Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
[under construction]
The West Awyu family is comprised of two or three closely related languages spoken along and around the Wildeman and Asue Rivers and their tributaries …
The internal classification of West Awyu is as follows:
West Awyu
Wildeman River Awyu
Asue River Awyu
Miaro River Awyu
Kewet River Awyu
Kriens, Lebold and Menanti (2011: 28-29) provide lexical similarity figures between six West Awyu villages as follows:
Wildeman | Miaro | Miaro | Kewet | Kewet | Kewet | ||
Busiri | Khanami | Keru | Juvo B. | Juvo K. | Amagatsu | ||
Wildeman | Busiri | — | 67 | 65 | 58 | 55 | 54 |
Miaro | Khanami | 67 | — | 94 | 73 | 72 | 70 |
Miaro | Keru | 65 | 94 | — | 75 | 76 | 71 |
Kewet | Juvo B. | 58 | 73 | 75 | — | 82 | 71 |
Kewet | Juvo K. | 55 | 72 | 76 | 82 | — | 70 |
Kewet | Amagatsu | 54 | 70 | 71 | 71 | 70 | — |
Drabbe (1947) grammar of Pisà
Boelaars (1950: 68-76) English language recension of Drabbe's Pisà grammar
Drabbe (1950) grammar notes and (pp. 131-142) 435 comparative terms for Pisà
Drabbe (1959: 162-181) 430 comparative terms for Pisà
Kriens and Lebold (2010: 40-53) 239 comparative terms for Awyu (Wildeman River) of Busiri
Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 54-66) 240 comparative terms for Asue Awyu of Juvo Besar/Kabu, Juvo Kecil, Keru and Khanami villages, 62 comparative terms for Asaren, Isage, Aboge, Kopi, Kiki, Eci, Homang, Amenda, Omuro, Khaibu and Kasima villages
Kriens, Lebold and Menanti (2011: 44-51) 239 comparative terms for Asue Awyu of Amagatsu village, 50 comparative terms for Sogope, Katage and Yagatsu villlages
Wester (2014) Awyu-Dumut comparative morphology including (pp. 195-210) 430 comparative terms for Pisa after Drabbe (1959: 162-181)
[under construction]
Proto West Awyu had 14 to 18 consonants and 7 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | |||
*p | *t | *k | ||
*b | *d | *g | ||
[*mb] | [*nd] | [*ŋg] | ||
*ɸ | *s | *x | [*xʷ] | |
*ɾ | *j | *w |
*i | *ʉ | *u |
*ɛ | *ɜ | *ɔ |
*a |
Rounded velar /*xʷ/ is found only in loans from Marind or Marind-Yaqay, where glide /*w/ is realized as [hʷ] in the western dialects of Marind (q.v. Drabbe 1955: 148-151.) These loans are also found in other Awyu subfamilies and may or may not have been established by the time of proto-West Awyu.
Nasals /*m *n/ collapse root-finally into an archiphoneme [*N] which is in isolation expressed as nasalization of the otherwise final vowel. In compounds, this induces the prenasalization of following voiced stops /*b *d *g/ to [*mb *nd *ŋg].
…
Consonants correspond as follows:
W. Awyu | Wildeman | Miaro | Kewet |
*m | m | m | m |
*n | n | n | n |
*p | p | p | p |
*t | t | t | t |
*t/_i ʉ u | s | s | tʃ |
*k | k | k | k |
*b | b | b | b |
*d | d | d | d |
*d/_i ʉ | d | d dʒ | dʒ |
*g | g | g | g |
*ɸ | ɸ | ɸ | ɸ |
*s | s | s | s |
*x | x | x | x [h ʔ] |
[*xʷ] | ɸ x | w | x w |
*mb | mb | mb | mb |
*nd | nd | nd | nd |
*nd/_i ʉ | nd | nd ndʒ | ndʒ |
*ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg |
*ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ |
*j | j | j | j |
*w | w | w | w |
*-VN | Ṽ | Ṽ | Ṽ |
Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:
W. Awyu | Wildeman | Miaro | Kewet |
*i | i | i | i |
*ʉ | ʉ | ʉ | ʉ |
*u | u | u | u |
*ɛ | e | e | e |
*ɜ | e | a | a |
*ɔ | o | o | o |
*a | a | a | a |
*ɛⁱ | i | eⁱ i | eⁱ |
*ɔⁱ | oⁱ | o u | oⁱ |
*aⁱ | aⁱ | eⁱ | aⁱ |
*aᵉ | aᵉ | e | aⁱ e |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with all Pisà attestations drawn from Drabbe (1950: 131-142, ibid., 1959: 162-181,) Busiri from Kriens and Lebold (2010: 40-53,) Miaro River of Keru and Khanami and Kewet River of Juvo Besar and Juvo Kecil from Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 44-53) and Kewet River of Amagatsu from Kriens, Lebold and Menanti (2011: 44-51.)
Bilabial nasal /*m/ is preserved as such in all descendants:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*m | m | m | m | m | m | |
drink (realis) | *mi | mi- | ||||
star/firefly | *miN | mĩ | miŋ | mi | mi | miʔ |
morning | *mimiN | mimĩ | ||||
thigh | *midiN | midĩ | ||||
in front | *migi | 'miɣi | 'migi ≈ mi'gi | migi | ||
louse | *mɛɾu | 'mɛɾu | meɾu | meru | ||
neck/throat | *mʉ(-tɔ) | mu(-'to) | ||||
son | *m[ʉ/u] | mu | ||||
cooked | *ma- | ma- | ||||
beard | *mati | masi-rõ | ||||
stand | *mati-ɛ | mase- | mɑ'si- | 'masi- ≈ ma'si- | matʃi- | matʃe- |
stomach | *madʉ | madzu [dial.] | madzu [dial.] | |||
tooth | *maga | ma'ga | 'mɑgɑ | ma'ga | ma'ga | maga |
knee/elbow | *maɾ[ɔ/u] | ma'ɾu | ma'ɾu | ma'ɾu | ma'ɾo | |
behind | *mɔ | mo | mo | mo | ||
mother's bro. | *mɔN | mõ | ||||
afraid | *mɔki | 'moki | mo'ki- | moki- | moki- | |
earth | *mɔkaN | mokã | ||||
small | *m[ɔ]nɔxɔ | 'monoɣo | mono'ɣo | mo'nɔɣɔ | monɔ ≈ məno | meʔno |
cheek | *mɔxɔN | moɣõ | ||||
blunt/dull | *mutu | mutʃu | ||||
swallow | *m[u]kuN | mukũ- | ||||
egg | *mugɔ | mu'go | mugɔʔ | mu'go | mu'go | muŋgo |
do/make | *ɛmɔ | emo- | ||||
gall/bile | *[ɛ]timuN | isimũ | ||||
drink (irrealis) | *ami | ɑmi | ami | ami | ||
young woman | *am[i]gi | am'gi | ||||
hide | *atuɾumɔ- | asurumo- | ||||
smell | *ɸ[i]mi | fimi- | ||||
think | *ɸimɔ | fimo- | ||||
stink | *ɸɔxɔmɔ | foɣomo- | ||||
old (things) | *timi | 'simi | si'mi | tʃimi | tʃɪ'mɪ | |
in front | *samaN | samam | ||||
slow | *sukum[a]N | 'sukumã | ||||
two | *kɔɾumaN | kurumã | koru'mɑʔ | ku'ɾuma | ku'ɾuma | kʰɔrman |
lime | *xami | ami | ||||
widow | *xam[ɜ] | ɣa'mɛ | ||||
far | *xamaN | ɣamã | xɑ̃mɑ̃ŋ | 'xama | amaʔ | a'ma |
be in pain | *xaɾimɔ | ɣarimo- | ||||
friend | *xɔmu | 'homu | ɔ:mu [dial.] | |||
yawn | *xuɸamɔ | ɣufamo- | ||||
bandicoot | *j[a]mi | 'jemi ≈ 'jɛmi | 'jami | jemiʔ ≈ jamiʔ | ||
thorn | *jamɔxɔN | 'jamoɣõ | jɑməɣõŋ | jamɔ'kɔŋ | jɛmɔʔɔ ≈ jimɔ̃: | ⁿji:moʔo |
lie(s) | *jaxam[a] | 'jaɣama | ||||
ripe/yellow | *waxamaN | 'waɣamã | wa'ɣama | wama | waʔ'ma | |
break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | waɣaramo- | ||||
inside | *wɔmu | 'womu | 'womu | 'womu | womu | gʷo'mu |
Apical nasal /*n/ is preserved as such in all descendants:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*n | n | n | n | n | n | |
mother | *ni | ni | 'wɑni | 'wani | ('wa)ni | keni |
1 sg. poss. | *na- | na | nɑ- | na- | na- | na- |
eat (imperative) | *na | na | ||||
wake (tr.) | *naɸiN | nɑɸi- | naɸi(ŋ)- | |||
knowledge | *naɸaN | nafã | nɑ'ɸɑŋ | na'ɸaŋ | na'ɸaŋ | naxaŋ |
good | *n[a]ni | 'nani | nenɪ | |||
crocodile | *nagaɾu | naga'ɾuʔ | naga'ɾuʔ | nagru | ||
go (imperative) | *nɔxɔⁱ | noɣoj | no'ɣi | 'noɣu ≈ 'noɣʉ | noʔi | noɪ |
1 sg. | *nu | nu | nũ | nũ | nũ | nu |
1 pl. | *nugu | nugu | 'nugu | 'nugu | 'nugu | nuŋgu |
3 sg. poss. | *ɛna- | ena- | ɛn(a)- | ɛn(a)- | ɛn(a)- | ɛn(a)- |
leaf | *ana | ɑnɑ | ||||
small | *m[ɔ]nɔxɔ | 'monoɣo | mono'ɣo | mo'nɔɣɔ | monɔ ≈ məno | meʔno |
shin | *biniɾɔ | bini'ro | ||||
go out (of fire) | *bʉni | bu'ni- | ||||
soul | *b[a]na | bana | ||||
mucus | *siniɸɔ | sini'fo | ||||
tear(s) | *kin-(ɜjɜ) | kin-'ɛ | ||||
near | *kinaxaN | kinaɣã | kinɑ'ɣɑ̃ŋ | 'kina | 'kina | 'kiraŋ |
sleep (n.) | *kunuN | kunũ | 'kunu | kunu- | kunu- | ku'nu- |
break/snap | *gɛni | geni- | ||||
be enough | *xaɾini | ɣarini- | ||||
scab | *j[a]miN | jamĩ | ||||
roof | *wɛnikɔ | we'niko | we'niko | we'niŋko |
Bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is preserved in all descendants:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*p | p | p | p | p | p | |
leg | *piti | 'bisi [sic] | pi'si | pi'si ≈ pitʃi [dial.] | ||
long | *piɾi | pi'ɾi | 'piɾi | 'piɾi | pirɪ | |
wound | *pɛsɔ | 'pɛso | ||||
coconut | *pɜjɔ | pe'jo | 'pejo | 'pajo | 'pajo | pajo |
blind/deaf | *pɜjɔ | pɛ'jo | 'pɛjo | pa'jo | pa'jo | pajo: |
old (people) | *patʉ | patʃu: | ||||
bad smell | *paxa ɸʉ[N] | 'paɣa fu | patʃu: | |||
lake | *pɔxuwɔ | poɣuwɔ | pou'wo | |||
butterfly | *apɜɾɔ | 'apɛro | ||||
hot | *apa | 'apa | 'ɑpɑ | a'pasi | apa(si) | a'pa |
older brother | *kapu | ka'pu | kɑ'pu | 'kapu | 'kapu ≈ a-'kabu | a-kabu |
Apical voiceless stop /*t/ when followed by non-high vowels /*ɛ *ɜ *ɔ *a/ is preserved as such in all descendants:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*t | t | t | t | t | t | |
one | *tɛ-isijɜ | tisije | te'sia | tɛsia | teisʲa | |
goanna | *tɛⁱja | 'teija | 'teia | teije | ||
root | *tatɛ | ta'tɛ | tɑ'tɛ | ta'tɛ | ||
ashes | *taki | 'taki | tɑ'ki | 'taki | 'taki | ta'kʰɪ |
tired | *taxaN | taɣã | ||||
cold | *taɾu | 'taru | 'tɑru | 'taɾu | 'taɾu | ta'ru |
mud | *tawɛ | 'tawe | tawɛ | tawe | ||
hole | *tɔ | to | tɔ | |||
new | *tɔgɔ | 'togɔ | togo | |||
armpit | 'toɣõ | |||||
finger/toe | *tɔɾɔN | torõ | 'toɾoŋ | 'toɾoŋ ≈ to'ɾɔŋ | to'ɾɔŋ | toraŋ |
afterbirth | *t[ɔ]gɔɾɔ | 'togoro | ||||
outside/below | *butaxa | 'butaɣa | 'butɑɣɑ | buta'ɣa | ||
see/find | *ɸit[a/ɔ] | feto- | ɸi'tɑ | 'ɸita ≈ ɸi'to | 'ɸita ≈ ɸitɔ | he'to: |
get up/stand up | *dɔtɔ | doto- | do'to- | do'to- | doto- | do'to: ≈ doto- |
foot/leg | *kitɔ | kito | 'kito | ki'to | ||
new | *kɔtɔxɔ | kotɔɣɔ | ko'toɣoʔ | |||
goura pigeon | *kutɛ | ku'tɛ | ||||
mouth | *xatɜ | ɣa'tɛ | xɑ'tɛ | 'hata | 'hat:a | ata |
When followed by high vowels /*i *ʉ *u/, /*t/ is palatalized and affricated to [tʃ] in Kewet River and merged with /s/ in Wildeman River and Miaro River:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*t/_i | s | s | s | tʃ | tʃ | |
father's father | *ti | si | si | si | tʃi | tʃi |
plait | *ti | si- | ||||
old (things) | *timi | 'simi | si'mi | tʃimi | tʃɪ'mɪ | |
ant | *titaxa | 'sitʰɑ(ɣa) | sita'ɣa | tʃitʰaʔa | tʃetʃa:a | |
penis | *tigi | si'gi | ||||
leech | *tiɾiN | tʃiɾiŋ | tʃɪriŋ | |||
gall/bile | *[ɛ]timuN | isimũ | ||||
tail of bird | *ɔti-ɾɔN | 'osirõ | ||||
beard | *mati | masi-rõ | ||||
stand | *mati-ɛ | mase- | mɑ'si- | 'masi- ≈ ma'si- | matʃi- | matʃe- |
leg | *piti | 'bisi | pi'si | pi'si ≈ pitʃi [dial.] | ||
male | *b[a]tiN | bisĩ | b'siŋ | |||
arrow | *dɛb[ɛ]ti | dibi'si | dɛ'bɛsi | debitʃi | eptʃi | |
sharp | *kɛtiN | 'kisĩ | 'kisiŋ | 'kesiŋ | kɪtʃiŋ ≈ kitʃiŋ | kitʃiŋ |
fence | *xaⁱti | ɣaⁱ'si | ||||
sweat | *k[a]tiN | kasĩ | ||||
spear | *xati | ɣa'si | ||||
snake | *wati | wasi | 'wɑsi | wa'si | watʃi ≈ wa'si | wa'dʒi [sic.] |
*t/_ʉ | s | s | s | tʃ | tʃ | |
banana | *tʉ | su | sɯ | sʉ | tʃɯ | tʃu: |
urinate | *tʉ | su- | ||||
old (people) | *patʉ | patʃu: | ||||
village | *butʉ | 'busɯ | bu'sʉ ≈ bʉ'sʉ | butʃɯ | butʃu | |
*t/_u | s | s | s | tʃ | tʃ | |
go down | *tu | su- | ||||
daughter | *tub-ɾaN | subrã | ||||
nipple | *tubu | subu | ||||
ear | *tuɾuN | 'surũ | 'suruŋ | su'ɾuŋ | tʃuɾuŋ | tʃu'ruŋ |
hide | *atuɾumɔ- | asurumo- | ||||
blunt/dull | *mutu | mutʃu |
Velar voiceless stop /*k/ is preserved in all descendants:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*k | k | k | k | k | k [k kʰ] | |
theft | *ki | ki | ||||
flower | *ki | ki | ||||
ankle | *kiN | kĩ | ||||
bathe/swim | *kiN | kĩ | kĩŋ- | ki: ≈ ki(ŋ)- | kiŋ- ≈ kim- | kʰin- ≈ kɪm- |
tear(s) | *kin-(ɜjɜ) | kin-'ɛ | ||||
near | *kinaxaN | kinaɣã | kinɑ'ɣɑ̃ŋ | 'kina | 'kina | 'kiraŋ |
foot/leg | *kitɔ | kito | 'kito | ki'to | ||
marsupial | *kisɔ | ki'so | ki'soɑ | 'kiso | keso | |
rope | *kikiN | kikĩ | ||||
side | *kikiN | kikĩ | ||||
eye | *kiɾɔ | kiro | ki'ɾo | 'kiɾo | 'kiɾo | ke:ro |
nail | *k[i/ɛ]ja | ki'a | ki'jɑ | ki'ja | ki'ja | ke'a |
wind | *kɛɸi | ki'fi | 'kiɸi | 'kɛɸi | 'kɛɸi | keɸi |
sharp | *kɛtiN | 'kisĩ | 'kisiŋ | 'kesiŋ | kɪtʃiŋ ≈ kitʃiŋ | kitʃiŋ |
carry | *kɛkuN | kɛkũ- | ||||
bad | *kɛjɔN | 'kijoŋ | 'kejoŋ | 'kejoŋ | keijoŋ | |
older brother | *kapu | ka'pu | kɑ'pu | 'kapu | 'kapu ≈ a-'kabu | a-kabu |
branch | *kabiN | kabĩ | ||||
sweat | *k[a]tiN | kasĩ | ||||
flesh | *kad[ʉ] | ka'du | 'kɑdu | 'kadzu ≈ ka'du | kadʒu ≈ ka'du | kadʒu |
vomit | *k[a]ndi | kandi | ||||
tree | *kasVɾɔ | 'kasɛro | kɑso'ro | kasiɾo ≈ kasoɾo | kasiɾo ≈ kasoɾo | |
wet | *kakɛ | kake | 'kɑkɛ | 'kakɛ | 'kakɛ | |
belly | *kaku | 'kaku | 'kɑku | ka'ku | ka'ku | ka'ku |
red | *kaŋgɔN | 'kaŋgo | 'kɑŋgo | kaŋgɔ ≈ 'kaŋgo | kaŋgoŋ | kɐ̃ŋgõŋ |
leech | *kaɾijaN | karia | 'karijɑŋ | kaɾijaŋ | ||
ripe/dry (?) | *kaɾʉ | 'kɑru | 'kaɾʉ | 'kaɾʉ | kʰaru | |
cassowary | *kaɾʉwɛ | 'karuwɛ | 'kɑruwɛ | kaɾʉ'we | kaɾʉ'we | karuɛ |
not/no | *kaɾɜ | ka'rɛ | 'kɑrɛ | ka'ɾa | kaɾa | kʰa'ra ≈ kara |
paddle | *kaxʷi | 'kafi | kɑfi ≈ kɑɸi | 'kawi | 'kawi | kawɪ |
new | *kɔtɔxɔ | kotɔɣɔ | ko'toɣoʔ | |||
two | *kɔɾumaN | kurumã | koru'mɑʔ | ku'ɾuma | ku'ɾuma | kʰɔrman |
die (sg.) | *kuN | kũ- | kuŋ- | kuŋ- | kuŋ- | kuŋ- |
wash | *kuN | kũ | ku(ŋ)- | ku(ŋ)- | ku(ŋ)- | ku(ŋ)- |
goura pigeon | *kutɛ | ku'tɛ | ||||
gather | *gigi[jɔ] kuN | gigio kũ- | ||||
sleep (n.) | *kunuN | kunũ | 'kunu | kunu- | kunu- | ku'nu- |
younger sibling | *kudɜ | ku'dɛ | kudɛ | 'kuda | 'kuda | |
dig | *kuw[ɔ] | ko- | ku | ku | ku | ku |
3 sg. | *ɛki | eki | i'ki | 'ɛki | 'ɛki | e'ke |
smoke | *aku | a'ku | 'ɑku | aku | aku | a'kʰu |
afraid | *mɔki | 'moki | mo'ki- | moki- | moki- | |
earth | *mɔkaN | mokã | ||||
swallow | *m[u]kuN | mukũ- | ||||
elbow/knee | *bɔkiN | bokĩ | ||||
ant | *titaxa | 'sitʰɑ(ɣa) | sita'ɣa | tʃitʰaʔa | tʃetʃa:a | |
ashes | *taki | 'taki | tɑ'ki | 'taki | 'taki | ta'kʰɪ |
slow | *sukum[a]N | 'sukumã | ||||
roof | *wɛnikɔ | we'niko | we'niko | we'niŋko | ||
bamboo knife | *waki | wa'ki | 'wɑki | wa'ki | waki |
Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is preserved in all descendants:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*b | b | b | b | b | b | |
chest | *biN | bĩ | ||||
shin | *biniɾɔ | bini'ro | ||||
moon | *bidiN | bidĩ | bɪ'diŋ | 'bidʒiŋ | 'bidʒiŋ | bidʒiŋ |
hand/arm | *bidɜ | bi'dɛ | 'bidɛ | bi'da | bi'da | bi'da |
male | *b[a]tiN | bisĩ | b'siŋ | |||
go out (of fire) | *bʉni | bu'ni- | ||||
sit/stay | *ba | ba- | bɑ- | ba- | ba- | |
soul | *b[a]na | bana | ||||
bone | *bagi | bagi | 'bɑgi | 'bagi ≈ ba'gi | ba'gi | bagɪ |
short/blunt | *bagɔ | ba'go | 'bɑɣo | 'bogo | 'bogo | bogo |
wing | *baɾ[ɔ/u] | baɾu: [dial.] | baɾɔ | |||
father | *bɔ | bo | bo | bo | bo | |
shiver | *bɔbiN | bobĩ- | ||||
elbow/knee | *bɔkiN | bokĩ | ||||
elbow/knee | *buN | bũ | buŋ | buŋ [dial.] | buŋ | |
outside/below | *butaxa | 'butaɣa | 'butɑɣɑ | buta'ɣa | ||
village | *butʉ | 'busɯ | bu'sʉ ≈ bʉ'sʉ | butʃɯ | butʃu | |
fly (v.) | *buɾuN | burũ- | 'buruŋ- | buɾuŋ- | buɾuŋ- | buruŋ- |
goanna. | *ɛbi | ɛbi [dial.] | 'ɛbi | |||
laughter | *ab[ɛN] | ab gi- | ɑb-giŋ | aba-'gi– | ab(i)-gi- | ap-gi- |
close eyes | *abʉN | abu- | ||||
daughter | *tub-ɾaN | subrã | ||||
nipple | *tubu | subu | ||||
arrow | *dɛb[ɛ]ti | dibi'si | dɛ'bɛsi | debitʃi | eptʃi | |
island | *d[ʉ]bi | du'bi | ||||
heart | *dʉb[u]ɾɔ | 'duburo | 'dʒubuɾɔ | 'dʒubuɾɔ | ||
young man | *sʉbaN | 'subã | ||||
branch | *kabiN | kabĩ | ||||
nape | *gubiN | gubĩ | ||||
head | *xaⁱbaN | ɣajbã | 'xɑibɑŋ | he'baŋ ≈ hi'baŋ | habaŋ ≈ ʔa'baŋ | aibaŋ |
friend | *xabiN | abiŋ [dial.] | ha:bim | |||
stone axe | *xabu | ɣa'bu | 'habu | ʔabu | a'bu: | |
tail | *wɔbʉ | wo'bu | 'wobu | 'wobʉ | 'wobʉ | 'wobu |
testicle | *wɔb[ʉ]-ɾɔ | 'wobu-ro |
Apical voiced stop /*d/ …
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*d | d | d | d | d | d | |
older sister | *dɛ | dɛ | nɑ'tɛ | 'wadɛ | na'dɛ | nade |
not | *dɛ | dɛ | ||||
arrow | *dɛb[ɛ]ti | dibi'si | dɛ'bɛsi | debitʃi | eptʃi [sic] | |
come | *dɜ | dɛ- | dɛ | da | da | da: |
hear | *da | da- | dɑ- | da | da- | da- |
burn (intr.) | *dɔ | do- | 'do- | 'do- | do- | |
get up/stand up | *dɔtɔ | doto- | do'to- | do'to- | doto- | do'to: ≈ doto- |
sago | *du | du | du | du | du | duʔ |
roof | *dugi | 'duɣi | 'dʒugi (?) | |||
give | *ɛdV | edo- | ||||
body | *adʉ | adu | ||||
tie | *adV | ada- | ɑde- | ada | -da- | ado |
hand/arm | *bidɜ | bi'dɛ | 'bidɛ | bi'da | bi'da | bi'da |
younger sibling | *kudɜ | ku'dɛ | kudɛ | 'kuda | 'kuda | |
raw/young | *[k/x]adaxaⁱ | 'kadaɣaⁱ | 'xɑdɑɣɑi | kada'ɣei | adaɣai ≈ adaɣi | adʰaʔɪ |
thumb/big toe | *wadɔ | wa'do | wa'do |
When followed by high front and central vowels /*i *ʉ/, /*d/ is palatalized and affricated to [dʒ] in Kewet River … :
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*d/_i | d | d | d dʒ | dʒ | dʒ | |
sweet potato | *ɛdiN | 'idiŋ | 'ɛdiŋ | edʒiŋ | edʒiŋ | |
body | *adʉ | adu | ||||
thigh | *midiN | midĩ | ||||
moon | *bidiN | bidĩ | bɪ'diŋ | 'bidʒiŋ | 'bidʒiŋ | bidʒiŋ |
path | *jɛdi | jɛdi | jɛ'di | jɛdʒi | jedʒi | |
*d/_ʉ | d | d | d dʒ | dʒ | dʒ | |
cook/burn | *dʉ | du- | du- | dʒʉ | dʒu | dʒu |
bow | *dʉN | dũ | dũŋ | ⁿdu | dʒũŋ | dʒʊn |
island | *d[ʉ]bi | du'bi | ||||
heart | *dʉb[u]ɾɔ | 'duburo | 'dʒubuɾɔ | 'dʒubuɾɔ | ||
stomach | *madʉ | madzu [dial.] | madzu [dial.] | |||
flesh | *kad[ʉ] | ka'du | 'kɑdu | 'kadzu ≈ ka'du | kadʒu ≈ ka'du | kadʒu |
One apparent exception is considered to represent /*wadɛⁱ/ rather than /*wadi/ by outcomparison to Kombai /wondeⁱ/ (q.v. Voorhoeve 2000 : 378):
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*d/_ɛⁱ | d | d | d | d | d | |
river | *wadɛⁱ | wa'di | 'wɑdi | 'wadi | 'wadi | wa'dɪ |
Another remains unexplained:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*d/_Vⁱ (?) | d | d | d | d | d | |
salt | *d[Vⁱ]sɛ | di'se | di'se | di'se |
Velar voiced stop /*g/ is preserved in all descendants. Medially, it is sometimes realized as [ɣ] in Wildeman River, merging with the reflex of /*x/ (below):
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*g | g [g ɣ] | g [g ɣ] | g | g | g | |
scratch | *gi- | gi- | -ɣi | -gi | -gi | -gɪ |
gather | *gigi[jɔ] kuN | gigio kũ- | ||||
sand | *giɾiN | girĩ | 'giriŋ | gi'ɾiŋ | gi'ɾiŋ | giriŋ |
garden | *gijɔN | giõ | ɣijoŋ | |||
break/snap | *gɛni | geni- | ||||
brain | *g[ʉ]N | gũ | ||||
navel | *g[ʉ]N | gũ | ||||
2 sg. poss. | *ga- | ga- | ||||
blood | *gɔN | go | goŋ | gɔŋ | gɔŋ | goŋ |
2 pl. | *g[ɔ]g[ʉ] | gugu | gu'gu | 'gɔgʉ ≈ 'gogu | 'gɔgʉ ≈ 'gogu | gugu |
2 sg. | *gu | gu | gu | gu | ||
nape | *gubiN | gubĩ | ||||
young woman | *am[i]gi | am'gi | ||||
seek/search | *agu | agu- | ɑgu- | agu | ago- | agʰu- |
in front | *migi | 'miɣi | 'migi ≈ mi'gi | migi | ||
tooth | *maga | ma'ga | 'mɑgɑ | ma'ga | ma'ga | maga |
egg | *mugɔ | mu'go | mugɔʔ | mu'go | mu'go | muŋgo |
bone | *bagi | bagi | 'bɑgi | 'bagi ≈ ba'gi | ba'gi | bagɪ |
short/blunt | *bagɔ | ba'go | 'bɑɣo | 'bogo | 'bogo | bogo |
tongue | *ɸagɛ | fa'gɛ | ɸɑ'gɛ | 'ɸagɛ | 'ɸagɛ ≈ hage | ha'ge |
crocodile | *nagaɾu | naga'ɾuʔ | naga'ɾuʔ | nagru | ||
1 pl. | *nugu | nugu | 'nugu | 'nugu | 'nugu | nuŋgu |
penis | *tigi | si'gi | ||||
new | *tɔgɔ | 'togɔ | togo | |||
armpit | *tɔgɔN | 'toɣõ (?) | ||||
afterbirth | *t[ɔ]gɔɾɔ | 'togoro | ||||
roof | *dugi | 'duɣi | 'dʒugi |
Prenasalized stops /*mb *nd *ŋg/ occur only medially, where they are retained in all descendants. When /*nd/ is followed by high vowel /*i/, it is palatalized in Kewet River as is /*d/ (above):
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*mb | mb | mb | mb | mb | mb | |
crocodile | *xajambu | 'ɣaⁱjambu | xɑ'jɑmbu | |||
*nd/_i | nd d | ndʒ | ndʒ | |||
eat (future) | *a[n]di | adi- | andʒi | andʒ- | ||
vomit | *k[a]ndi | kandi | ||||
*ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | |
dog | *aŋgi | aŋ'gi | 'ɑŋgi | 'aŋgi | 'aŋgi | aŋgi |
louse | *aŋgu | 'aŋgu | 'ɑŋgu | aŋ'gu | aŋ'gu | |
red | *kaŋgɔN | 'kaŋgo | 'kɑŋgo | kaŋgɔ ≈ 'kaŋgo | kaŋgoŋ | kɐ̃ŋgõŋ |
die (pl.) | *xɔs[a]ŋgi | ɣosaŋgi- | ||||
flying fox | *xɔŋgi | ɣoŋ'gi |
Bilabial fricative /*ɸ/ …
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*ɸ | ɸ <f> | ɸ [ɸ f ʍ] | ɸ [ɸ f] | ɸ [ɸ h] | ɸ [ɸ h x] | |
name | *ɸi | fi | ɸi | ɸi ≈ fi | ɸi | ɸi: |
smell | *ɸ[i]mi | fimi- | ||||
think | *ɸimɔ | fimo- | ||||
grandchild | *ɸiɾɔN | ɸi'ɾɔŋ | ɸi'ɾɔŋ | |||
bamboo | *ɸijɔ | fi'o | ʍi'joʔ | 'ɸijo | 'ɸijo | fɪo: |
see/find | *ɸit[a/ɔ] | feto- | ɸi'tɑ | 'ɸita ≈ ɸi'to | 'ɸita ≈ ɸitɔ | he'to: |
breath | *ɸiɾɔ | fero- | ||||
not | *ɸa | fa | ||||
tongue | *ɸagɛ | fa'gɛ | ɸɑ'gɛ | 'ɸagɛ | 'ɸagɛ ≈ hage | ha'ge |
stink | *ɸɔxɔmɔ | foɣomo- | ||||
bad smell | *paxa ɸʉ[N] | 'paɣa fu | patʃu: | |||
weeping/crying | *iɸɛ | i'fɛ | i'fɛ | i'fɛ | ɛɸɛ | eɸia |
break/split (tr.) | *axaɸʉN | aɣafũ- | ||||
child | *ɔɸɔ | 'ofo | 'oɸo | 'oɸo | oho | |
wake (tr.) | *naɸiN | nɑɸi- | naɸi(ŋ)- | |||
knowledge | *naɸaN | nafã | nɑ'ɸɑŋ | na'ɸaŋ | na'ɸaŋ | naxaŋ |
mucus | *siniɸɔ | sini'fo | ||||
wind | *kɛɸi | ki'fi | 'kiɸi | 'kɛɸi | 'kɛɸi | keɸi |
play | *xaɸɛ | ɣa'fɛ | ||||
yawn | *xuɸamɔ | ɣufamo- |
Fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all descendants:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*s | s | s | s | s | s | |
spine | *si | si | ||||
nose | *siN(-tɔ) | sin-'to | 'sin-tɔ | si: | ||
mucus | *siniɸɔ | sini'fo | ||||
high/above | *siɾi | si'ri | si'ɾi | 'siɾi ≈ si'ɾi | 'siɾi ≈ si'ɾi | siri ≈ sirɪ |
black | *siɾi | si'ri | 'siɾi | si'ɾi | si'ɾi | si'rɪ |
kunai grass | *sisɔ | sɛ'so | siso | 'siso | 'siso | suso |
widower | *sɛN | 'sɛŋ-go | ||||
young man | *sʉbaN | 'subã | ||||
mud | *sʉɾu | 'sɯru | ||||
dry | *sɜ | sɛ | sɛ | sa-ka'ɾa | sa-kᵊɾa | sa: ≈ sa-kra) |
in front | *samaN | samam | ||||
sun/day | *sawɜ | sa'wɛ | 'sɑwɛ | 'sawa | 'sawa | |
earth/ground | *sɔxɔ | so'ɣo | so'xo | 'soxo ≈ sɔxɔ | 'soɣo ≈ soxo | soʔo |
nose | *susuN | 'susuŋ | 'susuŋ | susuŋ | ||
slow | *sukum[a]N | 'sukumã | ||||
cough (n.) | *[i/ɛ]s[a/ɔ] | ɛ'so | ɛ'so | 'iso | 'iso ≈ ɛsa | ɪsʲa |
mosquito | *ɛⁱsɜ | ise | 'isɛ | i'sa ≈ ɛⁱsɛ [dial.] | i'sa ≈ isɛ | eisʲa |
sneeze (n.) | *asiN | asĩ | ||||
thin | *as[ɛ][x][ɛ] | 'aseɣe | ||||
night | *asʉ | a'su | 'ɑsɯ | 'asʉ | 'asʉ | a'su |
bite | *asu | asu- | ɑsʊ- | asu | ||
wound | *pɛsɔ | 'pɛso | ||||
one | *tɛ-isijɜ | tisije | te'sia | tɛsia | teisʲa | |
salt | *disɛ | di'se | di'se | di'se | ||
marsupial | *k[i/ɛ]sɔ | ki'so | ki'soɑ | 'kiso | keso | |
tree | *kasVrɔ | 'kasɛro | kɑso'ro | kasiɾo ≈ kasoɾo | kasiɾo ≈ kasoɾo | |
die (pl.) | *xɔs[a]ŋgi | ɣosaŋgi- |
Velar fricative /*x/ …
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*x- | x [ɣ] | x | x [h x] | x [h ʔ ø] | x [h ø] | |
skin/bark | *xa | ɣa | xɑ | ha ≈ xa | ʔa: ≈ ha | a: |
give birth | *xaⁱ | ɣaⁱ- | ||||
house | *xaⁱN | ɣãⁱ | xɑ̃ĩŋ | -ɣiŋ | ʔaĩ: | haʔə |
head | *xaⁱbaN | ɣajbã | 'xɑibɑŋ | he'baŋ ≈ hi'baŋ | habaŋ ≈ ʔa'baŋ | aibaŋ |
bandicoot | *xaⁱjɔ | 'ɣajo | hɛijo | haijo(ʔ) | ||
lime | *xami | ami | ||||
widow | *xam[ɜ] | ɣa'mɛ | ||||
far | *xamaN | ɣamã | xɑ̃mɑ̃ŋ | 'xama | amaʔ | a'ma |
friend | *xabiN | abiŋ [dial.] | ha:bim | |||
stone axe | *xabu | ɣa'bu | 'habu | ʔabu | a'bu: | |
play | *xaɸɛ | ɣa'fɛ | ||||
spear | *xati | ɣa'si | ||||
mouth | *xatɜ | ɣa'tɛ | xɑ'tɛ | 'hata | 'hat:a | ata |
fence/wall | *xaɾi | 'xɑɾi | 'haɾi | ʔa:ɾi | ha'rɪ | |
be in pain | *xaɾimɔ | ɣarimo- | ||||
be enough | *xaɾini | ɣarini- | ||||
white | *xaja | 'ɣaja | 'xɑjɑ | ha'ja | ha'ja | |
crocodile | *xajambu | 'ɣaⁱjambu | xɑ'jɑmbu | |||
man | *xɔ | ɣo | xo | ɸ(u)- | ɔ- ≈ o- | ho:- ≈ o- |
walk/go | *xɔ | ɣo- | ||||
friend | *xɔmu | 'homu | ɔ:mu [dial.] | |||
die (pl.) | *xɔs[a]ŋgi | ɣosaŋgi- | ||||
flying fox | *xɔŋgi | ɣoŋ'gi | ||||
ghost | *xɔxɔⁱ | ɣo'ɣoⁱ | 'hoɣo ≈ 'hoɣu | ɸɔɣɔⁱ | ||
cloud/sky | *xɔwʉ | ɣoᵘ | xu ≈ xo | hoʉ ≈ hu | hoʉ ≈ hu ≈ ʔoᵘ | ou: |
milk | *xu[N] | ɣu | ||||
yawn | *xuɸamɔ | ɣufamo- | ||||
*-x- | x [ɣ] | x [ɣ x g] | x [ɣ ʔ ø] | x [ʔ ø] | ||
husband | *-xu | -ɣu | -gu | -ɣu | -ᵘ | -u: ≈ -uʔ |
thin | *as[ɛ][x][ɛ] | 'aseɣe | ||||
fish | *axaᵉ | a'ɣaᵉ | ɑ'ɣe | ʔa'ɣe | ʔaj | ae: |
break/split (tr.) | *axaɸʉN | aɣafũ- | ||||
cheek | *mɔxɔN | moɣõ | ||||
bad smell | *paxa ɸʉ[N] | 'paɣa fu | patʃu: | |||
lake | *pɔxuwɔ | poɣuwɔ | pou'wo | |||
outside/below | *butaxa | 'butaɣa | 'butɑɣɑ | buta'ɣa | ||
stink | *ɸɔxɔmɔ | foɣomo- | ||||
go (imperative) | *nɔxɔⁱ | noɣoj | no'ɣi | 'noɣu ≈ 'noɣʉ | noʔi | noɪ |
ant | *titaxa | 'sitʰɑ(ɣa) | sita'ɣa | tʃitʰaʔa | tʃetʃa:a | |
tired | *taxaN | taɣã | ||||
earth/ground | *sɔxɔ | so'ɣo | so'xo | 'soxo ≈ sɔxɔ | 'soɣo ≈ soxo | soʔo |
near | *kinaxaN | kinaɣã | kinɑ'ɣɑ̃ŋ | 'kina | 'kina | 'kiraŋ |
raw/young | *[k/x]adaxaⁱ | 'kadaɣaⁱ | 'xɑdɑɣɑi | kada'ɣei | adaɣai ≈ adaɣi | adʰaʔɪ |
new | *kɔtɔxɔ | kotɔɣɔ | ko'toɣoʔ | |||
person | *[ɾ/j]ɔxu | 'juɣu | 'jogoŋ | 'ju'ɣu | ɾɔu | roʔu |
thorn | *jamɔxɔN | 'jamoɣõ | jɑməɣõŋ | jamɔ'kɔŋ | jɛmɔʔɔ ≈ jimɔ̃: | ⁿji:moʔo |
bark | *jaxaN | 'jaɣaŋ | 'jaɣaŋ ≈ ja:ŋ | ɲʲaʔa | ||
lie(s) | *jaxam[a] | 'jaɣama | ||||
3 pl. | *jɔxɔ | joɣo | jo'ɣʉ ≈ jo'ɣo | jo'ɣʉ ≈ jo'ɣo | jo:o | |
rattan/rope | *jɔxu | 'joɣomo | joɣomo | 'juɣumo ≈ joɣo- | jɔɣu | joɣu |
ripe/yellow | *waxamaN | 'waɣamã | wa'ɣama | wama | waʔ'ma | |
break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | waɣaramo- | ||||
green/blue | *wɔxu | 'woɣo | 'wuɣu | 'wuɣu ≈ wɔᵘ | woɣu |
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ …
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*ɾ | ɾ <r> | ɾ <r> | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ <r> | |
call/sing | *ɾi | ri- | ||||
lie down | *ɾi | ri- | ɾi | ɾi | ri | |
rib(s) | *ɾiN | rim-bigi | ||||
twist rope | *ɾiN | rĩ- | ||||
go down | *ɾʉ- | ru- | ||||
chop down | *ɾʉ- | ru- | ||||
thunder | *ɾʉ- | ru- | ||||
scar | *ɾʉ[N] | ru | ||||
boil (n.) | *ɾʉN | rũ | ||||
take/hold | *ɾa | ra- | ɾa- | ɾa- | ||
woman/wife | *ɾaN | rã | rɑŋ | ɾaŋ | ɾaŋ | raŋ |
fruit/seed | *ɾɔ | ro | ro | 'ro | ɾo | |
say/speak | *ɾɔ | ro- | ro | ɾɔ | ro | |
hair/leaf/feather | *ɾɔN | rõ | roŋ | ɾɔŋ ≈ ɾõŋ | ɾɔŋ | roŋ |
weep/cry | *ɾɔN | roŋ- | ||||
voice/speech | *ɾu | ru | ru | ɾu | ɾu | ru(:) |
rainbow | *iɾiN | irĩ | ||||
earthquake | *iɾiɾi | iri'ri | ||||
stone | *ɛⁱɾɔ | i'ro | i'ro | 'eiɾo ≈ 'iɾɔ | 'eiɾo | ɛⁱro |
butterfly | *apɜɾɔ | 'apɛro | ||||
hide | *atuɾumɔ- | asurumo- | ||||
louse | *mɛɾu | 'mɛɾu | meɾu | meru | ||
knee/elbow | *maɾ[ɔ/u] | ma'ɾu | ma'ɾu | ma'ɾu | ma'ɾo | |
long | *piɾi | pi'ɾi | 'piɾi | 'piɾi | pirɪ | |
fly (v.) | *buɾuN | burũ- | 'buruŋ- | buɾuŋ- | buɾuŋ- | buruŋ- |
grandchild | *ɸiɾɔN | ɸi'ɾɔŋ | ɸi'ɾɔŋ | |||
breath | *ɸiɾɔ | fero- | ||||
crocodile | *nagaru | naga'ɾuʔ | naga'ɾuʔ | nagru | ||
leech | *tiɾiN | tʃiɾiŋ | tʃɪriŋ | |||
cold | *taɾu | 'taru | 'tɑru | 'taɾu | 'taɾu | ta'ru |
afterbirth | *t[ɔ]gɔɾɔ | 'togoro | ||||
finger/toe | *tɔɾɔN | torõ | 'toɾoŋ | 'toɾoŋ ≈ to'ɾɔŋ | to'ɾɔŋ | toraŋ |
ear | *tuɾuN | 'surũ | 'suruŋ | su'ɾuŋ | tʃuɾuŋ | tʃu'ruŋ |
heart | *dʉb[u]ɾɔ | 'duburo | 'dʒubuɾɔ | 'dʒubuɾɔ | ||
high/above | *siɾi | si'ri | si'ɾi | 'siɾi ≈ si'ɾi | 'siɾi ≈ si'ɾi | siri ≈ sirɪ |
black | *siɾi | si'ri | 'siɾi | si'ɾi | si'ɾi | si'rɪ |
mud | *sʉɾu | 'sɯru | ||||
eye | *kiɾɔ | kiro | ki'ɾo | 'kiɾo | 'kiɾo | ke:ro |
tree | *kasVrɔ | 'kasɛro | kɑso'ro | kasiɾo ≈ kasoɾo | kasiɾo ≈ kasoɾo | |
leech | *kaɾijaN | karia | 'karijɑŋ | kaɾijaŋ | ||
ripe/dry (?) | *kaɾʉ | 'kɑru | 'kaɾʉ | 'kaɾʉ | kʰaru | |
cassowary | *kaɾʉwɛ | 'karuwɛ | 'kɑruwɛ | kaɾʉ'we | kaɾʉ'we | karuɛ |
not/no | *kaɾɜ | ka'rɛ | 'kɑrɛ | ka'ɾa | kaɾa | kʰa'ra ≈ kara |
two | *kɔɾumaN | kurumã | koru'mɑʔ | ku'ɾuma | ku'ɾuma | kʰɔrman |
sand | *giɾiN | girĩ | 'giriŋ | gi'ɾiŋ | gi'ɾiŋ | giriŋ |
fence/wall | *xaɾi | 'xɑɾi | 'haɾi | ʔa:ɾi | ha'rɪ | |
be in pain | *xaɾimɔ | ɣarimo- | ||||
be enough | *xaɾini | ɣarini- | ||||
worm | *wɛɾʉ | 'weru | 'weɾʉ | 'weɾʉ | eu'ru | |
break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | waɣaramo- |
At least two comparisons show an irregular alternation between [ɾ] and [j]:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*[ɾ/j] | j | j | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | |
breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔ | ja'wo | 'jɑwo | 'ɾawo | ɾawo | ra'wo |
*[ɾ/j] | j | j | j | ɾ | ɾ | |
person | *[ɾ/j]ɔxu | 'juɣu | 'jogoŋ | 'ju'ɣu | ɾɔu | roʔu |
…
Palatal glide /*j/ …
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*j | j | j | j | j | j | |
bird | *ji | ji | ɪ: | ʝi | ʝi | i: |
fire | *ji(n) | jĩ | dziŋ | ʝi ≈ 'ʝin- | ʝi ≈ 'ʝin- | ji: ≈ n- |
fruit/seed | *jindV-ɾɔ | jindɛ-ro | jindɔ-'ro | jindʒə-ɾo | ||
path | *jɛdi | jɛdi | jɛ'di | jɛdʒi | jedʒi | |
hunger/thirst | *jɜ | jɛ | ||||
love | *jɜ | jɛ | ||||
bandicoot | *j[a]mi | 'jemi ≈ 'jɛmi | 'jami | jemiʔ ≈ jamiʔ | ||
scab | *j[a]miN | jamĩ | ||||
thorn | *jamɔxɔN | 'jamoɣõ | jɑməɣõŋ | jamɔ'kɔŋ | jɛmɔʔɔ ≈ jimɔ̃: | ⁿji:moʔo |
bark | *jaxaN | 'jaɣaŋ | 'jaɣaŋ ≈ ja:ŋ | ɲʲaʔa | ||
lie(s) | *jaxam[a] | 'jaɣama | ||||
canoe | *jaxʷʉN | jɛfũ | jɑ'xuŋ | ja'vʉŋ | ja'vʉŋ | jaɣʊŋ |
copulate | *jɔN | jõ- | ||||
3 pl. | *jɔxɔ | joɣo | jo'ɣʉ ≈ jo'ɣo | jo'ɣʉ ≈ jo'ɣo | jo:o | |
rattan/rope | *jɔxu | 'joɣomo | joɣomo | 'juɣumo ≈ joɣo- | jɔɣu | joɣu |
water | *ɜjɜ | ɛ | 'ɛ | 'aja | 'aja | aija |
coconut | *pɜjɔ | pe'jo | 'pejo | 'pajo | 'pajo | pajo |
blind/deaf | *pɜjɔ | pɛ'jo | 'pɛjo | pa'jo | pa'jo | pajo: |
bamboo | *ɸijɔ | fi'o | ʍi'joʔ | 'ɸijo | 'ɸijo | fɪo: |
one | *tɛ-isijɜ | tisije | te'sia | tɛsia | teisʲa | |
goanna | *tɛⁱja | 'teija | 'teia | teije | ||
nail | *k[i/ɛ]ja | ki'a | ki'jɑ | ki'ja | ki'ja | ke'a |
bad | *kɛjɔN | 'kijoŋ | 'kejoŋ | 'kejoŋ | keijoŋ | |
leech | *kaɾijaN | karia | 'karijɑŋ | kaɾijaŋ | ||
garden | *gijɔN | giõ | ɣijoŋ | |||
bandicoot | *xaⁱjɔ | 'ɣajo | hɛijo | haijo(ʔ) | ||
white | *xaja | 'ɣaja | 'xɑjɑ | ha'ja | ha'ja | |
crocodile | *xajambu | 'ɣaⁱjambu | xɑ'jɑmbu |
Glide /*w/ …
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*w | w [w u] | w [w u] | w [w u] | w [w u] | w [w u] | |
mother's mother | *wi | wi | wi | wi | wi | wi |
roof | *wɛnikɔ | we'niko | we'niko | we'niŋko | ||
worm | *wɛɾʉ | 'weru | 'weɾʉ | 'weɾʉ | eu'ru | |
kill | *wʉ | wu- | -u- | -ʉ- | ||
left | *wɜ | we | wa | wɛma | wa | |
3 sg. poss. | *wa- | ewa- | wɑ- | wa- | wa- | |
snake | *wati | wasi | 'wɑsi | wa'si | watʃi ≈ wa'si | wa'dʒi |
river | *wadɛⁱ | wa'di | 'wɑdi | 'wadi | 'wadi | wa'dɪ |
thumb/big toe | *wadɔ | wa'do | wa'do | |||
bamboo knife | *waki | wa'ki | 'wɑki | wa'ki | waki | |
break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | waɣaramo- | ||||
inside | *wɔmu | 'womu | 'womu | 'womu | womu | gʷo'mu |
tail | *wɔbʉ | wo'bu | 'wobu | 'wobʉ | 'wobʉ | 'wobu |
testicle | *wɔb[ʉ]-ɾɔ | 'wobu-ro | ||||
liver | *wɔwuN | wũ | wõŋ | wõŋ ≈wuŋ [dial.] | woŋ | wouŋ |
green/blue | *wɔxu | 'woɣo | 'wuɣu | 'wuɣu ≈ wɔᵘ | woɣu | |
3 sg. poss. | *ɛwa- | ewa- | ||||
right (side) | *ɔwu | 'ou | ou | uma | oᵘʔ | |
pig | *uwɛⁱ | u'i | wi | wei | wei | weɪ |
lake | *pɔxuwɔ | poɣuwɔ | pou'wo | |||
mud | *tawɛ | 'tawe | tawɛ | tawe | ||
sun/day | *sawɜ | sa'wɛ | 'sɑwɛ | 'sawa | 'sawa | |
cassowary | *kaɾʉwɛ | 'karuwɛ | 'kɑruwɛ | kaɾʉ'we | kaɾʉ'we | karuɛ |
cloud/sky | *xɔwʉ | ɣoᵘ | xu ≈ xo | hoʉ ≈ hu | hoʉ ≈ hu ≈ ʔoᵘ | ou: |
breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔ | ja'wo | 'jɑwo | 'ɾawo | ɾawo | ra'wo |
Additionally, there is a correspondence, represented here as /*xʷ/, which is found only in loans from Marind or Marind-Yaqay, where glide /*w/ is realized as [xʷ] in the western dialects of Marind (q.v. Drabbe 1955: 148-151):
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*xʷ | ɸ <f> | ɸ [ɸ f] | w | w | w | |
paddle | *kaxʷi | 'kafi | kɑfi ≈ kɑɸi | 'kawi | 'kawi | kawɪ |
*xʷ | ɸ <f> | x | w [v] | w [v] | x [ɣ] | |
canoe | *jaxʷʉN | jɛfũ | jɑ'xuŋ | ja'vʉŋ | ja'vʉŋ | jaɣʊŋ |
High front vowel /*i/ …
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*i | i | i [i ɪ] | i | i | i [i ɪ] | |
weeping/crying | *iɸɛ | i'fɛ | i'fɛ | i'fɛ | ɛɸɛ | eɸia |
rainbow | *iɾiN | irĩ | ||||
earthquake | *iɾiɾi | iri'ri | ||||
goanna. | *ɛbi | ɛbi [dial.] | 'ɛbi | |||
gall/bile | *[ɛ]timuN | isimũ | ||||
sweet potato | *ɛdiN | 'idiŋ | 'ɛdiŋ | edʒiŋ | edʒiŋ | |
3 sg. | *ɛki | eki | i'ki | 'ɛki | 'ɛki | e'ke |
drink (irrealis) | *ami | ɑmi | ami | ami | ||
young woman | *am[i]gi | am'gi | ||||
eat (future) | *a[n]di | adi- | andʒi | andʒ- | ||
sneeze (n.) | *asiN | asĩ | ||||
dog | *aŋgi | aŋ'gi | 'ɑŋgi | 'aŋgi | 'aŋgi | aŋgi |
tail of bird | *ɔti-ɾɔN | 'osirõ | ||||
taro | *ʉwi | wi | wi | ʉi | ʉi | wɜ |
drink (realis) | *mi | mi- | ||||
star/firefly | *miN | mĩ | miŋ | mi | mi | miʔ |
morning | *mimiN | mimĩ | ||||
thigh | *midiN | midĩ | ||||
in front | *migi | 'miɣi | 'migi ≈ mi'gi | migi | ||
beard | *mati | masi-rõ | ||||
afraid | *mɔki | 'moki | mo'ki- | moki- | moki- | |
leg | *piti | 'bisi | pi'si | pi'si | ||
long | *piɾi | pi'ɾi | 'piɾi | 'piɾi | pirɪ | |
chest | *biN | bĩ | ||||
shin | *biniɾɔ | bini'ro | ||||
moon | *bidiN | bidĩ | bɪ'diŋ | 'bidʒiŋ | 'bidʒiŋ | bidʒiŋ |
hand/arm | *bidɜ | bi'dɛ | 'bidɛ | bi'da | bi'da | bi'da |
go out (of fire) | *bʉni | bu'ni- | ||||
male | *b[a]tiN | bisĩ | b'siŋ | |||
bone | *bagi | bagi | 'bɑgi | 'bagi ≈ ba'gi | ba'gi | bagɪ |
shiver | *bɔbiN | bobĩ- | ||||
elbow/knee | *bɔkiN | bokĩ | ||||
name | *ɸi | fi | ɸi | ɸi ≈ fi | ɸi | ɸi: |
smell | *ɸ[i]mi | fimi- | ||||
think | *ɸimɔ | fimo- | ||||
grandchild | *ɸiɾɔN | ɸi'ɾɔŋ | ɸi'ɾɔŋ | |||
bamboo | *ɸijɔ | fi'o | ʍi'joʔ | 'ɸijo | 'ɸijo | fɪo: |
mother | *ni | ni | 'wɑni | 'wani | ('wa)ni | keni |
wake (tr.) | *naɸiN | nɑɸi- | naɸi(ŋ)- | |||
good | *n[a]ni | 'nani | nenɪ | |||
father's father | *ti | si | si | si | tʃi | tʃi |
plait | *ti | si- | ||||
old (things) | *timi | 'simi | si'mi | tʃimi | tʃɪ'mɪ | |
ant | *titaxa | 'sitʰɑ(ɣa) | sita'ɣa | tʃitʰaʔa | tʃetʃa:a | |
penis | *tigi | si'gi | ||||
leech | *tiɾiN | tʃiɾiŋ | tʃɪriŋ | |||
one | *tɛ-isijɜ | tisije | te'sia | tɛsia | teisʲa | |
ashes | *taki | 'taki | tɑ'ki | 'taki | 'taki | ta'kʰɪ |
salt | *disɛ | di'se | di'se | di'se | ||
arrow | *dɛb[ɛ]ti | dibi'si | dɛ'bɛsi | debitʃi | eptʃi | |
island | *dʉbi | du'bi | ||||
roof | *dugi | 'duɣi | 'dʒugi | |||
spine | *si | si | ||||
nose | *siN(-tɔ) | sin-'to | 'sin-tɔ | si: | ||
mucus | *siniɸɔ | sini'fo | ||||
high/above | *siɾi | si'ri | si'ɾi | 'siɾi ≈ si'ɾi | 'siɾi ≈ si'ɾi | siri ≈ sirɪ |
black | *siɾi | si'ri | 'siɾi | si'ɾi | si'ɾi | si'rɪ |
theft | *ki | ki | ||||
flower | *ki | ki | ||||
ankle | *kiN | kĩ | ||||
bathe/swim | *kiN | kĩ | kĩŋ- | ki: ≈ ki(ŋ)- | kiŋ- ≈ kim- | kʰin- ≈ kɪm- |
tear(s) | *kin-(ɜjɜ) | kin-'ɛ | ||||
near | *kinaxaN | kinaɣã | kinɑ'ɣɑ̃ŋ | 'kina | 'kina | 'kiraŋ |
foot/leg | *kitɔ | kito | 'kito | ki'to | ||
rope | *kikiN | kikĩ | ||||
side | *kikiN | kikĩ | ||||
wind | *kɛɸi | ki'fi | 'kiɸi | 'kɛɸi | 'kɛɸi | keɸi |
sharp | *kɛtiN | 'kisĩ | 'kisiŋ | 'kesiŋ | kɪtʃiŋ ≈ kitʃiŋ | kitʃiŋ |
branch | *kabiN | kabĩ | ||||
sweat | *k[a]tiN | kasĩ | ||||
vomit | *k[a]ndi | kandi | ||||
leech | *kaɾijaN | karia | 'karijɑŋ | kaɾijaŋ | ||
paddle | *kaxʷi | 'kafi | kɑfi ≈ kɑɸi | 'kawi | 'kawi | kawɪ |
scratch | *gi- | gi- | -ɣi | -gi | -gi | -gɪ |
gather | *gigi[jɔ] kuN | gigio kũ- | ||||
sand | *giɾiN | girĩ | 'giriŋ | gi'ɾiŋ | gi'ɾiŋ | giriŋ |
garden | *gijɔN | giõ | ɣijoŋ | |||
break/snap | *gɛni | geni- | ||||
nape | *gubiN | gubĩ | ||||
lime | *xami | ami | ||||
friend | *xabiN | abiŋ [dial.] | ha:bim | |||
spear | *xati | ɣa'si | ||||
fence/wall | *xaɾi | 'xɑɾi | 'haɾi | ʔa:ɾi | ha'rɪ | |
be in pain | *xaɾimɔ | ɣarimo- | ||||
be enough | *xaɾini | ɣarini- | ||||
die (pl.) | *xɔs[a]ŋgi | ɣosaŋgi- | ||||
flying fox | *xɔŋgi | ɣoŋ'gi | ||||
call/sing | *ɾi | ri- | ||||
lie down | *ɾi | ri- | ɾi | ɾi | ri | |
rib(s) | *ɾiN | rim-bigi | ||||
twist rope | *ɾiN | rĩ- | ||||
bird | *ji | ji | ɪ: | ʝi | ʝi | i: |
fire | *ji(n) | jĩ | dziŋ | ʝi ≈ 'ʝin- | ʝi ≈ 'ʝin- | ji: ≈ n- |
fruit/seed | *jindV-ɾɔ | jindɛ-ro | jindɔ-'ro | jindʒə-ɾo | ||
path | *jɛdi | jɛdi | jɛ'di | jɛdʒi | jedʒi | |
bandicoot | *j[a]mi | 'jemi ≈ 'jɛmi | 'jami | jemiʔ ≈ jamiʔ | ||
scab | *j[a]miN | jamĩ | ||||
mother's mother | *wi | wi | wi | wi | wi | wi |
roof | *wɛnikɔ | we'niko | we'niko | we'niŋko | ||
snake | *wati | wasi | 'wɑsi | wa'si | watʃi ≈ wa'si | wa'dʒi |
river | *wadi | wa'di | 'wɑdi | 'wadi | 'wadi | wa'dɪ |
bamboo knife | *waki | wa'ki | 'wɑki | wa'ki | waki |
In several examples where /*i/ is followed by mid back vowel /*ɔ/, it is lowered to [e] in Amagatsu and/or Drabbe's Pisà:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*i/Cɔ | i e ɛ | i | i | i | e | |
see/find | *ɸitɔ | feto- | ɸi'tɑ | 'ɸita ≈ ɸi'to | 'ɸita ≈ ɸitɔ | he'to: |
breath | *ɸiɾɔ | fero- | ||||
kunai grass | *sisɔ | sɛ'so | siso | 'siso | 'siso | suso (?) |
marsupial | *kisɔ | ki'so | ki'soɑ | 'kiso | keso | |
eye | *kiɾɔ | kiro | ki'ɾo | 'kiɾo | 'kiɾo | ke:ro |
High central vowel /*ʉ/ …
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*ʉ | u | ɯ [ɯ u] | ʉ [ʉ u] | ʉ [ʉ u] | ʉ [ʉ u ʊ] | |
close eyes | *abʉN | abu- | ||||
body | *adʉ | adu | ||||
night | *asʉ | a'su | 'ɑsɯ | 'asʉ | 'asʉ | a'su |
break/split (tr.) | *axaɸʉN | aɣafũ- | ||||
taro | *ʉwi | wi | wi | ʉi | ʉi | wɜ |
neck/throat | *mʉ(-tɔ) | mu(-'to) | ||||
stomach | *madʉ | madzu [dial.] | madzu [dial.] | |||
go out (of fire) | *bʉni | bu'ni- | ||||
village | *butʉ | 'busɯ | bu'sʉ ≈ bʉ'sʉ | butʃɯ | butʃu | |
bad smell | *paxa ɸʉ[N] | 'paɣa fu | patʃu: | |||
banana | *tʉ | su | sɯ | sʉ | tʃɯ | tʃu: |
urinate | *tʉ | su- | ||||
cook/burn | *dʉ | du- | du- | dʒʉ | dʒu | dʒu |
bow | *dʉN | dũ | dũŋ | ⁿdu | dʒũŋ | dʒʊn |
island | *dʉbi | du'bi | ||||
young man | *sʉbaN | 'subã | ||||
mud | *sʉɾu | 'sɯru | ||||
ripe/dry (?) | *kaɾʉ | 'kɑru | 'kaɾʉ | 'kaɾʉ | kʰaru | |
cassowary | *kaɾʉwɛ | 'karuwɛ | 'kɑruwɛ | kaɾʉ'we | kaɾʉ'we | karuɛ |
brain | *g[ʉ]N | gũ | ||||
navel | *g[ʉ]N | gũ | ||||
cloud/sky | *xɔwʉ | ɣoᵘ | xu ≈ xo | hoʉ ≈ hu | hoʉ ≈ hu ≈ ʔoᵘ | ou: |
go down | *ɾʉ- | ru- | ||||
chop down | *ɾʉ- | ru- | ||||
thunder | *ɾʉ- | ru- | ||||
scar | *ɾʉ[N] | ru | ||||
boil (n.) | *ɾʉN | rũ | ||||
canoe | *jaxʷʉN | jɛfũ | jɑ'xuŋ | ja'vʉŋ | ja'vʉŋ | jaɣʊŋ |
worm | *wɛɾʉ | 'weru | 'weɾʉ | 'weɾʉ | eu'ru | |
kill | *wʉ | wu- | -u- | -ʉ- | ||
tail | *wɔbʉ | wo'bu | 'wobu | 'wobʉ | 'wobʉ | 'wobu |
High back vowel /*u/ …
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*u | u | u [u ʊ] | u | u | u [u ʊ] | |
gall/bile | *[ɛ]timuN | isimũ | ||||
hide | *atuɾumɔ- | asurumo- | ||||
bite | *asu | asu- | ɑsʊ- | asu | ||
smoke | *aku | a'ku | 'ɑku | aku | aku | a'kʰu |
seek/search | *agu | agu- | ɑgu- | agu | ago- | agʰu- |
louse | *aŋgu | 'aŋgu | 'ɑŋgu | aŋ'gu | aŋ'gu | |
louse | *mɛɾu | 'mɛɾu | meɾu | meru | ||
blunt/dull | *mutu | mutʃu | ||||
swallow | *m[u]kuN | mukũ- | ||||
egg | *mugɔ | mu'go | mugɔʔ | mu'go | mu'go | muŋgo |
lake | *pɔxuwɔ | poɣuwɔ | pou'wo | |||
elbow/knee | *buN | bũ | buŋ | buŋ [dial.] | buŋ | |
outside/below | *butaxa | 'butaɣa | 'butɑɣɑ | buta'ɣa | ||
village | *butʉ | 'busɯ | bu'sʉ ≈ bʉ'sʉ | butʃɯ | butʃu | |
fly (v.) | *buɾuN | burũ- | 'buruŋ- | buɾuŋ- | buɾuŋ- | buruŋ- |
below | *[ɸ/x]u | fu | xu(h) | |||
crocodile | *nagaɾu | naga'ɾuʔ | naga'ɾuʔ | nagru | ||
1 sg. | *nu | nu | nũ | nũ | nũ | nu |
1 pl. | *nugu | nugu | 'nugu | 'nugu | 'nugu | nuŋgu |
cold | *taɾu | 'taru | 'tɑru | 'taɾu | 'taɾu | ta'ru |
go down | *tu | su- | ||||
daughter | *tub-ɾaN | subrã | ||||
nipple | *tubu | subu | ||||
ear | *tuɾuN | 'surũ | 'suruŋ | su'ɾuŋ | tʃuɾuŋ | tʃu'ruŋ |
sago | *du | du | du | du | du | duʔ |
roof | *dugi | 'duɣi | 'dʒugi | |||
mud | *sʉɾu | 'sɯru | ||||
nose | *susuN | 'susuŋ | 'susuŋ | susuŋ | ||
slow | *sukum[a]N | 'sukumã | ||||
carry | *kɛkuN | kɛkũ- | ||||
older brother | *kapu | ka'pu | kɑ'pu | 'kapu | 'kapu ≈ a-'kabu | a-kabu |
belly | *kaku | 'kaku | 'kɑku | ka'ku | ka'ku | ka'ku |
two | *kɔɾumaN | kurumã | koru'mɑʔ | ku'ɾuma | ku'ɾuma | kʰɔrman |
die (sg.) | *kuN | kũ- | kuŋ- | kuŋ- | kuŋ- | kuŋ- |
wash | *kuN | kũ | ku(ŋ)- | ku(ŋ)- | ku(ŋ)- | ku(ŋ)- |
sleep (n.) | *kunuN | kunũ | 'kunu | kunu- | kunu- | ku'nu- |
goura pigeon | *kutɛ | ku'tɛ | ||||
gather | *gigi[jɔ] kuN | gigio kũ- | ||||
younger sibling | *kudɜ | ku'dɛ | kudɛ | 'kuda | 'kuda | |
2 sg. | *gu | gu | gu | gu | ||
nape | *gubiN | gubĩ | ||||
stone axe | *xabu | ɣa'bu | 'habu | ʔabu | a'bu: | |
crocodile | *xajambu | 'ɣaⁱjambu | xɑ'jɑmbu | |||
friend | *xɔmu | 'homu | ɔ:mu [dial.] | |||
husband | *xu | -ɣu | -gu | -ɣu | -ᵘ | -u: ≈ -uʔ |
milk | *xu[N] | ɣu | ||||
yawn | *xuɸamɔ | ɣufamo- | ||||
voice/speech | *ɾu | ru | ru | ɾu | ɾu | ru(:) |
person | *[ɾ/j]ɔxu | 'juɣu | 'jogoŋ | 'ju'ɣu | ɾɔu | roʔu |
inside | *wɔmu | 'womu | 'womu | 'womu | womu | gʷo'mu |
green/blue | *wɔxu | 'woɣo | 'wuɣu | 'wuɣu ≈ wɔᵘ | woɣu |
Mid front vowel /*ɛ/ …
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*ɛ | e [ɛ e] | e [ɛ e] | e [ɛ e] | e [ɛ e] | e | |
weeping/crying | *iɸɛ | i'fɛ | i'fɛ | i'fɛ | ɛɸɛ | eɸia |
do/make | *ɛmɔ | emo- | ||||
3 sg. poss. | *ɛna- | ena- | ɛn(a)- | ɛn(a)- | ɛn(a)- | ɛn(a)- |
give | *ɛdV | edo- | ||||
3 sg. poss. | *ɛwa- | ewa- | ||||
louse | *mɛɾu | 'mɛɾu | meɾu | meru | ||
wound | *pɛsɔ | 'pɛso | ||||
tongue | *ɸagɛ | fa'gɛ | ɸɑ'gɛ | 'ɸagɛ | 'ɸagɛ ≈ hage | ha'ge |
root | *tatɛ | ta'tɛ | tɑ'tɛ | ta'tɛ | ||
mud | *tawɛ | 'tawe | tawɛ | tawe | ||
salt | *disɛ | di'se | di'se | di'se | ||
older sister | *dɛ | dɛ | nɑ'tɛ | 'wadɛ | na'dɛ | nade |
not | *dɛ | dɛ | ||||
arrow | *dɛb[ɛ]ti | dibi'si | dɛ'bɛsi | debitʃi | eptʃi | |
widower | *sɛN | 'sɛŋ-go | ||||
carry | *kɛkuN | kɛkũ- | ||||
bad | *kɛjɔN | 'kijoŋ | 'kejoŋ | 'kejoŋ | keijoŋ | |
wet | *kakɛ | kake | 'kɑkɛ | 'kakɛ | 'kakɛ | |
cassowary | *kaɾʉwɛ | 'karuwɛ | 'kɑruwɛ | kaɾʉ'we | kaɾʉ'we | karuɛ |
goura pigeon | *kutɛ | ku'tɛ | ||||
break/snap | *gɛni | geni- | ||||
play | *xaɸɛ | ɣa'fɛ | ||||
worm | *wɛɾʉ | 'weru | 'weɾʉ | 'weɾʉ | eu'ru |
When /*ɛ/ is followed by high front /*i/ in the next syllable, it tends to be raised to /i/ in Wildeman River:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*ɛ/_Ci | e i | ɛ i | e | e | e | |
goanna. | *ɛbi | ɛbi [dial.] | 'ɛbi | |||
sweet potato | *ɛdiN | 'idiŋ | 'ɛdiŋ | edʒiŋ | edʒiŋ | |
3 sg. | *ɛki | eki | i'ki | 'ɛki | 'ɛki | e'ke |
one | *tɛ-isijɜ | tisije | te'sia | tɛsia | teisʲa | |
wind | *kɛɸi | ki'fi | 'kiɸi | 'kɛɸi | 'kɛɸi | keɸi |
sharp | *kɛtiN | 'kisĩ | 'kisiŋ | 'kesiŋ | kɪtʃiŋ ≈ kitʃiŋ | kitʃiŋ |
path | *jɛdi | jɛdi | jɛ'di | jɛdʒi | jedʒi | |
roof | *wɛnikɔ | we'niko | we'niko | we'niŋko |
Mid central vowel /*ɜ/ …:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*ɜ | e [ɛ e] | e [ɛ e] | a | a | a | |
mosquito | *ɛⁱsɜ | ise | 'isɛ | i'sa ≈ ɛⁱsɛ [dial.] | i'sa ≈ isɛ | eisʲa |
water | *ɜjɜ | ɛ | 'ɛ | 'aja | 'aja | aija |
butterfly | *apɜɾɔ | 'apɛro | ||||
coconut | *pɜjɔ | pe'jo | 'pejo | 'pajo | 'pajo | pajo |
blind/deaf | *pɜjɔ | pɛ'jo | 'pɛjo | pa'jo | pa'jo | pajo: |
hand/arm | *bidɜ | bi'dɛ | 'bidɛ | bi'da | bi'da | bi'da |
one | *tɛ-isijɜ | tisije | te'sia | tɛsia | teisʲa | |
come | *dɜ | dɛ- | dɛ | da | da | da: |
dry | *sɜ | sɛ | sɛ | sa-ka'ɾa | sa-kᵊɾa | sa: ≈ sa-kra) |
sun/day | *sawɜ | sa'wɛ | 'sɑwɛ | 'sawa | 'sawa | |
not/no | *kaɾɜ | ka'rɛ | 'kɑrɛ | ka'ɾa | kaɾa | kʰa'ra ≈ kara |
younger sibling | *kudɜ | ku'dɛ | kudɛ | 'kuda | 'kuda | |
mouth | *xatɜ | ɣa'tɛ | xɑ'tɛ | 'hata | 'hat:a | ata |
hunger/thirst | *jɜ | jɛ | ||||
love | *jɜ | jɛ | ||||
left | *wɜ | we | wa | wɛma | wa |
Mid back vowel /*ɔ/…
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*ɔ | o | o [ɔ o] | o [ɔ o] | o [ɔ o] | o | |
stone | *ɛⁱɾɔ | i'ro | i'ro | 'eiɾo ≈ 'iɾɔ | 'eiɾo | ɛⁱro |
do/make | *ɛmɔ | emo- | ||||
butterfly | *apɜɾɔ | 'apɛro | ||||
hide | *aturumɔ- | asurumo- | ||||
excrement | *ɔ | o | ɔ | ɔ̃ | ɔ̃ ≈ o: [dial.] | o: |
breast | *ɔN | õ | õŋ | õŋ | õŋ | õ |
child | *ɔɸɔ | 'ofo | 'oɸo | 'oɸo | oho | |
tail of bird | *ɔti-ɾɔN | 'osirõ | ||||
behind | *mɔ | mo | mo | mo | ||
mother's bro. | *mɔN | mõ | ||||
small | *m[ɔ]nɔxɔ | 'monoɣo | mono'ɣo | mo'nɔɣɔ | monɔ ≈ məno | meʔno |
afraid | *mɔki | 'moki | mo'ki- | moki- | moki- | |
earth | *mɔkaN | mokã | ||||
cheek | *mɔxɔN | moɣõ | ||||
egg | *mugɔ | mu'go | mugɔʔ | mu'go | mu'go | muŋgo |
wound | *pɛsɔ | 'pɛso | ||||
coconut | *pɜjɔ | pe'jo | 'pejo | 'pajo | 'pajo | pajo |
blind/deaf | *pɜjɔ | pɛ'jo | 'pɛjo | pa'jo | pa'jo | pajo: |
lake | *pɔxuwɔ | poɣuwɔ | pou'wo | |||
shin | *biniɾɔ | bini'ro | ||||
short/blunt | *bagɔ | ba'go | 'bɑɣo | 'bogo | 'bogo | bogo |
father | *bɔ | bo | bo | bo | bo | |
shiver | *bɔbiN | bobĩ- | ||||
elbow/knee | *bɔkiN | bokĩ | ||||
think | *ɸimɔ | fimo- | ||||
grandchild | *ɸiɾɔN | ɸi'ɾɔŋ | ɸi'ɾɔŋ | |||
bamboo | *ɸijɔ | fi'o | ʍi'joʔ | 'ɸijo | 'ɸijo | fɪo: |
breath | *ɸiɾɔ | fero- | ||||
stink | *ɸɔxɔmɔ | foɣomo- | ||||
go (imperative) | *nɔxɔⁱ | noɣoj | no'ɣi | 'noɣu ≈ 'noɣʉ | noʔi | noɪ |
hole | *tɔ | to | tɔ | |||
new | *tɔgɔ | 'togɔ | togo | |||
armpit | *tɔgɔN | 'toɣõ | ||||
afterbirth | *t[ɔ]gɔɾɔ | 'togoro | ||||
finger/toe | *tɔɾɔN | torõ | 'toɾoŋ | 'toɾoŋ ≈ to'ɾɔŋ | to'ɾɔŋ | toraŋ |
get up/stand up | *dɔtɔ | doto- | do'to- | do'to- | doto- | do'to: ≈ doto- |
heart | *dʉb[u]ɾɔ | 'duburo | 'dʒubuɾɔ | 'dʒubuɾɔ | ||
burn (intr.) | *dɔ | do- | 'do- | 'do- | do- | |
mucus | *siniɸɔ | sini'fo | ||||
kunai grass | *sisɔ | sɛ'so | siso | 'siso | 'siso | suso |
earth/ground | *sɔxɔ | so'ɣo | so'xo | 'soxo ≈ sɔxɔ | 'soɣo ≈ soxo | soʔo |
foot/leg | *kitɔ | kito | 'kito | ki'to | ||
marsupial | *kisɔ | ki'so | ki'soɑ | 'kiso | keso | |
eye | *kiɾɔ | kiro | ki'ɾo | 'kiɾo | 'kiɾo | ke:ro |
bad | *kɛjɔN | 'kijoŋ | 'kejoŋ | 'kejoŋ | keijoŋ | |
tree | *kasVrɔ | 'kasɛro | kɑso'ro | kasiɾo ≈ kasoɾo | kasiɾo ≈ kasoɾo | |
red | *kaŋgɔN | 'kaŋgo | 'kɑŋgo | kaŋgɔ ≈ 'kaŋgo | kaŋgoŋ | kɐ̃ŋgõŋ |
new | *kɔtɔxɔ | kotɔɣɔ | ko'toɣoʔ | |||
garden | *gijɔN | giõ | ɣijoŋ | |||
blood | *gɔN | go | goŋ | gɔŋ | gɔŋ | goŋ |
bandicoot | *xaⁱjɔ | 'ɣajo | hɛijo | haijo(ʔ) | ||
be in pain | *xaɾimɔ | ɣarimo- | ||||
man | *xɔ | ɣo | xo | ɸ(u)- | ɔ- ≈ o- | ho:- ≈ o- |
walk/go | *xɔ | ɣo- | ||||
die (pl.) | *xɔs[a]ŋgi | ɣosaŋgi- | ||||
flying fox | *xɔŋgi | ɣoŋ'gi | ||||
ghost | *xɔxɔⁱ | ɣo'ɣoⁱ | 'hoɣo ≈ 'hoɣu | ɸɔɣɔⁱ | ||
cloud/sky | *xɔwʉ | ɣoᵘ | xu ≈ xo | hoʉ ≈ hu | hoʉ ≈ hu ≈ ʔoᵘ | ou: |
yawn | *xuɸamɔ | ɣufamo- | ||||
fruit/seed | *ɾɔ | ro | ro | 'ro | ɾo | |
say/speak | *ɾɔ | ro- | ro | ɾɔ | ro | |
hair/leaf/feather | *ɾɔN | rõ | roŋ | ɾɔŋ ≈ ɾõŋ | ɾɔŋ | roŋ |
weep/cry | *ɾɔN | roŋ- | ||||
breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔ | ja'wo | 'jɑwo | 'ɾawo | ɾawo | ra'wo |
thorn | *jamɔxɔN | 'jamoɣõ | jɑməɣõŋ | jamɔ'kɔŋ | jɛmɔʔɔ ≈ jimɔ̃: | ⁿji:moʔo |
copulate | *jɔN | jõ- | ||||
3 pl. | *jɔxɔ | joɣo | jo'ɣʉ ≈ jo'ɣo | jo'ɣʉ ≈ jo'ɣo | jo:o | |
rattan/rope | *jɔxu | 'joɣomo | joɣomo | 'juɣumo ≈ joɣo- | jɔɣu | joɣu |
roof | *wɛnikɔ | we'niko | we'niko | we'niŋko | ||
thumb/big toe | *wadɔ | wa'do | wa'do | |||
break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | waɣaramo- | ||||
tail | *wɔbʉ | wo'bu | 'wobu | 'wobʉ | 'wobʉ | 'wobu |
testicle | *wɔb[ʉ]-ɾɔ | 'wobu-ro |
When /*ɔ/ is followed by /*u/ in the next syllable, it is raised to /u/ in Drabbe's Pisà and sometimes in Miaro River and in Kewet River of Juvo. This does not occur if the intervening consonant is /*m/:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*ɔ/_Cu | u | o | u o | ɔ u | ɔ o | |
right (side) | *ɔwu | 'ou | ou | uma | oᵘʔ | |
two | *kɔɾumaN | kurumã | koru'mɑʔ | ku'ɾuma | ku'ɾuma | kʰɔrman |
husband | *xɔxu | -ɣogu | ɸu: ≈ ɸuɣu [dial.] | ɔᵘ ≈ -oᵘŋ | ho:u: ≈ ouʔ | |
person | *[ɾ/j]ɔxu | 'juɣu | 'jogoŋ | 'ju'ɣu | ɾɔu | roʔu |
green/blue | *wɔxu | 'woɣo | 'wuɣu | 'wuɣu ≈ wɔᵘ | woɣu | |
liver | *wɔwuN | wũ | wõŋ | wõŋ ≈wuŋ [dial.] | woŋ | wouŋ |
*ɔ/_mu | u | o | o | o [ɔ o] | o | |
friend | *xɔmu | 'homu | ɔ:mu [dial.] | |||
inside | *wɔmu | 'womu | 'womu | 'womu | womu | gʷo'mu |
Low central vowel /*a/ …
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*a | a | a [ɑ] | a | a | a | |
3 sg. poss. | *ɛna- | ena- | ɛn(a)- | ɛn(a)- | ɛn(a)- | ɛn(a)- |
rain | *a | a: | ɑ: | ʔa | ʔa(:) | a: |
nest | *a | ji 'a | ||||
vagina | *a-tɔ | 'ato | ||||
drink (irrealis) | *ami | ɑmi | ami | ami | ||
young woman | *am[i]gi | am'gi | ||||
butterfly | *apɜɾɔ | 'apɛro | ||||
hot | *apa | 'apa | 'ɑpɑ | a'pasi | apa(si) | a'pa |
laughter | *ab[ɛN] | ab gi- | ɑb-giŋ | aba-'gi- | ab(i)-gi- | ap-gi- |
close eyes | *abʉN | abu- | ||||
leaf | *ana | ɑnɑ | ||||
hide | *atuɾumɔ- | asurumo- | ||||
body | *adʉ | adu | ||||
tie | *ad[awɔ] | ada- | ɑde- | ada | -da- | ado |
eat (future) | *a[n]di | adi- | andʒi | andʒ- | ||
sneeze (n.) | *asiN | asĩ | ||||
thin | *as[ɛ][x][ɛ] | 'aseɣe | ||||
night | *asʉ | a'su | 'ɑsɯ | 'asʉ | 'asʉ | a'su |
bite | *asu | asu- | ɑsʊ- | asu | ||
smoke | *aku | a'ku | 'ɑku | aku | aku | a'kʰu |
seek/search | *agu | agu- | ɑgu- | agu | ago- | agʰu- |
dog | *aŋgi | aŋ'gi | 'ɑŋgi | 'aŋgi | 'aŋgi | aŋgi |
louse | *aŋgu | 'aŋgu | 'ɑŋgu | aŋ'gu | aŋ'gu | |
fish | *axaᵉ | a'ɣaᵉ | ɑ'ɣe | ʔa'ɣe | ʔaj | ae: |
break/split (tr.) | *axaɸʉN | aɣafũ- | ||||
cooked | *ma- | ma- | ||||
beard | *mati | masi-rõ | ||||
stand | *mati-ɛ | mase- | mɑ'si- | 'masi- ≈ ma'si- | matʃi- | matʃe- |
stomach | *madu | madzu [dial.] | madzu [dial.] | |||
tooth | *maga | ma'ga | 'mɑgɑ | ma'ga | ma'ga | maga |
knee/elbow | *maɾ[ɔ/u] | ma'ɾu | ma'ɾu | ma'ɾu | ma'ɾo | |
earth | *mɔkaN | mokã | ||||
old (people) | *patʉ | patʃu: | ||||
bad smell | *paxa ɸʉ[N] | 'paɣa fu | patʃu: | |||
sit/stay | *ba | ba- | bɑ- | ba- | ba- | |
soul | *b[a]na | bana | ||||
bone | *bagi | bagi | 'bɑgi | 'bagi ≈ ba'gi | ba'gi | bagɪ |
wing | *baɾ[ɔ/u] | baɾu: [dial.] | baɾɔ | |||
outside/below | *butaxa | 'butaɣa | 'butɑɣɑ | buta'ɣa | ||
not | *ɸa | fa | ||||
tongue | *ɸagɛ | fa'gɛ | ɸɑ'gɛ | 'ɸagɛ | 'ɸagɛ ≈ hage | ha'ge |
1 sg. poss. | *na- | na | nɑ- | na- | na- | na- |
eat (imperative) | *na | na | ||||
wake (tr.) | *naɸiN | nɑɸi- | naɸi(ŋ)- | |||
knowledge | *naɸaN | nafã | nɑ'ɸɑŋ | na'ɸaŋ | na'ɸaŋ | naxaŋ |
crocodile | *nagaɾu | naga'ɾuʔ | naga'ɾuʔ | nagru | ||
ant | *titaxa | 'sitʰɑ(ɣa) | sita'ɣa | tʃitʰaʔa | tʃetʃa:a | |
root | *tatɛ | ta'tɛ | tɑ'tɛ | ta'tɛ | ||
ashes | *taki | 'taki | tɑ'ki | 'taki | 'taki | ta'kʰɪ |
tired | *taxaN | taɣã | ||||
cold | *taɾu | 'taru | 'tɑru | 'taɾu | 'taɾu | ta'ru |
mud | *tawɛ | 'tawe | tawɛ | tawe | ||
hear | *da | da- | dɑ- | da | da- | da- |
in front | *samaN | samam | ||||
sun/day | *sawɜ | sa'wɛ | 'sɑwɛ | 'sawa | 'sawa | |
young man | *sʉbaN | 'subã | ||||
near | *kinaxaN | kinaɣã | kinɑ'ɣɑ̃ŋ | 'kina | 'kina | 'kiraŋ |
nail | *k[i/ɛ]ja | ki'a | ki'jɑ | ki'ja | ki'ja | ke'a |
older brother | *kapu | ka'pu | kɑ'pu | 'kapu | 'kapu ≈ a-'kabu | a-kabu |
branch | *kabiN | kabĩ | ||||
flesh | *kad[ʉ] | ka'du | 'kɑdu | 'kadzu ≈ ka'du | kadʒu ≈ ka'du | kadʒu |
tree | *kasVɾɔ | 'kasɛro | kɑso'ro | kasiɾo ≈ kasoɾo | kasiɾo ≈ kasoɾo | |
wet | *kakɛ | kake | 'kɑkɛ | 'kakɛ | 'kakɛ | |
belly | *kaku | 'kaku | 'kɑku | ka'ku | ka'ku | ka'ku |
red | *kaŋgɔN | 'kaŋgo | 'kɑŋgo | kaŋgɔ ≈ 'kaŋgo | kaŋgoŋ | kɐ̃ŋgõŋ |
leech | *kaɾijaN | karia | 'karijɑŋ | kaɾijaŋ | ||
not/no | *kaɾɜ | ka'rɛ | 'kɑrɛ | ka'ɾa | kaɾa | kʰa'ra ≈ kara |
ripe/dry (?) | *kaɾʉ | 'kɑru | 'kaɾʉ | 'kaɾʉ | kʰaru | |
cassowary | *kaɾʉwɛ | 'karuwɛ | 'kɑruwɛ | kaɾʉ'we | kaɾʉ'we | karuɛ |
paddle | *kaxʷi | 'kafi | kɑfi ≈ kɑɸi | 'kawi | 'kawi | kawɪ |
two | *kɔɾumaN | kurumã | koru'mɑʔ | ku'ɾuma | ku'ɾuma | kʰɔrman |
raw/young | *[k/x]adaxaⁱ | 'kadaɣaⁱ | 'xɑdɑɣɑi | kada'ɣei | adaɣai ≈ adaɣi | adʰaʔɪ |
2 sg. poss. | *ga- | ga- | ||||
skin/bark | *xa | ɣa | xɑ | ha ≈ xa | ʔa: ≈ ha | a: |
head | *xaⁱbaN | ɣajbã | 'xɑibɑŋ | he'baŋ ≈ hi'baŋ | habaŋ ≈ ʔa'baŋ | aibaŋ |
lime | *xami | ami | ||||
widow | *xam[ɜ] | ɣa'mɛ | ||||
far | *xamaN | ɣamã | xɑ̃mɑ̃ŋ | 'xama | amaʔ | a'ma |
friend | *xabiN | abiŋ [dial.] | ha:bim | |||
stone axe | *xabu | ɣa'bu | 'habu | ʔabu | a'bu: | |
play | *xaɸɛ | ɣa'fɛ | ||||
spear | *xati | ɣa'si | ||||
mouth | *xatɜ | ɣa'tɛ | xɑ'tɛ | 'hata | 'hat:a | ata |
fence/wall | *xaɾi | 'xɑɾi | 'haɾi | ʔa:ɾi | ha'rɪ | |
be in pain | *xaɾimɔ | ɣarimo- | ||||
be enough | *xaɾini | ɣarini- | ||||
white | *xaja | 'ɣaja | 'xɑjɑ | ha'ja | ha'ja | |
crocodile | *xajambu | 'ɣaⁱjambu | xɑ'jɑmbu | |||
yawn | *xuɸamɔ | ɣufamo- | ||||
take/hold | *ɾa | ra- | ɾa- | ɾa- | ||
woman/wife | *ɾaN | rã | rɑŋ | ɾaŋ | ɾaŋ | raŋ |
breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔ | ja'wo | 'jɑwo | 'ɾawo | ɾawo | ra'wo |
bark | *jaxaN | 'jaɣaŋ | 'jaɣaŋ ≈ ja:ŋ | ɲʲaʔa | ||
lie(s) | *jaxam[a] | 'jaɣama | ||||
canoe | *jaxʷʉN | jɛfũ | jɑ'xuŋ | ja'vʉŋ | ja'vʉŋ | jaɣʊŋ |
3 sg. poss. | *wa- | ewa- | wɑ- | wa- | wa- | |
snake | *wati | wasi | 'wɑsi | wa'si | watʃi ≈ wa'si | wa'dʒi |
*wadi | wa'di | 'wɑdi | 'wadi | 'wadi | wa'dɪ | |
thumb/big toe | *wadɔ | wa'do | wa'do | |||
bamboo knife | *waki | wa'ki | 'wɑki | wa'ki | waki | |
ripe/yellow | *waxamaN | 'waɣamã | wa'ɣama | wama | waʔ'ma | |
break/crush (tr.) | *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ- | waɣaramo- |
Diphthongs /*ɛⁱ *ɔⁱ *aⁱ *aᵉ/ …:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
*ɛⁱ | i | i | eⁱ [eⁱ ɛⁱ i] | eⁱ [eⁱ i] | eⁱ [ei eɪ ɪ] | |
mosquito | *ɛⁱsɜ | ise | 'isɛ | i'sa ≈ ɛⁱsɛ [dial.] | i'sa ≈ isɛ | eisʲa |
stone | *ɛⁱɾɔ | i'ro | i'ro | 'eiɾo ≈ 'iɾɔ | 'eiɾo | ɛⁱro |
pig | *uwɛⁱ | u'i | wi | wei | wei | weɪ |
goanna | *tɛⁱja | 'teija | 'teia | teije | ||
river | *wadɛⁱ | wa'di | 'wɑdi | 'wadi | 'wadi | wa'dɪ |
*ɔⁱ | oⁱ | i | o u ʉ | ɔⁱ i | oɪ | |
go (imperative) | *nɔxɔⁱ | noɣoj | no'ɣi | 'noɣu ≈ 'noɣʉ | noʔi | noɪ |
ghost | *xɔxɔⁱ | ɣo'ɣoⁱ | 'hoɣo ≈ 'hoɣu | ɸɔɣɔⁱ | ||
*aⁱ | aⁱ | ɑi | ei ɛi e i | ai a i | aʔɪ aʔə | |
raw/young | *[k/x]adaxaⁱ | 'kadaɣaⁱ | 'xɑdɑɣɑi | kada'ɣei | adaɣai ≈ adaɣi | adʰaʔɪ |
give birth | *xaⁱ | ɣaⁱ- | ||||
house | *xaⁱN | ɣãⁱ | xɑ̃ĩŋ | -ɣiŋ | ʔaĩ: | haʔə |
head | *xaⁱbaN | ɣajbã | 'xɑibɑŋ | he'baŋ ≈ hi'baŋ | habaŋ ≈ ʔa'baŋ | aibaŋ |
fence | *xaⁱti | ɣaⁱ'si | ||||
bandicoot | *xaⁱjɔ | 'ɣajo | hɛijo | haijo(ʔ) | ||
*aᵉ | aᵉ | e | e | aj | e | |
fish | *axaᵉ | a'ɣaᵉ | ɑ'ɣe | ʔa'ɣe | ʔaj | ae: |
West Awyu free pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with forms drawn from Drabbe (1950: 99-100,) Kriens and Lebold (2010: 42,) Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 45-46, 55-56) and Kriens, Lebold and Menanti (2011: 45-46):
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
1 sg. | *nu | nu | nũ | nũ | nũ | nu |
2 sg. | *gu | gu | gu | ? | ? | gu |
3 sg. | *ɛki | eki | i'ki | 'ɛki | 'ɛki | e'ke |
1 pl. | *nugu | nugu | 'nugu | 'nugu | 'nugu | nuŋgu |
2 pl. | *g[ɔ]g[ʉ] | gugu | gu'gu | 'gɔgʉ ≈ 'gogu | 'gɔgʉ ≈ 'gogu | gugu |
3 pl. | *jɔxɔ | joɣo | ? | jo'ɣʉ ≈ jo'ɣo | jo'ɣʉ ≈ jo'ɣo | jo:o |
Possessive forms are found on kin terms, and are reconstructed as follows:
West Awyu | Wildeman River | Wildeman River | Miaro River | Kewet River | Kewet River | |
Pisà | Busiri | Keru, Khanami | Juvo B., K. | Amagatsu | ||
1 sg. poss. | *na- | na- | nɑ- | na- | na- | na- |
2 sg. poss. | *ga- | ga- | ? | ? | ? | ? |
3 sg. poss. | *(ɛ-)wa-, *ɛna- | ewa-, ena- | wɑ- | wa-, ɛn(a)- | wa-, ɛn(a)- | ɛn(a)- |
Additionally, Drabbe (1950: 101-102) gives plural forms for Pisà possessors, but these are not attested in SIL's survey vocabularies or in other Awyu subfamilies.