔⁱ | *xoxoi |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *aⁱ | *aⁱ | *a | *aⁱ | *aⁱ | *ai | |
| give birth | *xaⁱ- | *xaⁱ- | *xaⁱ- | *xaⁱ- | *xai | |
| house | *xaⁱN | *-x[aⁱ]N | *-xaN | *x[aⁱ]N | *xaⁱN | — |
| fence | *xaⁱti | *x[aⁱ]ti | *xaⁱti | *xaⁱti | **xaiti | |
| head | *xaⁱbaN | *xaⁱba | *xabaN | *xaⁱbaN | *xaⁱbaN | *xaiban |
| wallaby | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *[sV]b[a]xaⁱ | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | *baxae/*baxai |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *aᵉ | *aᵉ | *aᵉ | *aᵉ | *aᵉ | *aɛ *ae | |
| fish | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaᵉ | *axaɛ |
| alive/awake | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadax[aᵉ] | *kadaxae |
…:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| *[ɔᵘ] | *o̝ | *u | *ʉ | *u | *ü/*u | |
| sago | *d[ɔᵘ] | *do̝ | *du | *dʉ | *du | *dü/*du |
Awyu free pronouns are reconstructed as follows:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| 1 sg. | *no̝ | *no̝ | *no̝ | *nu | *nu | *nu |
| 2 sg. | *go̝ | *go̝ | *go̝ | *gu | *gu | *gu |
| 3 sg. | *ɛ(-ge̝) | *ɛge̝, *ɛwe̝ | *ɛge̝ | *ɛ-(gi) | *ɛki | *ɛge/*ɛke |
| 1 pl. | *n[o̝/u]go̝ | *no̝go̝ | *no̝go̝ | *nʉgu | *nugu | *nügu/*nugu |
| 2 pl. | *g[o̝/u]go̝ | *go̝go̝ | *go̝go̝ | *gʉgu | *g[ɔ]g[ʉ] | *gügu/*gugu |
| 3 pl. | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *jɔxɔ | *yoxo |
West Awyu's third person singular does not quite correspond with those of the other branches; the vowels are regular but velar voicless stop /*k/ from voiced /*g/ is not. No explanation is offered here for this discrepancy.
The separability of /*ɛ/ is proven by Drabbe's Pisà possessive forms /ɛ-na ɛ-wa/, where /-na/ is the general possessive particle and /*wa/ the third person possessive prefix (below.)
Singular possessive pronouns are reconstructed as follows:
| Awyu | South | Southeast | Central | West | Healey | |
| 1 sg. poss. | *na | *na | *na (?) | *na | *na | *na |
| 2 sg. poss. | *ga | *ga | ? | *ga | *ga | *ga |
| 3 sg. poss. | *wa | *wa | *wa (?) | *wa | *wa | *wa |
[under construction]
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Words shared between Awyu and Marind, Yaqay or both include the following, with Yaqay forms drawn from Drabbe (1954: 128-142) or from Kriens and Lebold (2010: 40-53) [rk], with Wambon presented for comparison. It may be seen that the greatest influence is between Yaqay and Awyu:
| Marind | Yaqay | Awyu | Wambon | |
| canoe | *iawun | jun | *jaxʷuN | — |
| grandparent | — | aˈpi | *api | — |
| testicle(s) | *ombo | 'wamba | *wɔbu-ɾɔ | *wambu(-ɾɔp) |
| ground/low | *makan | mo'qon | *mɔkaN | — |
| hair/head | — | ˈmuku | *mo̝x | *mɵ̝k |
| coconut | — | ˈpajo | *pɜjɔ | — |
| old | — | 'pɑtu [rk] | *patu | — |
| smoke | *haku | a'ku | *aku | — |
| mosquito | *naŋgit | na:'ŋgit | *n[a]gi | — |
| crocodile | — | naŋgo | *nagaɾo̝ | — |
| salt | — | ⁿdɑn [rk] | *daN | — |
| bamboo | *suba | — | *sumb[ɛ/a] | — |
| moon | — | ka:'mo | *kamo̝ | — |
| paddle (n.) | *ka-wai-a | — | *kaxʷe̝ | — |
| widow | — | qa'moq | *xamɔ | *kamɔk |
| flying fox | — | qoŋge | *xɔŋge̝ | — |
| flesh | — | 'kɑ'doʔ [rk] | *kʷado̝ | *kandɵ̝ |
| snake | — | wɑti [rk] | *wati | *ŋgʷati |
| copulate | *jom | — | *jɔN- | — |
In several of these instances, we can upon phonological grounds be confident that Yaqay, Marind or a relative or predecessor thereof was the lender. For example, Marind-Yaqay /*h/ in “smoke” should reflect Fly River /*ɸ/, an element regularly dropped in Yaqay and likewise absent from the Awyu forms. The terms for “canoe” and “paddle (n.)” have a special phoneme /*xʷ/ thusfar identified in only these words (above.) One reflex of “canoe” in Mandobo (Wambon) /*jahun/ is mandatorily a loan from either Awyu or Marind, as Mandobo /*h/ is found only in loans. “Paddle (n.)” is a derived compound in Marind /*ka-wai-a/, /*wai/ being the Fly River term for “paddle (v.)”. /As Awyu /*p/ is uncommon and has no native source, terms for “grandparent”, “coconut” and “old” can all be presumed to be loans from Yaqay. “Flying fox”, too, is probably a loan from Yaqay, as /*ŋg/ is rare in native words.
Others can be identified as loans on distributional grounds. Attestation of /*naŋgit/ “mosquito,” for example, is near-universal in Fly River, but is not otherwise found in Digul River-Ok.
On the other hand, /*wati/ “snake” must be a loan from Awyu into Yaqay, as the Central Digul River form is /*ŋgʷati/. “Widow” (cf. Wambon /*kamɔk/) must date from a point at which intial /*k/ had already been aspirated, but final /*k/ had not yet been dropped, Drabbe's Yaqay initial <q> in native words reflecting Marind-Yaqay /*ɣ/ < Fly River /*ŋg/, not /*k/.