Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
[under construction]
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The internal classification of Digul River is as follows:
Digul River
Sawi
North Digul River
Awbono-Bayono
Becking and Dawi Rivers
Central Digul River
Awyu
Ndeiram River
Dumut
[under construction]
[under construction]
Drabbe (1950, 1957, 1059) Awju group
Healey (1970) proto-Awyu-Dumut
Voorhoeve (1971) adds Sawuj.
Voorhoeve (2000) adds Kombai
Voorhoeve (2005) …
de Vries (2012) …
van den Heuvel, de Vries et al. (CITE) independently propose the inclusion of Becking-Dawi with Awyu-Dumut in a Greater Awyu family upon the basis of shared morphology.
[under construction]
Proto-Digul River had perhaps 15 consonants and 8 vowels as follows:
| *m | *n | |||
| *p | *t | *s | *k | *kʷ |
| *mb | *nd | *ndz | *ŋg | *ŋgʷ |
| *w | *ɾ | *j |
| *i | *u | |
| *e̝ | *o̝ | |
| *ɛ | *ɔ | |
| *a | *ɒ |
….
Digul River neutralized the distinction between Digul River-Ok’s plain and prenasalized final stops, leaving only a restricted subset of consonants which occur finally:
| *m | *n | ||
| *p | *t | *s | *k |
| *ɾ |
…
Initial consonants correspond as follows:
| Digul | Sawuy | North | Central |
| *m- | m | *m | *m |
| *n- | n | *n | *n |
| *p- | |||
| *t- | t | *t | *t |
| *t-/i e̝_ | s | *t | *t |
| *s- | |||
| *k- | x | *k | *k |
| *kʷ- | |||
| *mb- | b | *mb | *mb |
| *nd- | d | *d | *nd |
| *ndz- | |||
| *ŋg- | g | *g | *ŋg |
| *ŋgʷ- | *ŋgʷ | ||
| *w- | *w | *w | |
| *ɾ- | *j | *ɾ | |
| *j- |
Medial consonants correpsond as follows:
| Digul | Sawuy | North | Central |
| *-m- | |||
| *-n- | |||
| *-p- | |||
| *-t- | |||
| *-s- | |||
| *-k- | |||
| *-mb- | |||
| *-nd- | |||
| *-ŋg- | |||
| *-w- | |||
| *-ɾ- | |||
| *-j- |
Final consonants correspond as follows:
| Digul | Sawuy | North | Central |
| *-m | m | *m | *m |
| *-n | n | *n | *n |
| *-p | p | *p | *p |
| *-t | r | *t | *t |
| *-s | |||
| *-k | x | *k | *k |
| *-ɾ | r | *r | *ɾ |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Sawuy forms drawn from Voorhoeve (1971: 88-92, 110-114) unless otherwise indicated; those drawn from unpublished vocabularies by Dietz and Richardson are designated as [xd] and [dr] respectively.
…
| Digul River | North Digul | Central Digul | Sawuy |
Only a restricted set of consonants /*m *n *p *t *s *k *ɾ/ occurs finally. These are generally stable in all three subgroups.
Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *-m | m | *m | *m | |
| breast | *… | aːm | *am | *ɒm |
| men's house | *kaⁱm | xaⁱm [dr] | *kaⁱm | *kaⁱm |
| knee/elbow | *ŋgambum | *gabum | *ŋgambum | |
| jungle fowl | *wako̝m | *wako̝m | *wako̝m |
Final apical nasal /*n/ …:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *-n | n | *n | *n | |
| laughter | *ambɛn | *ambɛn | ||
| thorn | *aɾun | *aɾun | *aɾun | |
| hot | *mamun | *mamun | *mamun | |
| rattan/rope | *… | *nan | ||
| rope | *ke̝ke̝n | kegeːn | *ke̝₂ke̝₂n | |
| head | *kamb[e̝]jan | *kabe̝jan | *kambijan | |
| sweat | *kʷate̝₁n | *kʷate̝₁n | ||
| calf | *… | *wan |
Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *-p | p [p ɸ] | *p | *p | |
| house | *… | ap ~ aːp ~ aɸ | *ɔp | *ap |
| sun/day | *[a]tap | ataːp | ||
| day/yesterday | *aɾup | *aɾup | ||
| turtle/tortoise | *mbiɾip | *biɾip | *mbiɾip | |
| village | *… | *bɔ[t]up | *mbɔᵘtup | |
| tongue | *te̝p | seːp ~ seɸ | *te̝p | |
| hole | *… | taːp | *tɔp | *tɔp |
| banana | *ndzo̝p | *dzo̝p | ||
| inside | *… | *kaɾo̝p | *kaɾɔᵘp | |
| fruit/seed | *ɾɔp | *jɔp | *ɾɔp |
Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *-t | r | *t | *t | |
| mouth | *maŋgɔt | *maŋgɔt | ||
| dog | *tit | siːr | *tit | *tit |
| root | *ndit | dir [dr] | *dit | *ndit |
| hear | *ndat | dar | *… | *ndat |
| bird | *ndzeːt | eːr | *dze̝t | *je̝t |
| flower | *ke̝t | *ke̝t | *ke̝₂t | |
| skin/bark | *… | *kat | *kat | |
| cloud/sky | *… | xaᵘr | *k[o̝]t | *kɔᵘt |
| bamboo pipe | *ŋge̝t | *ge̝t | ||
| breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔt | *jawɔt | *[ɾ/j]awɔt |
Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *-k | x | *k | *k | |
| water | *… | aːx | *[a/ɔ]k | *ɔk |
| leaf/hair | *mo̝k | moːx | *mo̝k | *mo̝k |
| voice | *ɾo̝k | roːx | *jo̝k | *ɾo̝k |
Final apical non-stop /*ɾ/ …:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *-ɾ | r | *ɾ | *ɾ | |
| excrement | *… | aːr | *[ɔ]ɾ | *ɒɾ |
| go up | *to̝ɾ- | *to̝ɾ- | *to̝ɾ- | |
| moon | *wakɔɾ | oxaːr | *wakɔɾ | *wakɔɾ |
Vowels /*i *u *e̝ *o̝ *ɛ *ɔ *a *ɒ/ …
High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in all thee subgroups:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *i | *i | *i | i | |
| sneeze | *asin | *asin | ||
| drink | *mi | *mi | *mi | |
| star | *min | *min | *min | |
| turtle/tortoise | *mbiɾip | *biɾip | *mbiɾip | |
| mother | *ni | *ni | *ni | |
| dog | *tit | siːr | *tit | *tit |
| root | *ndit | dir [dr] | *dit | *ndit |
High back rounded vowel /*u/ …:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *u | *u | *u | u | |
| yesterday | *aɾup | *aɾup | ||
| thorn | *aɾu[n] | arug [dr] | *aɾun | *aɾun |
| egg | *mug… | mugo | *mugɔ | |
| cook/burn | *(a-)ndu | *adu | *(a-)ndu | |
| village | *… | *bɔ[t]ʉp | *mbɔᵘtup | |
| die (present) | *kum | *kum | ||
| knee/elbow | *ŋgambum | *gabum | *ŋgambum |
High mid front vowel /*e̝/ …
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| i | *e̝ | *e̝₁ | ||
| ashes | *te̝na | *te̝n[a] | *te̝₁na | |
| sweat | *kʷate̝n | *kʷate̝₁n | ||
| foot | *ke̝nɔp | kiːnib | *ke̝₁nɔp |
…:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *e̝ | e | *e̝ | *e̝₂ | |
| be | *ke̝ | *ke̝₂ | ||
| flower | *ke̝t | *ke̝t | *ke̝₂t | |
| rope | *ke̝ke̝n | kegeːn | *ke̝₂ke̝₂n | |
| bamboo pipe | *ŋge̝t | *ge̝t |
High mid back vowel /o̝/ …:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *o̝ | o | *o̝ | *o̝ | |
| leaf/hair | *mo̝k | moːx | *mo̝k | *mo̝k |
| black | *mbo̝ko̝n | bokoːn | *mbo̝ko̝n | |
| 1 sg. | *no̝p | *no̝p | *no̝p | |
| go up | *to̝ɾ- | *to̝ɾ- | *to̝ɾ- | |
| 2 sg. | *ŋgo̝p | go ~ gop | *go̝p | *ŋgo̝p |
| voice/speech | *ɾo̝k | roːx | *jo̝k | *ɾo̝k |
| jungle fowl | *wako̝m | *wako̝m | *wako̝m |
Low mid front vowel /*ɛ/ …:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *ɛ | e | *e̝ | *ɛ | |
| laughter | *… | *ambɛn | ||
| vein/tendon | *mɛt | *me̝t | *mɛt | |
| rib(s)/side | *mɛɾɛn | *me̝ɾe̝n | *mɛɾɛn |
…:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *… | o | *ɔ | ||
| egg | *… | mugo | *mugɔ | |
| father | *… | bo | *mbɔ | |
| die (non-pres.) | *… | xom- | *kɔmi- | *kɔm- |
… is lowered to /a/ in Sawuy:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *… | a | *ɔ | *ɔ | |
| hole | *… | taːp | *tɔp | *tɔp |
| moon | *… | oxaːr | *wakor | *wakɔɾ |
…:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *… | a | *[a/ɔ] | *ɔ | |
| water | *… | aːx | *[a/ɔ]k | *ɔk |
… :
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *… | a | *… | *ɒ | |
| breast | … | aːm | *am | *ɒm |
| excrement | *… | aːr | *ɔɾ | *ɒɾ |
| chin | *… | *bɔn | *mbɒn |
…:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *… | *ɔ | *ɔ | ||
| mouth | *… | *maŋgɔt | ||
| do | *… | *-mɔ | *-mɔ | |
| mother's br. | *… | *mɔm | *mɔm | |
| short/blunt | *… | *baŋgɔ | *mbaŋgɔ | |
| burn (intr.) | *… | *ndɔ | *ndɔ | |
| white | *… | *kajɔ | *kajɔ | |
| song | *… | *gɔm | *ŋgɔm | |
| fruit/seed | *… | *jɔp | *ɾɔp | |
| breadfruit | *… | *jawɔt | *[ɾ/j]awɔt |
…:
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *… | a | *ɔ | ||
| elbow | *… | baŋkut [xd] | *bɔŋgo̝p |
…
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *… | a | *a | *a | |
| laughter | *… | *ambɛn | ||
| day/yesterday | *aɾup | *aɾup | ||
| thorn | *… | arug [dr] | *aɾun | *aɾun |
| mouth | *… | *maŋgɔt | ||
| sit | *… | *ba- | *mba- | |
| short/blunt | *… | *baŋgɔ | *mbaŋgɔ | |
| rattan/rope | *nan | |||
| hear | *ndat | dar | *… | *ndat |
| head | *kamb[e̝]jan | *kabe̝jan | *kambijan | |
| skin/bark | *… | *kat | *kat | |
| inside | *… | *kaɾo̝p | *kaɾɔᵘp | |
| white | *… | *kajɔ | *kajɔ | |
| knee/elbow | *ŋgambum | *gabum | *ŋgambum | |
| breadfruit | *… | *jawɔt | *[ɾ/j]awɔt | |
| calf | *… | *wan | ||
| jungle fowl | *wako̝m | *wako̝m | *wako̝m |
Diphthongs … :
| Digul River | Sawuy | North Digul | Central Digul | |
| *aⁱ | aⁱ | *aⁱ | *aⁱ | |
| men's house | *kaⁱm | xaⁱm [dr] | *kaⁱm | *kaⁱm |
| *… | aᵘ | *o̝ | *ɔᵘ | |
| inside | *… | *kaɾo̝p | *kaɾɔᵘp | |
| cloud/sky | *… | xaᵘr | *ko̝t | *kɔᵘt |
| *… | *ɔᵘ | *ɔᵘ | ||
| liver | *ɔᵘm | *ɔᵘm | *wɔᵘm | |
| *… | u | *aᶶ | *ɔᵘ | |
| sago | *… | du | *… | *ndɔᵘ |
[under construction]
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[under construction]
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