Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
The Ok family is comprised of perhaps nineteen languages spoken from the lowlands south of New Guinea's central cordillera to the hills north of it in a region straddling Indonesia's Papua province and Papua New Guinea's Western and Sandaun provinces. The physical diversity of these regions spans two of New Guinea's canonical subsistence regimes, with sago as the staple in the lowlands and taro in the highlands. The internal relationships among Ok's subfamilies as well as the special relationship to Digul River suggest that Proto-Ok was originally spoken in the central western portion of this range, and that the northeastward expansion of the Mountain Ok and the southward expansion of the Lowland Ok occured in relatively recent times.
The internal classification of the Ok family is as follows:
Ok
West Ok
Ngalum
Central Ok
Tangko
Nakai-Naki
Lowland Ok
Ninggerum
Iwur-Komanarepket
Muyu
Mountain Ok
Mian-Suganga
Central Mountain Ok
Austen (1920-1921: 132) vocabulary of (North) Muiu of Kandam village
Austen (1921-1922: 159-162) 132 comparative terms for Marapka (Yongkom,) West Tedi River (Yongkom,) Kandam (North Muyu) and Anu (South Muyu)
Austen (1924-1925: 75) 37 comparative terms for Ionggom and Upper Tedi River (Ninggirum)
Austen (1925-1926: 75) vocabulary of Daupka (Ninggirum) (unobtained)
Geurtjens (1933: 398-433) 457 comparative terns for Digoeleesch (South Muyu)
Boelaars (1950: 68-76) English language recension of Drabbe's then-unpublished grammar of Niinati (North Muyu)
Drabbe (1954: 150-211) grammar and (pp. 214-229) 419 comparative terms and (pp. 231-255) 100 comparative terms for Kati Niinatì (North Muyu) and Katì Metòkma (South Muyu)
Drabbe (1959: 162-181) 431 comparative terms for Kati I (Metomka) and Kati II (Niinati)
Capell (1954) Aran (unobtained)
Healey and Healey (1961) phonology of Telefol
Healey (1962) Telefol kin terms (unobtained)
Healey (1964: 78-97) 120 comparative terms for Mountain Ok languages, Lowland Ok languages and the Sibil dialect of Ngalum, (pp. 133-176) 406 Mountain Ok reconstrctions, (pp. 17–180) 156 Lowland Ok reconstructions, (pp. 182-188) 135 comparisons between proto-Mountain Ok, proto-Lowland Ok and the Sibil dialect of Ngalum
Healey (1964) Telefol quotative clauses
Healey (1964) phonology of Telefol
Healey (1965) Telefol verb phrases (unobtained)
Healey (1965) Telefol syntax (unobtaned)
Healey (1965) Telefol sentences (unobtained)
Healey (1970) proto-Awyu-Dumut includes outcomparisons to Mountain Ok
Healey and Healey (1977) dictionary of Telefol
Steinkraus (1969) Tifal phonology (unobtained)
Healey and Steinkraus (1972) dictionary of Tifal
Mecklenburg (1974) phonology of Faiwol
Smith and Weston (1974) phonology of Mianmin
Smith and Weston (1974) grammar of Mianmin
Smith (1977) Mianmin syntax
Boush (1975) grammar of Tifal
Boush (1979) Tifal desinences
Boush (1994) sketch phonology of Tifal
Voorhoeve (1975: CITE) general descriptions of various Ok languages
Voorhoeve (1975: 97-99) up to 40 comparative terms Voorhoeve (2005) comparison of proto-Mountain Ok with proto-Awyu-Dumut and proto-Asmat-Kamoro
Smith (1977) syntactic grammar of Mianmin
Stokhof ed. (1982) Holle comparative vocabularies of (pp. 123-124) Central & Lower Uwimerah (South Muyu), (pp. 125-127) Proa bivouac (Koma), (pp. 131-132) Uwimerah (source) (Iwur or Koma), (pp. 151-161) Kaôh (South Muyu), (pp. 163-173) Muyu (North Muyu) and (pp. 175-185) Tanah Merah area (mix of Muyu dialects)
Christensen (1995) grammar of Yongkom (unobtained)
Christensen (1999) orthography of Yongkom (unobtained)
Christensen (2000) phonology of Yongkom (unobtained)
Christensen (2000) grammar of Yongkom (unobtained)
Christensen (2002) sketch phonology of Yongkom
Christensen (2010) Yongkom discourse
Christensen (2013) grammar of Yongkom (unobtained)
Hylkema (1996) dictionary of Ngalum
Hylkema (1996) grammar of Ngalum
Donohue (1996: 18-50) 151 comparative terms for (South) Muyu
Jang (2003: 39-47) 239 comparative terms for Nagi of Kawor 2 village, Dintere of Iwur and Muyu of Ikcan
Wilbrink (2004) large vocabulary (837 terms) for Kopkaka vocabulary of Seradela village and 239+ comparative terms for Burumakok, Kwer, Tokuni, and Marub and for Sait (Nagi) and Nakai varieties of Nakai
Fedden (2007) grammar of Mian
Hughes (2009) 239 comparative terms for Tankgo of Kawemot village and Nakai of Burunggop
Kroneman (2010) grammar of Kopkaka
Kroneman unpublished vocabulary of Kopkaka of Unokob village, obtained in digitalized form from Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics
Kroneman unpublished vocabulary of Ngalum, obtained in digitalized form from Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics
Voorhoeve (CITE) appears to reflect the same underlying material as Kroneman, including shared errors; this is also true of Kroneman's (again from Whitehouse) and Voorhoeve's (CITE) Ninggerum.
Kroneman unpublished survey vocabulary of Niggerum obtained in digitalized form from Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Spencer and van Cott (2010) 170+ comparative terms for Setaman of Seltamin, Ngisokabip and Baktamin villages, Faiwol of Selbang and Lowbip, and Bimin of Dimtikin, Akalu and Sengen
Loughnane and Fedden (2011) comparison of Oksapmin and Mountain Ok
Williamson (2011) grammar of Nagi
de Vries, Wester and van den Heuvel (2012: 299) comparative Ok desinences
Additionally, an unpublished vocabulary of the SIbil dialect of Ngalum was obtained in digitalized form from Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics, however it is unattributed.
[under construction]
Austen (1923: 347)
Capell (1949: 374) (CHECK)
Healey (1964, 1970)
Voorhoeve (1968), (1975), Wurm (1982)
Greenberg (1971: 825-826) placed both the Ok group (wrongly including Dumut as well as Aekyom) and Awju group in his Southwestern division of Indo-Pacific, alongside Marind-Yaqay and Boazi (Marind group,) Lower Fly River (Tirio group) and Kratke Range (Kukukuku group.) These are now seen to comprise three distinct subgroups of Trans New Guinea, Digul-River Ok, Fly River and Kratke Range of the Morobe-Eastern Highlands subgroup.
Voorhoeve (2005)
Loughnane and Fedden (1011) Ok and Oksapmin
[under construction]
Proto-Ok had perhaps 15 consonants and 6 vowels as follows:
| *m | *n | |||
| *p | *t | *s | *k | *kʷ |
| *mb | *nd | *ndz | *ŋg | *ŋgʷ |
| *w | *ɾ | *j |
| *i: | *ʉ | *u: |
| *e | *o | |
| *a |
[Note: vowels were originally based mostly upon Telefol and are under revision]
Any consonant and any vowel can occur initially, medially or finally, excepting perhaps /*ŋg/ which may not have occurred initially due to the merger of Digul River initial /*ŋg/ with /*k/ in Proto-Ok. Laminals /*s *ndz/ are rare. Consonant clusters occur only in compounds.
Initial consonants correspond as follows:
| Ok | West Ok; | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland | Mountain |
| *m- | *m | m | *m | *m | *m |
| *n- | *n | n | *n | *n | *n |
| *p- | *p [w] | f | *p [ɸ] | *p [h] | *p [f] |
| *t- | *t | t | *t | *t | *t |
| *t-/_i | *t | s | *t | *t | *t |
| *s- | *s | s | *s | *t | *s |
| *k- | *k | k | *k | *k | *k |
| *k-/_i e | *k | s | *k | *k | *k |
| *kʷ- | |||||
| *kʷ-/_i e | |||||
| *mb- | *mb [b] | b | *mb [b] | *mb [b] | *mb [b] |
| *nd- | *nd [d] | ||||
| *ndz- | ? | j | *j | *j | *s |
| *ŋg- | ? | ŋ | *ŋg | ? | *ŋg |
| *ŋgʷ- | |||||
| *w- | *w | w | *w | *w | *w |
| *ɾ- | *j | *ɾ | |||
| *j- | *j | *j |
Medial consonants correspond as follows:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland | Mountain |
| *-m- | *m | m | *m | *m | *m |
| *-n- | *n | n | *n | *n | *n |
| *-p- | *p | *p [f] | |||
| *-t- | *t | *t | |||
| *-t-/_i | *t | s | *t | *t | *t |
| *-s- | s | *s | |||
| *-k- | *k | *k | |||
| *-mb- | *mb | *mb [b] | |||
| *-nd- | *ɾ | r | *ɾ | *nd | *ɾ |
| *-ndz- | *j (?) | *s | |||
| *-ŋg- | *ŋg | *ŋg | |||
| *-w- | |||||
| *-ɾ- | |||||
| *-j- | *j |
Final consonants correspond as follows:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland | Mountain |
| *-m | *m | m | *m | *m | *m |
| *-n | *n | n | *n | *n | *n |
| *-p | *p | p | *p | *p | *p |
| *-t | *t | t | *t | *t | *t |
| *-s | ? | s | ? | *t | *s |
| *-k | *k | k | *k | *k | *k |
| *-mb | *p | p | *p | *m | *m |
| *-nd | *t | l | *t | *ɾ | *ɾ |
| *-ndz | *ø | ø | *ø | *ɾ (?) | *s |
| *-ŋg | *ŋg [ŋ] | ŋ | *ŋg [ŋ] | *ŋg [ŋ] | *ŋg [ŋ] |
| *-ɾ | *ɾ | l | *[e] | *ɾ | *ɾ |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Ngalum forms drawn from Hylkema (1996 ibid.) Our reconstructions of Mountain Ok and Lowland Ok are greatly indebted to those presented in Healey (1964: 133-167, 170-180, 182-188) and a number of reconstructions presented here appeared therein in similar or identical form. For clarity of presentation, the general dispositions of initial consonants will presented first, then those of medial consonants, then those of final cononants, followed by those of vowels. Some details of the forms which follow are necessarily tentative. The absence of a high or low tone on a Mountain Ok vowel indicates that its tone isn't known.
Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *m- | *m | m | *m | *m | *m | |
| star/firefly | *mi[:][n/nd] | *mit | mir(-kor) | *mit-kot | *min | *mi[:]rum |
| son | *mi:[n/nd] | mir-ki | *min-ki | *mi:n | ||
| near | *me:p | mep | *mep | *mé:p | ||
| netbag | *me:n | *men | men | *men | *men | *mé:n |
| vein/tendon | *me:nd | mel(-mel) | *mer-mer | *màr-mé:r | ||
| rib(s)/side | *merenaR | metnal | *mena[r] | *mèrén | ||
| that/there | *ma[:]te[:] | *mate | *mete | |||
| shoulder | *ma:k | mak | *mak | *má:k | ||
| one/another | *ma:ka | maka | *maka | *mà:k | ||
| mouth | *maŋgot | *m[e]ŋgot | *maŋgot | *maŋgat | ||
| mother's br. | *mo:m | mom | *mom | *mom | *mò:m | |
| spittle | *mo:k | *mok | *mok | *mó:k | ||
| one/alone | *m[o]wi[:]m | mum | *muwim | *mowim | ||
| wasp/bee sp. | *mo:ŋg | *moŋg | *mo:ŋg | |||
| breast | *mu:k | *muk | muk | *muk | *muk | *mú:k |
| gall/bile | *mu:ŋg | *muŋg | *mù:ŋg |
Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *n- | *n | n | *n | *n | *n | |
| younger brother | *niŋg | niŋ(-ki) | *niŋg-ki | *nì:ŋg | ||
| 1 sg. | *ne | *ne | ne | *ne | *ne | *n[é/á] |
| younger sister | *ne:ŋg | neŋ | *nè:ŋg | |||
| rattan/rope | *n[a:/o:]ŋg | *naŋg | noŋ | *noŋg | *noŋg | *-náŋg |
| 1 pl. | *nu(-p) | *nu-p | nu(-p) | *nu(-p) | *nu(-p) | *nu(-p) |
Initial plain labial stop /*p/ is fricated to [ɸ f] in Central Ok and Mountain Ok respectively. It is then lenited to [w ø] in West Ok and deocluded to [h ø] in Lowland Ok:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *p- | *p [w ø] | f | *p [ɸ ʔ] | *p [h] | *p [f] | |
| older brother (3) | *pik | fik | *pik | *pìk | ||
| this/here | *pe[:] | fe | *pe | |||
| forearm | *pe:t | fet | *pet | *pet | *pe:t | |
| green/raw/new | *pa[:]p | *pap | fap | *pap | ||
| plait | *pa: | *pa-me | *pà: | |||
| tongue | *po:ŋg | *poŋg | *poŋg | *pó:ŋg | ||
| light (weight) | *po:wo:ŋg | foŋ | *powoŋg | *pó:ŋg | ||
| wind/breath | *pu[wu]p | *pup | *pu[wu]p | *pú:p |
This correspondence is identified as /*p/ rather than /*f/ is because final /*p/ is retained as such, while final /*mb/ has merged with /*p/ or /*m/; to reconstruct /*f/ would require that these are realized as [*p] finally, or the unnecessary creation of a new phoneme /*p/ which occurs only finally.
Lowland Ok's deocclusion of [f ɸ] to [h] is shared with Marind-Yaqay to the southwest, suggesting that these families were once contiguous to proto-Lowland Ok before being pushed southward and westward respectively by the Awyu and Dumut expansions.
Initial plain apical stop /*t/ when followed by non-front vowels /*a *o *u/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *t- | *t | t | *t | *t | *t | |
| child | *tena | tena | *tena | *tena | *tén | |
| hole | *te:mon (?) | *t[e]mon | tamon | *t[a]mon | *tem | *té:m |
| see | *t[e/a]m- | *tam- | tam- | *tem- | ||
| hand | *taŋgi | *taŋgi | *t[éi/ái]ŋg | |||
| armpit | *taŋgon | taŋon | *taŋgon | *táŋgán | ||
| shame/shy | *… | *… | talmol | *tar[V]mor | ||
| flint | *to:ŋg | *toŋg | *tó:ŋg | |||
| fat/grease | *tukur | *tukur | *túkúr | |||
| stone | *tu:m | *tum | tum | *tum | *tum | *tú:m |
When /*t/ is followed by high front vowel /*i/ it is fronted and fricated to /s/ in Ngalum:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *t-/_i | *t | s | *t | *t | *t | |
| blackpalm/bow | *tinim | sinim | *tinim | *tíním | ||
| dog | *tind | *tìr | ||||
| top/above (?) | *tiki:n | sikin | *tìkí:n |
Initial plain velar stop /*k/ when followed non-front vowels /*a *o *u/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *k- | *k | k | *k | *k | *k | |
| blood (?) | *kaim | *káim | ||||
| lime gourd | *kame:n | *kamen | *k[è/à]me:n | |||
| sibling-in-law | *kambe:nd | kaber- | *kámbè:r | |||
| person | *kaka | *kaka | kaka | *kaka | ||
| heavy | *kakun | *k[o]kun | kukun | *k[u]kun | *kakun | |
| bandicoot | *kaja:nd | *kaje | *kajet | *kàjá:r | ||
| hornbill | *kawe:[nd/r] | *kawer | *kàwé:r | |||
| far | *ka[:]m | kam | *kam | *kam | ||
| cough | *ka[:]no[:]m | kanom | *kanom | *kanom | ||
| skin | *ka:nd | *kat | kal | *kat | *kar | *kà:r |
| leaf | *ko:n | *kon | kon | *kon | *kon | *kó:n |
| cliff/slope | *ko:t | kot | *kot | *kó:t | ||
| frog | *ko:[nd/r] | kol | *kor | *kò:r | ||
| dry | *ko:k | kok | *kok | *kò:k | ||
| spicy/bitter | *ko[wo]k | kok | *ko[wo]k | *kò:k | ||
| pig | *kowaŋg | *kuwoŋg | kaŋ | *koŋg | *kowaŋg | *k[à:/ò:]ŋg |
| fat/muscle | *k[o/u][;]p | *k[u]p | *kop | |||
| goura pigeon | *k[o/u][:}ti[:]m | *k[o/u][:}ti[:]m | ||||
| 2 sg. f. | *ku-p | *ku-p | ku-p | *ku-p | *kú-p | |
| side of neck | *kum | kum | *kum | *kum | *kùm | |
| root | *kumbi | *kumbu | *kumbi | *kìm-kím | ||
| ashes | *kutep | *ketep | kutep | *kotep | *kotep | *kùtép |
| sugarcane | *kuw[eⁱ]t | *kuw[e]it | kit | *kuwit | *kʷéⁱt |
When /*k/ is followed by front vowels /*i *e/ it is fronted and fricated to /s/ in Ngalum:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *k-/_i e | *k | s | *k | *k | *k | |
| 2 pl. | *ki-p | *ki-p | *kí-p | |||
| thunder | *kimo:n | simon | *kim[u]n | *kimun | *kímù:n | |
| ear | *kindo:ŋg | *kireŋg | siroŋ | *kiroŋg | *kende | *kìro:ŋ |
| eye | *ki:[n/nd][i] | *k[i]ri | sir | *kit | *kin(-jop) | *kì:n |
| body/chest | *ki[:]t | sil ~ sit | *kit | *kit | *kí:t | |
| finger | *ki[:][nd/r]i[:]R | silil | *kiri | |||
| 2 sg. m. | *ke-p | *ke-p | se-p | *ke-p | *ke-p | *ké-p |
| flower | *ke:t | set | *ket | *kè:t | ||
| bamboo vessel | *(o:k-)ke:t | *ok-ket | *ok-ket | *(ò:k-)ké:t | ||
| pinkie | *(k[a]t-)ket | *ket-ket | *ket-ket | *(k[a]t-)ket | *kàkét | |
| sago | *ke[:]ndo[:] | om-sero | *kero |
Words in which /i/ following /*k/ is the secondary result of high vowel agreement are also affected:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *k/_uCi | *k | s | *k | *k | *k | |
| cucumber | *kumit | simit | *kumit | *kìmít | ||
| die | *kuwi- | *kuj- | *kuwi- | *kuwi- | ||
| louse | *kuwimb | *k[uwi]p | sip | *kuwip | *kuwim | *kìm |
| night | *kuwin[a] | *kuwin- | *kʷì:nà |
It may be observed that initial velar stop /*k/ is roughly twice as common as initial /*t/ and even more so that initial /*p/. This is not true of medial or final /*k/ (below.) Conversely, while initial /*ŋg/ is very rare at best, and may not have existed at all, medial and final /*ŋg/ are about as common as /*k/. The reason for this is that initial but not medial or final Digul River-Ok /*ŋg/ has merged with /*k/ in Ok.
Initial /*s/ is uncommon. It is merged with /*t/ in Lowland Ok initially as well as finally (below):
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *s- | *s | s | *s | *s | *s | |
| hear | *(weŋg-)s- | weŋg-s-on | *(weŋg-)s- | *(weŋg-)s- | *… | |
| old/first | *si:n | sin | *sin | *sì:n | ||
| far | *sama:n | *saman | *sàma:n | |||
| bad | *sa[:]ma[:]n | *saman | saman |
Initial prenasalized bilabial stop /*mb/ is generally realized as voiced [b] in all descendants, though traces of prenasalization in this position are found in Mian (Fedden 2007: 37) and in Central Ok:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *mb- | *mb [b] | b | *mb [b] | *mb [b] | *mb [b] | |
| earthquake | *mbim | bim | *mbim | *mbìm | ||
| buttocks | *mbim | *mbim | *mbím | |||
| oldest brother | *mb[ai] | *mbai | be-a | *mb[e] | ||
| claw/nail | *mba[t]it | birit | *mbatit | |||
| arm | *mben | *mben | *mbèn | |||
| wing | *mberuR | belul | *mbiru | *mb[e]ru | *mbér | |
| mosquito | *mb[e/a]reŋg | *mb[e/a]reŋg | *mb[a][r]eŋg | *mb[e:]re:ŋg | ||
| crocodile | *mba[:]ne[:]p | banep | *mbanep | |||
| split | *… | bakl-on | *mbak[a]- | *mb[à]ké:r | ||
| flat ground | *mbakon | bakon | *mbakon | *mbàkán | ||
| sibling-in-law | *mba:s | bas | *mbat | *mbà:s | ||
| lightning | *mbomba: | baban-on | *mbomba (?) | *mbàmbá: | ||
| chin | *mbo:n | *mbon | bon | *mbon | *mbon | *mbó:n |
| cooking stone | *mbo:[nd/r] | *mbor | *mbó:r | |||
| elbow/wrist | *mb[a/o]ŋgup | *mbuŋgop | baŋup | *mbaŋgup | *mbuŋgup | *mb[ó]ŋgúp |
Initial /*nd/ is uncommon:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *nd- | *nd [d] | d | *nd [d] | *nd [d] | *nd [d] | |
| dig/dig out | *ndik(-m)- | dikm-on | *ndik-m- | *… | *ndik(-m)- | |
| cloud | *nde[:]p | *ndep | dep | *ndep | ||
| heart | *nd[y]mb-ro:p | *nd[y]p-rop | dip-lop | *[nd]up-jVp | *ndim-jop | *ndim-r[á:/ó:]p |
| not/no | *ndo | *ndo | *ndo |
Initial /*ndz/ is clearly attested in only one example, of which no West Ok reflex is known:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *ndz- | ? | j | *j | *j | *s | |
| banana | *ndzu:mb | jop | *jup | *jum | *sù:m |
This is answered by /*dzup/ in Becking River; the correspondence of the finals supports the assumption of cognacy, rather than three distinct roots as they would have to be without positing this correspondence.
While both Mountain Ok has a number of roots beginning with /*ŋg/, there is very little evidence to support this initial in Ok, in keeping with the assumption that DIgul River Ok /*ŋg/ had in most or all instances merged with initial /*k/:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *ŋg₂- | ? | ŋ | *ŋg | *ŋg₂ | *ŋg | |
| cold | *ŋg₂i:nd | ŋil | *ŋgit | *ŋg₂ir | *ŋgì:r | |
| tie | *ŋg₂e:[n/r] | ŋen- ~ ŋer- | *ŋg₂e:[n/r]- | |||
| joint/node | *ŋg₂[o:/u:]ŋg | ?ŋuŋ | *ŋgoŋg | *ŋg₂uŋg | *ŋgú:ŋg |
Initial /*r/ is merged with /*j/ in … and Lowland Ok:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| * | l | *j | *j | |||
| blood/red | *jam | |||||
| seed | *jop | |||||
| dream | *jum |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| * | n- | *j₂- | ||||
| flesh/body | *… | *ndam | nom | *…om | *j₂om | *ndàm |
| placenta | *… |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| * | ||||||
| garden | *… |
Initial /*j/ …
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *j- | *j | j | *j | *j | *j | |
| ripe/red | *jamu | *jamu | *jamu | *j[á/ó/ú]m | ||
| flying fox | *jawo:m | wom | *jawom | *jáwó:m | ||
| men's house | *jàwó:[nd/r] | iwol | *jàwó:r | |||
| foot/leg | *j[a:/o:]n | *jan | jon | *jon | *jon | *jà:n |
| fish net | *… | *… | *… | |||
| handle | *jo:k[o] | *joko | *jó:k |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| * | *j | *i | ||||
| taro | *jame:n | *jamen | *[i/je]m[e:/a]n | |||
| urine | *jam[o:/u:]n | *jamun | *ìmá:n |
Initial /*w/ …
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *w- | *w | w | *w | *w | *w | |
| name | *wini | *wini | *wín | |||
| egg | *windin | *win | wirin | *wirin | *windi | *wín |
| penis/vagina | *we[:] | we | *we | |||
| speech | *we:ŋg | *weŋg | weŋ | *weŋg | *weŋg | *wé:ŋg |
| left | *wa[:]so[:]nd | wasol [sibil] | *wasot | |||
| mud | *wa[:]su[:]k | *wasuk | *wasuk | |||
| vomit (n.) | *wandza:n | *w[e]j[e]n | ?wad- | *wajan | *w[a]j[i]n | *wàsá:n |
| yam | *wa:n | *wan | *wá:n | |||
| woman | *wVnVŋg | wanaŋ wenaŋ [sibil-ah] | *w[o]noŋg | *wàn[é/á]ŋg |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *w- | *u | *u | *u | *w | *w | |
| moon | *wakor | *ukot | ukol | *ukoe | *w[o]kor | *wàkár |
Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-m- | *m | m | *m | *m | *m | |
| weep/cry | *ame | *ami | ame | *ame | *ame[ŋg] | *ámè |
| hot | *mam[y]n | *mam[y]n | *namin | *màmín | ||
| shame/shy | *… | *… | talmol | *tar[V]mor | ||
| far | *sama:n | *taman | *sàma:n | |||
| long | *kimi:t | simit | *kímì:t | |||
| thunder | *kimo:n | simon | *kim[u]n | *kimun | *kímù:n | |
| hair/feather | *kam[y][:]R | *kamu | kamil | *kami | ?*karí:m [met.] | |
| lime gourd | *kame:n | *kamen | *k[è/à]me:n | |||
| belly | *ko:mund[u]R | *kumu | kumdul | *komba | *komba | *kò:mún |
| cucumber | *kumit | simit | *kumit | *kimit | ||
| taro | *jame:n | *jamen | *im[e:/a]n | |||
| urine | *jam[o:/u:]n | *jamun | *imá:n | |||
| ripe/red | *jamu | *jamu | *jamu | *j[á/ó:/ú]m |
Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-n- | *n | n | *n | *n | *n | |
| liver | *in[o/u] | *inu | *in[oŋg] | ?*oni [met.] | *in | |
| snake | *in[o/u]p | *inup | *inup | *ináp | ||
| dog | *anon | *anan | anon | *anon | *anon | |
| bush | *anoŋg | *anoŋg | *anoŋg | *anaŋg | ||
| blackpalm/bow | *tinim | sinim | *tinim | *tíním | ||
| child | *tena | tena | *tena | *tena | *tén | |
| cough | *ka[:]no[:]m | kanom | *kanom | *kanom | ||
| walk/go | *w[a/o]n[e] | *un[o] | unon/wan | *on[e] | *wone | *un |
| grass skirt | *wVnVm | unom | *w[o]n[o]m | *w[o]nom | *wán[é/á]m | |
| woman | *wVnVŋg | wanaŋ | *w[o]noŋg | *wàn[é/á]ŋg |
Medial /*p/ …
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-p- | ||||||
| grandmother | ||||||
Medial apical plain stop /*t/ is generally retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-t- | *t | t | *t | *t | *t | |
| hand/arm | *e[:]tu[:]R | *itu | etul | *itu | ||
| sharp/brave/evil | *atund | atul | *atut | *atur | *átur |
When following high front vowel /*i/, /*t/ is fricated to /s/ in Ngalum:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-t- | *t | t | *t | *t | *t | |
| black | *mitik | *mitik | *mítík | |||
| nose | *mitoR | *mete | misol | *m[i]t[o] | *mitu | *mít |
Medial plain velar stop /*k/ is retained as such in all subgroups, although is usually then lost in Lowland Ok:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-k- | *k | k | *k | *-k- | *-k- | |
| pitpit sp. | *akup | *akup | akup | *akup | *akup | |
| top/above | *tikin | sikin | *sikin | *tìkín | ||
| one/another | *ma:ka | maka | *maka | *mà:k | ||
| split | *… | bakl-on | *mbak[a]- | *mb[à]ké:r | ||
| flat ground | *mbakon | bakon | *mbakon | *mbàkán | ||
| fat/grease | *tukur | *tukur | *túkúr | |||
| person | *kaka | *kaka | kaka | *kaka | ||
| heavy | *k[a]kun | *k[o]kun | kukun | *k[u]kun | *k[a]kun | |
| moon | *wakor | *ukot | ukol | *ukoe | *w[o]kor | *wàkár |
Medial laminal /*s/ is rare:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-s- | *s | s | *s | |||
| fire/spark | *asi[n/ŋg] | *asin | asiŋg | *asi[n/ŋg] | ||
| left | *wa[:]so[:]nd | wasol [sibil] | *wasot | |||
| mud | *wa[:]su[:]k | *wasuk | *wasuk |
Medial prenasalized stop bilabial /*mb/ …
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-mb- | *mb | b | *mb | *mb | *mb [b] | |
| village | *ambip | abip | *ambip | *ambip | *ámbìp | |
| laugh | *ambVn | aban | *ambian | *ambon | *àmbén | |
| sky | *amb[y]nd | *amb[i/e] | abi | *amb[y]t | *ambur | *àmbí:r |
| husband/wife | *ambo: | abo-kur | *ambV(-ki/-kur) | *ambV(-ki/-kan) | ||
| head | *ambo[t] | *amb[o/u][t] | *ambo | |||
| lightning | *mbomba: | baban-on | *mbomba (?) | *mbàmbá: | ||
| navel | *[k]ambin | *[k]ambin | *kambin | *àmbín | ||
| testicles | *[k]ambu | *kambu | *àmbú | |||
| sibling-in-law | *kambe:nd | kaber- | *kámbè:r | |||
| root | *kumbi | *kumbu | *kumbi | *kìm-kím |
Medial prenasalized apical stop /*nd/ is merged with non-stop /*r/ in West Ok, Central Ok and Mountain Ok. It is reflected as /r/ in Ngalum as well, but this is distinct from the reflex of /*r/ [l] (below):
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-nd- | *r | r | *r | *nd | *r | |
| grandchild | *m[o/u]nd[o/u]p | *m[o]ndop | *múrúp | |||
| ear | *kindo:ŋg | *kireŋg | *siroŋ | *kiroŋg | *kende | *kìro:ŋg |
| bone | *kundoR | |||||
| egg | *windin |
There is only two known examples of medial prenasalized laminal /*ndz/; here it's not clear whether the Lowland Ok reflex is initial or medial:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-ndz- | *j | r | *j | *j | *s | |
| old man | *[i/u]ndzo:mb | urop | *[i]jom | *[ì/ù]só:m | ||
| vomit (n.) | *wandza:n | *w[e]j[e]n | ?wad- | *wajan | *w[a]j[i]n | *wàsá:n |
Medial prenasalized velar stop /*ŋg/ is reflected as nasal /ŋ/ in Ngalum:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-ŋg- | *ŋg | ŋ | *ŋg | *ŋg | *ŋg | |
| cheek/molar | *aŋgo | aŋo | *aŋgo | *àŋgá | ||
| mouth | *maŋgot | *m[e]ŋgot | *maŋgot | *maŋgat | ||
| elbow/wrist | *mb[a/o]ŋgup | *mbuŋgop | baŋup | *mbaŋgup | *mbuŋgup | *mb[ó]ŋgúp |
| armpit | *taŋgon | taŋon | *taŋgon | *táŋgán | ||
| female | *jaŋg… | *… | *jáŋgís |
Medial /*r/ …
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-r- | *r | l | *r | *r | *r | |
| python/rainbow | *ari | *ari | *àrí | |||
| wing | *mberuR | belul | *mbiru | *mb[e]ru | *mbér | |
Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-m | *m | m | *m | *m | *m | |
| male | *im | im | *im(-ki) | *im | ||
| rain | *am | *am-ok | am-ok | *am- | *am | *àm |
| taro/sago | *o:m | *om | om | *om | *om | *ò:m |
| mother's br. | *mo:m | mom | *mom | *mom | *mò:m | |
| one/alone | *m[o]wi[:]m | mum | *muwim | *mowim | ||
| earthquake | *mbim | bim | *mbim | *mbìm | ||
| buttocks | *mbim | *mbim | *mbím | |||
| blackpalm/bow | *tinim | sinim | *tinim | *tíním | ||
| stone | *tu:m | *tum | tum | *tum | *tum | *tú:m |
| blood (?) | *kaim | *káim | ||||
| far | *ka[:]m | kam | *kam | *kam | ||
| cough | *ka[:]no[:]m | kanom | *kanom | *kanom | ||
| goura pigeon | *k[o/u]tim | *k[o/u]tim | ||||
| side of neck | *kum | kum | *kum | *kum | *kùm | |
| blood/red | *r[a:/e:]m | lam | *jam | *rè:m | ||
| grass skirt | *wVnVm | unom | *w[o]n[o]m | *w[o]nom | *wán[é/á]m | |
| flying fox | *jawo:m | wom | *jawom | *jáwó:m | ||
| fish net | *… | *… | *… | |||
| flesh/body | *… | *ndam | nom | *…om | *j₂om | *ndàm |
| placenta | *… | *…um | *… |
Final apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-n | *n | n | *n | *n | *n | |
| laugh | *ambVn | aban | *ambian | *ambon | *àmbén | |
| dog | *ano[:]n | *anan | anon | *anon | *anon | |
| sun | *at[a:/o:]n | *atan | aton | *at[a/o]n | *aton | *átà:n |
| cassowary | *awo:n | *awon | *awon | *áwò:n | ||
| netbag | *me:n | *men | men | *men | *men | *mé:n |
| hot | *mam[y]n | *mam[y]n | *namin | *màmín | ||
| arm | *mben | *mben | *mbèn | |||
| flat ground | *mbakon | bakon | *mbakon | *mbàkán | ||
| top/above (?) | *tiki:n | sikin | *tìkí:n | |||
| armpit | *taŋgon | taŋon | *taŋgon | *táŋgán | ||
| lime gourd | *kame:n | *kamen | *k[è/à]me:n | |||
| chin | *mbo:n | *mbon | bon | *mbon | *mbon | *mbó:n |
| old/first | *si:n | ?*sun | sin | *sin | *sì:n | |
| far | *sama:n | *taman | *sàma:n | |||
| bad | *sa[:]ma[:]n | *saman | saman | |||
| thunder | *kimo:n | simon | *kim[u]n | *kimun | *kímù:n | |
| navel | *[k]ambin | *[k]ambin | *kambin | *àmbín | ||
| heavy | *kakun | *k[o]kun | kukun | *k[u]kun | *kakun | |
| leaf | *ko:n | *kon | kon | *kon | *kon | *kó:n |
| sweat | *kV[t/s]i[:]n | *k[u]sin | *k[i]tin | |||
| taro | *jamen | *j[a]men | *ìmen | |||
| urine | *jam[o:/u:]n | *jamon | amon | *jamun | *jamun | *jàmá:n |
| foot/leg | *j[a:/o:]n | *jan | jon | *jon | *jon | *jà:n |
| vomit (n.) | *wandza:n | *w[e]j[e]n | ?wad- | *wajan | *wàsá:n | |
| yam | *wa:n | *wan | *wá:n |
Final plain bilabial stop /*p/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-p | *p | p | *p | *p [p b] | *p [p b] | |
| inclusive | *-p | *-p | -p | *-p | *-p | *-p |
| snake | *in[o/u]p | *inup | *inup | *ináp | ||
| village | *ambip | abip | *ambip | *ambip | *ámbìp | |
| older brother (1) | *[a]mba:p | bap | *mbap | *àmbá:p | ||
| pitpit sp. | *akup | *akup | akup | *akup | *akup | |
| near | *me:p | mep | *mep | *mé:p | ||
| grandchild | *m[o/u]nd[o/u]p | *mondop | *múrúp | |||
| wind/breath | *pu[wu]p | *pup | *pu[wu]p | *pú:p | ||
| crocodile | *mba[:]ne[:]p | banep | *mbanep | |||
| elbow/wrist | *mb[a/o]ŋgup | *mbuŋgop | baŋup | *mbaŋgup | *mbuŋgup | *mbúŋgúp |
| fat/muscle | *k[o/u][:]p | *k[u]p | *kop | |||
| ashes | *kutep | *ketep | kutep | *kotep | *kotep | *kutep |
| seed | *ro:p | lop | *jop | *jop | *r[á:/ó:]p | |
| good | *ja[:]p | jep | *jap | *ja[:]p |
Final plain apical stop /*t/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-t | *t | t | *t | *t | *t | |
| mouth | *maŋgo[:]t | *m[e]ŋgot | *maŋgot | *maŋgat | ||
| forearm | *pet | fet | *pet | *pet | *pe:t | |
| body/chest | *kit | sil ~ sit | *kit | *kit | *kí:t | |
| flower | *ke:t | set | *ket | *kè:t | ||
| bamboo vessel | *(o:k-)ke:t | *ok-ket | *ok-ket | *(ò:k-)ké:t | ||
| pinkie | *(k[a]t-)ket | *ket-ket | *ket-ket | *(k[a]t-)ket | *kàkét | |
| long | *kimi:t | simit | *kímì:t | |||
| cliff/slope | *ko:t | kot | *kot | *kó:t | ||
| cucumber | *kumit | simit | *kumit | *kimit | ||
| sugarcane | *kuw[ei]t | *kuw[e]it | kit | *kuwit | *kʷ[éi]t | |
| flesh of fruit | *ku:t | kut | *kù:t | |||
| breadfruit | *jawo:t | *j[o]wot | ewot | *jawot | *jàwó:t |
Final plain velar stop /*k/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-k | *k | k | *k | *k | *k | |
| water | *o:k | *ok | ok | *ok | *ok | *ò:k |
| black | *mitik | *mitik | *mítík | |||
| shoulder | *ma:k | mak | *mak | *má:k | ||
| spittle | *mo:k | *mok | *mok | *mó:k | ||
| breast | *mu:k | *muk | muk | *muk | *muk | *mú:k |
| older brother (3) | *pik | fik | *pik | *pìk | ||
| smoke | *ko[:]k | *kok | *kok | |||
| dry | *ko:k | ?kok | *kok | *kò:k | ||
| spicy/bitter | *ko[:][wo[:]]k | kok | *ko[wo]k | *kò:k | ||
| wall/fence | *kuk | *kuk | *kùk | |||
| thorn/spike | *…uk | *juk | lik | *j[y]k | *juk | *…ùk |
| white ashes | *…k | ik | *[ji]k | *[j]è:k | ||
| mud | *wa[:]su[:]k | *wasuk | *wasuk |
Final laminal /*s/ is rare. …:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-s | ? | s | *ø | *t | *s | |
| sibling-in-law | *mba:s | bas | *mbat | *mbà:s | ||
| drum | *wo:s | wos | *wot | *wo:s | ||
| female | *jaŋg… | *… | *jáŋgís |
Final prenasalized bilabial stop /*mb/ is merged with /*p/ in the western families and with /*m/ in Lowland Ok and Mountain Ok:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-mb | *p | p | *p | *m | *m | |
| heavy | *iru:mb | *ìrú:m | ||||
| old man | *[i/u]ndzo:mb | urop | *[i]jom | *[ì/ù]só:m | ||
| earthworm | *[a]mbe:mb | *mbé:m | ||||
| house | *[a/o]mb | *op | ap | *[a/o]p | *am | *àm |
| heart | *nd[y]mb-ro:p | *nd[y]p-rop | dip-lop | *[nd]up-jVp | *ndim-jop | *ndim-r[á:ó:]p |
| banana | *ndzu:mb | jop | *jup | *jum | *sù:m | |
| louse | *kuwimb | *k[uwi]p | sip | *kuwip | *kuwim | *kìm |
Final apical /*nd/ is merged with /*t/ in Central Ok, reflected as /l/ n Ngalum and merged with /*r/ in Lowland Ok and Mountain Ok:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-nd | *… | l [l j] | *t | *r | *r | |
| sky | *amb[y]nd | *amb[i/e] | abi | *amb[y]t | *ambur | *àmbí:r |
| sharp/brave/evil | *atund | atul | *atut | *atur | *átur | |
| vein/tendon | *me:nd | mel(-mel) | *mer-mer | *màr-mé:r | ||
| dog | *tind | *tìr | ||||
| sibling-in-law | *kambe:nd | kaber- | *kámbè:r | |||
| bandicoot | *kaj[e:/a:]nd | *kaje | *kajet | *kàjá:r | ||
| skin | *ka:nd | *kat | kal | *kat | *kar | *kà:r |
| cold | *ŋg₂i:nd | ŋil | *ŋit | *ŋg₂ir | *ŋgì:r | |
| left | *wa[:]so[:]nd | wasol | *wasot |
The following example may be a loan from Mountain Ok into Ngalum, but follows the expected correpondences of final vs. medial /*nd/:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-nd | l ~ r- | *-r | ||||
| sibling-in-law | *kambe:nd | kabe:l [sibil-ah] kaber-im | *kámbè:r(-ím) |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *[n/nd] | *t | r | *t | *n | *r | |
| star/firefly | *mi[:][n/nd] | *mit | mir(-kor) | *mit-kot | *min | *mi[:]rum |
| *[n/nd] | *r | r | *t | *n | *n | |
| eye | *ki:[n/nd] | *k[i]ri | sir | *kit | *kin(-jop) | *kì:n |
Final laminal /*ndz/ has been identified in only one example. It is reflected dropped in the western families and merged with /*s/ in Mountain Ok. Ninggirum nasalized /ã/ mayb indicate Lowland Ok /*andz/ [ãr] rather than /*ar/:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-ndz | *ø | ø | *ø | *r [?*ndz] | *s | |
| tree/fire | *andz | *a | a | *a | *ar [?*andz] | *às |
Final velar /*ŋg/ is realized as [*ŋ] in all descendants, an allophony which likely predates proto-Ok:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-ŋg | *ŋg [ŋ] | ŋ | *ŋg [ŋ] | *ŋg [ŋ] | *ŋg [ŋ] | |
| bush | *anoŋg | *anoŋg | *anoŋg | *anaŋg | ||
| wasp/bee sp. | *mo:ŋg | *moŋg | *mo:ŋg | |||
| gall/bile | *mu:ŋg | *muŋg | *mù:ŋg | |||
| tongue | *pir[a/o]ŋg | *[p]iraŋg | aploŋ | *piráŋg | ||
| tongue | *po:ŋg | *poŋg | *poŋg | *pó:ŋg | ||
| light (weight) | *po:woŋg | foŋ | *powoŋg | *pó:ŋg | ||
| mosquito | *mb[a/e][:]re:ŋg | *mb[e/a]reŋg | *mb[a][r]eŋg | *mb[e:]re:ŋg | ||
| younger brother | *niŋg | niŋ(-ki) | *niŋg-ki | *nì:ŋg | ||
| younger sister | *ne:ŋg | neŋ | *nè:ŋg | |||
| rattan/rope | *n[a:/o:]ŋg | *naŋ | noŋ | *noŋ | *noŋg | *-náŋg |
| flint | *to:ŋg | *toŋg | *tó:ŋg | |||
| pig | *kowaŋg | *kuwoŋg | kaŋ | *koŋg | *kowaŋg | *k[à:/ò:]ŋg |
| joint/node | *ŋg₂[o:/u:]ŋg | ?ŋuŋ | *ŋgoŋg | *ŋg₂uŋg | *ŋgú:ŋg | |
| garden | *…ŋg | joŋ | *joŋg | *joŋg | *… | |
| speech | *we:ŋg | *weŋg | weŋ | *weŋg | *weŋg | *wé:ŋg |
| woman | *wVnVŋg | wanaŋ | *w[o]noŋg | *wàn[é/á]ŋg |
Final apical non-stop /*r/ …
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-r | *t | l | *e | *r | *r | |
| excrement | *or | *oC (?) | ol | *oe | *or | *ò:r |
| bird | *n[a/o][:]r[t] | *no[r]t | nal | *noe | ||
| fat/grease | *tukur | *tukur | *túkúr | |||
| moon | *wakor | *ukot | ukol | *ukoe | *w[o]kor | *wàkár |
Due to the mergers outlined above, there are several situations in which the value of the final consonant cannot be determined:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-m/*-mb | ? | ? | ? | *m | *m | |
| cuirass | *i[nd/r]i[m/mb] | *irim | *írím | |||
| pandanus | *[ei/ai][m/mb] | *[ei/ai]m | *[ei/ai]m | |||
| dream | *… | *jum | *… | |||
| placenta | *… | *… | *… | |||
| *-nd/*-r | ? | l | ? | *r | *r | |
| father/ancestor | *awo:[nd/r] | ol(-ki) | *awor | *àwó:r | ||
| embers | *mo:[nd/r] | *a-mor | *mó:r | |||
| cooking stone | *mbo:[nd/r] | *mbor | *mbó:r | |||
| hornbill | *kawe:[nd/r] | *kawer | *kàwe:r | |||
| frog | *ko:[nd/r] | kol | *kor | *kò:r | ||
| men's house | *jawo:[nd/r] | iwol | *jàwó:r |
It is unfortunate in this respect that two of the best attested Ok and Digul River languages, Hylkema's (1996) Ngalum and van Enk and de Vries' (1997) Korowai, do not distinguish the reflexes of /*nd *r/, so an ouctomparison such as Korowai /xa'wil/ “hornbill” is of no help.
In addition to the most straightforward medial and final correspondences, there are a number of examples in which a disyllabic root with a final vowel is reduced to a monosyllable in Mountain Ok. These usually take high tone:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *CVCV | *CVCV | CVCV | *CVCV | *CVCV | *CV́C | |
| liver | *in[o/u] | *inu | *in[oŋg] | ?*oni [met.] | *ín | |
| one/another | *ma:ka | maka | *maka | *mà:k | ||
| child | *tena | tena | *tena | *tena | *tén | |
| hand | *taŋgi | *taŋgi | *t[éi/ái]ŋg | |||
| root | *kumbi | *kumbu | *kumbi | *kìm-kín | ||
| name | *wini | *wini | *wín | |||
| handle | *jo:k[o] | *joko | *jó:k |
It may observed that when medials /*mb *nd/ bcome final in Mountain Ok due to reduction, their reflexes are merged with those of /*m *n/, in parallel with the reflex of /*ŋg/ as [ŋ]:
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *-R | *ø | l | *ø | *ø | *ø | |
| hand/arm | *etuR | *itu | etul | *itu | ||
| name | *[a]niŋg[o]R | *iniŋg | niŋil | *[a]niŋgo | ||
| nose | *mitoR | *mete | misol | *m[i]t[o] | *mitu | *mít |
| rib(s)/side | *merenaR | metnal | *mena[r] | *mèrén | ||
| wing | *mberuR | belul | *mbiru | *mb[e]ru | *mbér | |
| tooth | *ni:ŋgiR | niŋil | *niŋgi | *niŋgi | *ní:ŋg | |
| finger | *ki[nd/r]iR | silil | *kiri | |||
| hair/feather | *kam[y][:]R | *kamu | kamil | *kami | ?*karí:m [met.] | |
| shadow/dark | *kakuR | kakul | *kaku | |||
| belly | *ko:mund[u]R | *kumu | kumdul | *komba | *komba | *kò:mún |
| bone | *kundo[:]R | *kuro | kulol | *koro | *kondo | *kún |
| tail | *w[ei]mb[y]R | *imbu | ebil | w[e/a]mb[y] | *w[éi/ái]m |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *CVndVŋg | *CVrVŋg | CVrVŋ | *CVrVŋg | *CVndV | *CVrVŋg | |
| ear | *kindo:ŋg | *kireŋg | siroŋ | *kiroŋg | *kende | *kìro:ŋg |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *CVndVn | CVn | CVrVn | *CVrVn | *CVnVd | *CVn | |
| egg | *windin | *win | wirin | *wirin | *windi | *wín |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *CVmVn | *CVmVn | CVmVn | *CVmVn | *CVm | *CVm | |
| hole | *te:mon | *t[e]mon | tamon | *t[a]mon | *tem | *té:m |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *CVndVŋg | *CVndV | *CVrVŋg [ŋ] | ||||
| ear | *kindo:ŋg | *kende | *kìro:ŋg |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *… | *o | a | *[a/o] | *a | *a | |
| house | *[a/o]mb | *op | ap | *[a/o]p | *am | *àm |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *… | *o | a | *o | |||
| bird | *n[a/o][:]r[t] | *no[r]t | nal | *noe |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *[a/o] | *a | o | *o | *o | *a | |
| rattan/rope | *n[a:/o:]ŋg | *naŋg | noŋ | *noŋg | *noŋg | *-náŋg |
| foot/leg | *j[a:/o:]n | *jan | jon | *jon | *jon | *jà:n |
| flesh/body | *… | *ndam | nom | *…om | *j₂om | *ndàm |
…
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *(C)aCo(C) | (C)aCo(C) | *(C)aCo(C) | *(C)aCo(C) | *(C)aCa(C) | ||
| dog | *ano[:]n | *anan | anon | *anon | *anon | |
| bush | *anoŋg | *anoŋg | *anoŋg | *anaŋg | ||
| sun | *at[a:/o:]n | *atan | aton | *at[a/o]n | *aton | *átà:n |
| cheek/molar | *aŋgo | aŋo | *aŋgo | *àŋgá | ||
| mouth | *maŋgot | *m[e]ŋgot | *maŋgot | *maŋgat | ||
| flat ground | *mbakon | bakon | *mbakon | *mbàkán | ||
| armpit | *taŋgon | taŋon | *taŋgon | *táŋgán | ||
| cough | *ka[:]no[:]m | kanom | *kanom | *kanom | ||
| left | *wa[:]so[:]nd | wasol [sibil] | *wasot | |||
| moon | *wakor | *ukot | ukol | *ukoe | *w[o]kor | *wàkár |
This levelling is prevented if the medial consonant is /*w/:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| *(C)awo(C) | (C)awo(C) | *(C)awo(C) | *(C)awo(C) | *(C)awo(C) | ||
| cassowary | *awo:n | *awon | *awon | *áwò:n | ||
| flying fox | *jawo:m | wom | *jawom | *jáwó:m | ||
| breadfruit | *jawo:t | *j[o]wot | ewot | *jawot | *jàwó:t | |
| men's house | *jàwó:[nd/r] | iwol | *jàwó:r |
Two apparent exceptions are found in Healey (1964: 186.) The first is “tortoise, turtle”, but /abom/ is given only for Angkiakmin Faiwol, where it might easily be a loan from Lowland Ok /*ambom/ to the southwest.. The second is Mountain Ok <*bakan> ~ <*baKon> “ground”, the uncertainty of Healey's vowel reflecting unexpected Tifal /bakón/ (Healey and Steinkraus 1972. 15;) this is likely a doublet borrowed from Ngalum-Sibil /bakon/ to the northwest.
…
Ok free pronouns are reconstructed as follows:
| Ok | West Ok | Ngalum | Central Ok | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| 1 sg. | *ne | *ne | ne | *ne | *ne | *né |
| 2 sg. m. | *ke-p | *ke-p | se-p | *ke-p | *ke-p | *ké-p |
| 2 sg. f. | *ku-p | *ku-p | ku-p | *ku-p | *ku-p | *kú-p |
| 3 sg. m. | *e | *e | e | *e | *je | *é |
| 3 sg. f. | *u | *u | u | *u | *ju | *ú |
| 1 pl. excl. | *nu | *nu | nu | *nu | *nu | *nú |
| 1 pl. incl. | *nu-p | *nu-p | nu-p | *nu-p | *nu-p | *nú-p |
| 2 pl. | *ki-p | —- | —- | —- | *ki-p | *kí-p |
| 3 pl. | *i | *i | i | *i | *ji | *í |
| 3 pl. incl. | *i-p | *i-p | i-p | *i-p | *ji- | *í-p |
The appearance of initial /*j/ in Lowland Ok third persons is unexpected and unexplained.
An explanation of the unusual gloss “3 pl. incl.” is in order. It may be seen that the suffix /*-p/ indicates the inclusion of the second person. There are two forms of the second person plural in both Lowland Ok and Mountain Ok, one with initial /*k/ and one without it. The first of these is the regular reflex of Digul River-Ok /*ŋgip/; the second is found only in Ok . These cannot be regularly reduced to a single form, and the Western families' /*ip/ cannot reflect /*kip/. The solution adopted here assumes that /*-p/ could be added to the third person plural with the meaning, “they and you (sg.),” as opposed to “you (sg.) and [your companions],” and that this form /*ip/ has replaced /*kip/ in many descendants. Southern Kati, for example, has both forms (q.v.Drabbe 1954: 162-163;) however, the semantic distinction proposed here is not directly attested.
Excepting the first person singular, postposed verbal subjects appear to have been derived from encliticized forms of the free pronouns (above,) with Kopkaka drawn from Kroneman (2010: 12-19,) Ngalum from Hylkema (1996: 19-…) and Nagi from Williamson (2010: 30-61) (q.v. Healey 1964: 71, de Vries, Wester and van den Heuvel 2012: 299):
| Ok | Kopkaka | Ngalum | Nagi | Lowland Ok | Mountain Ok | |
| 1 sg. | *-i | -oi/-ne (fut.) | -e-r ~ -i-r | -i/-ø (fut.) | *-a/*-i (dur.) | *-i |
| 2 sg. | *-ep | -ep | -ep | -ep | *-ep | *-ep |
| 3 sg. m. | *-e/*-o | -e/-o (near) | -a-r ~ -e-r | -e/-o (fut.) | *-[a/o]/*-e (dur.) | *-e |
| 3 sg. f. | *-u | -u | -o-r ~ -u-r | -u | *-u | *-u |
| 1 pl. | *-up | -up | -up | -up | *-up | *-up |
| 2/3 pl. | *-ip | -ip | -ip | -ip | *-ip | *-ip |