Table of Contents

Atohaim

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

Atohaim (Atohwaim, Atoheim,) known also as Kaugat, is spoken by approximately 700 people (1971) living in five villages along the Cook and Kronkel rivers just inland from the Casuarina coast in the southwest of Indonesia's Papua province. Voorhoeve names these villages as Jakamit, Sanem, Sinepit, Ajkut and Kajpom, with Jakamit on the Kronkel speaking one dialect and the other four along the Cook speaking another. Voorhoeve calculates 93% cognacy between Kronkel and Cook river dialects. Atohaim's nearest relatives are the Gondu River languages immediately to the southeast (Voorhoeve 1971: 79-82, 87, 1975: 366-367.)

Sources

Voorhoeve (1971: 79-88) general description and (pp. 110-114) 97 comparative terms for Kaugat of Jakamit and Sinepit villages

Voorhoeve (1975: 368-369) sketch phonology and pronouns for Kaugat

Voorhoeve (2007) comparative vocabulary of Kaugat

Clouse (1987) 145 comparative terms for Atoheim of Jaukui village

Kim, Clouse and Price (1987) comparative vocabulary for Atohwaim (unobtained)

Sawi and Sidabutar (2002) 235 comparative terms for Atohaim (Atohwaim) of Yagamit and Yahui vollages

Phonology

[under construction]

Voorhoeve (1971: 82-85, 1975: 369-369) gives 13 consonants and 7 vowels for Kaugat of Sinepit as follows:

m n
p t k ʔ
f s x
w r j
i ʉ u
e ɵ o
a

The Kronkel River dialect as spoken in Jakamit village lacks high and mid central rounded vowels /ʉ ɵ/; comparison to Clouse's vocabulary of Jaukui shows both to have merged with high back rounded /u/, a change also found in the Awyu and Wambon languages to the east.


Any consonant can occur initially.

Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both dialects:

Voorhoeve Sidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*m- m m m m
river *miti miːtʃi miˈtʃi mitːi
rain *mene mene mɛnːɛ meˈne mɛnnːɛ
tongue *mena-karVmmenaxaram mɛnːɐxɐrum mɛnaˈxarummɛnːɐxɐrum
not *mame[n] mame mɐmːɛ mamen mɐmːɛ
child *map map- map- map- map-
lip(s) *mapem mɐpːɛm mɐpːɛm
stone *matu maˈtu
sago *makam maʔam
fly (n.) *mɵrɵ mɵrɵ muˈr̃u
red *mɵrɵm merem murum mur̃um murum
wing *mʉmʉ-kapm mymykɐpm̩ mumuˈxam̩ mymykɐpm̩
mouth/door*mop moːp ~ -mopmoᵘɸ ~ -mɔp-moɸ -mɔp

Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both dialects:

VoorhoeveSidabutar ClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*n-n n n n
man/husband*nimi nimːi nɪmi nimːi
weep/cry *nitie nitʃe nitʃiɛ nitʃiɛ
1 pl. *n[e]pinipi niɸi-r neˈβi niɸi
1 sg. *na-ka naxa nɐʔxɐ ~ nɐʔɐ-rnaˈxa nɐxɐ
bone *nɵmɵp nɵmɵp numuɸ numuʔ numup
wife *n[uo] nuː nuː nuː
louse *numu numu numːu nuˈmu numːu

Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in both dialects:

VoorhoeveSidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*p- p p
left *pi pi piː pi
skin/bark *piep piep piɛɸ ~ -pijɛɸpiˈɛᵖ ~ piɛː-piɛp ~ -pijɛp
one *pir -pir pir ~ pid- -piɛr
one *pira-kap -priaxap pirɐxɐɸ pidaˈxaɸ pirɐxɐp
bow *pe pɛː pɛː
fish *peten peten pɛˈtɛn
this *pekem pekem pɛkːɛm peˈgem pɛgːɛm
rattan/rope*per[o/u]mperom pɛːrum ˈpɛɾum pɛːrum
many *papi papi- pɐβi- paˈɸi pɐβi
that *pokom pokom pɔkːɔm poɣom pɔgːɔm
hole *pokop poxop

Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in both dialects:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*t- t t
sun*t[e/a]meteme tɐmːɛ teˈme tɐmːɛ

…:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*tʃ ts tʃ
sit *tʃ[ie]-tʃe- -tʃiɛ-m tsɛ-ˈtsi -tʃɛ-m
sand *tʃinep tʃinːɛɸ tsiˈnɛɸ tʃiɲːɛp
sago porridge*tʃapi tʃaɸi tʃaɸi
two *tʃopm tʃoːpm tʃɔːpm̩ tʃoːm̩ tʃɔːpm̩

Initial laminal voiceless /*s/ …:

VoorhoeveSidabutar ClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*s-s s [s ʃ] s s [s ʃ]
see *saka- saʔa-p sɐʔɐ-ɸ sɐʔɐ-p
eye *sakam saːm ʃɐʔːm saʔam sɐʔːm ~ sɐʔɐm-
black *sakum sakum ʃɐkʔkum ~ ʃɐkːumsaˈkumʃɐkʔum
arrow *sonoᵘ ʃonɔu ʃonɔᵘ
star *supʉp supyp suʔpiɸ suˈβuɸsuβup
bamboo*supu supu suɸːu suɸːu

Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:

Voorhoeve Sidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*k-
speak/say *k[ie]- ke-p kʲɛ-ɸ kʲɛ-ɸ
leaf *kaepm kajepm xɐpm̩ -xam̩ xɐpm̩
big *kamen xame xɐmːɛn xamen ~ xaˈmɛnxɐmɛn
inside *kamop kɐmɔɸ kɐmɔɸ
tail *kapie kafie kɐɸiɛ xaɸiˈe xɐɸiɛː
sago tree *kapiem xɐɸiɛm xɐɸiɛm
belly *kape kape kɐpːɛ kaˈpe kɐpːɛ
die *kanikin kanikin kɐniʔkin kaniˈɣin kɐnkin
heavy *katum katʃum xaˈtʃum
moon *kakar[a/o]mkaʔaram kɐʔɐrum xaʔar̃om xɐʔɐrum
sago flour*kari xɐri xɐri
long/far *kar[o/u]m karum- ~-xaramkɐrum karom ~ -garomkɐrum
white *k[o]p[a]r kopor kɐpːɐr kaˈpaɾ kɐpːɐr
crocodile *koᵘ xow xɔᵘ xɔᵘ
knee/elbow*kupm kupm kupm̩ ~ -xupm̩koˈxm̩ kupm̩

Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is generally retained as such in both dialects:

VoorhoeveSidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*w- w w [w u]w [w u]w [w u]
fat/grease*wep weːp ueᵖ ~ weːᵖ
paddle *watu wɐʔtu wɐʔtu
bird *wakɵm wakem wɐkum wakum wɐˈkum
pig *wakum wakum wɐkum waˈkum wɐkˈum
house *woᵘ wow wɔwɐ uˈowa wɔᵘ
flesh/meat*w[o/u]k[o/u]mwoxom j-ɔxɔm uˈxum j-uxum
tree *wʉm wim uʔm uːm u- ~ um-
fingernail*wʉp -yp
blood *wʉs wis us wuːs us

Apical non-stop /*r/ has not been found to occur initially.

Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is generally retained as such in both dialects, though in one example has been occluded to [dʒ] in Clouse's Jaukui:

Voorhoeve Sidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*j-j j [j i]j [j i dʒ] j [j i]
net bag *japi jɐɸi jɐɸi
hand/arm *japm japm jɐpm̩ iaˈm̩ ~ jaˈm
~jaˈxm̩
jɐpm̩
below *jani jɐni jɐni
fruit/egg*jakam jaʔam ~ -iam-iʔɐm -jiʔam ~ -iˈam -iʔɐm
person *jokopm dʒoʔom̩

… medial consonants …

Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both dialects:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-m- m m m m
cloud/sky *imip imip imːip imiɸ imːip
canoe *amu ɐʔmu ɐˈmu
cassowary *um[u]is umuis umːis uːmis umːis
not *mame[n] mame mɐmːɛ mamen mɐmːɛ
wing *mʉmʉ-kapm mymykɐpm̩mumuˈxam̩ mymykɐpm̩
man/husband*nimi nimːi nɪmi nimːi
bone *nɵmɵp nɵmɵp numuɸ numuʔ numup
louse *numu numu numːu nuˈmu numːu
sun *t[e/a]me teme tɐmːɛ teˈme tɐmːɛ
big *kamen xame xɐmːɛn xamen ~ xaˈmɛnxɐmɛn
inside *kamop kɐmɔɸ kɐmɔɸ

Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both dialects:

VoorhoeveSidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-n- n n n n
excrement*ane ane ɐnːɛ ɐnːɛ
2 pl. *akani aʔani ɐʔɐnːi-r aʔani ɐʔɐnːi-r
finger *ɵnɵm ənəm uʔnum uˈnum unum
woman *ɵnɵpɵ enepe
rain *mene mene mɛnːɛ meˈne mɛnnːɛ
tongue *mena-karVmmenaxarammɛnːɐxɐrummɛnaˈxarummɛnːɐxɐrum
sand *tʃinep tʃinːɛɸ tsiˈnɛɸ tʃiɲːɛp
arrow *sonoᵘ ʃonɔu ʃonɔᵘ
die *kanikin kanikin kɐniʔkin kaniˈɣin kɐnkin
below *jani jɐni jɐni

In one example where medial /*n/ is followed by high back rounded vowel /*u/ it is realized as palatal [ɲ]:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*-n-/_u ɲ ɲ
urine*anu ɐɲu ɐɲu

Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:

Voorhoeve SidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-p- p [p f] p [p ɸ f β]
foot/leg *apir apir ɐpːir ʔaːpir ɐpːir
sleep *api[i/e]n afin ɐɸin aɸɛn ɐɸin
roof *ape ɐpːɛ aˈpe ɐpːɛ
woman *ɵnɵpɵ enepe
nose *opom opom ɔpːɔm ʔopom ɔpːɔm
dog *[o/u]p[o/u]tʃupotʃ ɔpɔit oˈɸutʃ ɔpɔit
lip(s) *mapem mɐpːɛm mɐpːɛm
many *papi papi- pɐβi- paˈɸi pɐβi
1 pl. *n[e]pi nipi niɸi-r neˈβi niɸi
star *supʉp supyp suʔpiɸ suˈβuɸ suβup
sago porridge*tʃapi tʃaɸi tʃaɸi
bamboo *supu supu suɸːu suɸːu
tail *kapie kafie kɐɸiɛ xaɸiˈe xɐɸiɛː
sago tree *kapiem xɐɸiɛm xɐɸiɛm
belly *kape kape kɐpːɛ kaˈpe kɐpːɛ
white *k[o]p[a]r kopor kɐpːɐr kaˈpaɾ kɐpːɐr
net bag *japi jɐɸi jɐɸi

Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in both dialects when preceded by vowels other than high front /*i/:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*-t-t t t t
breast*ɵtɵm ɵtɵm utum uˈtum utum
stone *matu maˈtu
fish *peten peten pɛˈtɛn
paddle*watu wɐʔtu wɐʔtu

When preceded by hight fron /*i/, medial /*t/ …:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-t-/i_ tʃ t
ashes *ititip itʃitʃip iʔtʃitʃiɸiːtiˈtiɸ iʔtʃitʃip
leech *itetʃ itʃɛit itʃetʃ itʃɛit
hear *itaka- jitʃaʔa-piʔtʃɐʔa-ɸ itʃɐʔa-p
ear *it[a]kop itʃoxop itʃɔːhɔp itʃaᵘˈxopˈitʃɔːɣɔp
river *miti miːtʃi miˈtʃi mitːi
weep/cry*nitie nitʃe nitʃiɛ nitʃiɛ

…:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-t-/_u
fire *atu atʃu ɐːtʃu aˈtʃu ɐːtʃu
heavy*katum katʃum xaˈtʃum

Medial … /*s/ …:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-s-s s [ʃ]s [s ʂ]s [ʃ]
night*isi isi iːʃːi iːˈsi iʃːi
thorn*is[ie]r iʃir iˈʂʲɛɾ iʃir

Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:

VoorhoeveSidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-k- k k [k g ɣ]
ear *it[a]kop itʃoxop itʃɔːhɔp itʃaᵘˈxop ˈitʃɔːɣɔp
snake *ikor[o/u] ikor ikːɔru ikor̃o ikːɔru
earth/ground*upk[ie]m upkem uʔkiɛm ~ ukiɛm ʔuˈkɛm uʔkiɛm
tooth *[u/o]kokomukoxom ɔɣɔːxɔm okoxˈom ɔkɔxum
this *pekem pekem pɛkːɛm peˈgem pɛgːɛm
black *sakum sakum ʃɐkʔkum ~ ʃɐkːumsaˈkum ʃɐkʔum
die *kanikin kanikin kɐniʔkin kaniˈɣin kɐnkin
bird *wakɵm wakem wɐkum wakum wɐˈkum
pig *wakum wakum wɐkum waˈkum wɐkˈum

When both preceded and followed by mid back rounded vowel /*o/, …:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-k-/o_o
water *okom oxom ɔʔxɔm ʔoxom ɔʔxɔm ~ -oxom
tooth *[u/o]kokom ukoxom ɔɣɔːxɔm okoxˈomɔkɔxum
that *pokom pokom pɔkːɔm poɣom pɔgːɔm
hole *pokop poxop
flesh/meat*w[o/u]k[o/u]mwoxom j-ɔxɔm uˈxum j-uxum
person *jokopm dʒoʔom̩

When both preceded and followed by low central vowel /*a/, medial /*k is generally realized as a glottal stop [ʔ]:

Voorhoeve SidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-k-/a_aʔ ø ʔ ø
hear *itaka- jitʃaʔa-p iʔtʃɐʔa-ɸ itʃɐʔa-p
smoke *akap -aʔap -ɐp (?) -ʔaɸ -ɐʔɐp
2 pl. *akani aʔani ɐʔɐnːi-r aʔani ɐʔɐnːi-r
sago *makam maʔam
see *saka- saʔa-p sɐʔɐ-ɸ sɐʔɐ-p
eye *sakam saːm ʃɐʔːm saʔam sɐʔːm ~ sɐʔɐm-
moon *kakar[a/o]mkaʔaram kɐʔɐrum xaʔar̃om xɐʔɐrum
fruit/egg*jakam jaʔam ~ -iam-iʔɐm -jiʔam ~ -iˈam-iʔɐm

Apparent exceptions to this rule are either known or likely compounds:

VoorhoeveSidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*…/a-_ax x
2 sg. *a-ka axa ɐʔɐ-r axa ɐxɐ ~ ɐʔɐ-r
tongue*mena-karVmmenaxarammɛnːɐxɐrum mɛnaˈxarummɛnːɐxɐrum
one *pira-kap -priaxap pirɐxɐɸ pidaˈxaɸ pirɐxɐp
1 sg. *na-ka naxa nɐʔxɐ ~ nɐʔɐ-rnaˈxa nɐxɐ

Bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:

Medial apical non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in both dialects:

Voorhoeve Sidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-r- r r
mosquito *iri iri riː ɾiː riː
snake *ikor[o/u] ikor ikːɔru ikor̃o ikːɔru
seed *arapm ɐrɐpm̩ araˈm̩ ɐrɐpm̩
blue/green *urip uriɸ urip
tongue *mena-karVm menaxaram mɛnːɐxɐrummɛnaˈxarum mɛnːɐxɐrum
fly (n.) *mɵrɵ mɵrɵ muˈr̃u
red *mɵrɵm merem murum mur̃um murum
rattan/rope*per[o/u]m perom pɛːrum ˈpɛɾum pɛːrum
moon *kakar[a/o]mkaʔaram kɐʔɐrum xaʔar̃om xɐʔɐrum
sago flour *kari xɐri xɐri
long/far *kar[o/u]m karum- ~-xaramkɐrum karom ~ -garomkɐrum

Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ is retained as such in both dialects:

Medial apical non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in both dialects:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-j- j j
right (side)*ijapm iːjɐpm̩ iːjaˈm̩iːjɐpm̩

… final consonants …

Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both dialects:

Voorhoeve Sidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-m m m
young/new *em em ɛːm- em ɛːm- ~ ɛm-
finger *ɵnɵm ənəm uʔnum uˈnum unum
breast *ɵtɵm ɵtɵm utum uˈtum utum
nose *opom opom ɔpːɔm ʔopom ɔpːɔm
water *okom oxom ɔʔxɔm ʔoxom ɔʔxɔm ~ -oxom
tooth *[u/o]kokom ukoxom ɔɣɔːxɔm okoxˈom ɔkɔxum
earth/ground*upk[ie]m upkem uʔkiɛm ~ ukiɛm ʔuˈkɛm uʔkiɛm
tongue *mena-karVm menaxaram mɛnːɐxɐrum mɛnaˈxarum mɛnːɐxɐrum
lip(s) *mapem mɐpːɛm mɐpːɛm
sago *makam maʔam
red *mɵrɵm merem murum mur̃um murum
this *pekem pekem pɛkːɛm peˈgem pɛgːɛm
rattan/rope *per[o/u]m perom pɛːrum ˈpɛɾum pɛːrum
that *pokom pokom pɔkːɔm poɣom pɔgːɔm
eye *sakam saːm ʃɐʔːm saʔam sɐʔːm ~ sɐʔɐm-
black *sakum sakum ʃɐkʔkum ~ ʃɐkːumsaˈkum ʃɐkʔum
sago tree *kapiem xɐɸiɛm xɐɸiɛm
heavy *katum katʃum xaˈtʃum
moon *kakar[a/o]m kaʔaram kɐʔɐrum xaʔar̃om xɐʔɐrum
long/far *kar[o/u]m karum- ~-xaramkɐrum karom ~ -garomkɐrum
bird *wakɵm wakem wɐkum wakum wɐˈkum
pig *wakum wakum wɐkum waˈkum wɐkˈum
flesh/meat *w[o/u]k[o/u]mwoxom j-ɔxɔm uˈxum j-uxum
tree *wʉm wim uʔm uːm u- ~ um-
fruit/egg *jakam jaʔam ~ -iam -iʔɐm -jiʔam ~ -iˈam-iʔɐm

Final apical nasal /*n/ is generally retained as such in both dialects:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-n n n
sleep*api[i/e]nafin ɐɸin aɸɛn ɐɸin
fish *peten peten pɛˈtɛn
die *kanikin kanikin kɐniʔkin kaniˈɣinkɐnkin

…:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-n ø ø n ø
not*mame[n]mame mɐmːɛ mamen mɐmːɛ
*-n ø n n n
big*kamen xame xɐmːɛn xamen ~ xaˈmɛnxɐmɛn

Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …

Voorhoeve Sidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-p p p [ɸ p̚ p ʔ]
verb suffix*-p -p -p ~ -ɸ -p ~ -ɸ
cloud/sky *imip imip imːip imiɸ imːip
ashes *ititip itʃitʃip iʔtʃitʃiɸ iːtiˈtiɸ iʔtʃitʃip
ear *it[a]kopitʃoxop itʃɔːhɔp itʃaᵘˈxop ˈitʃɔːɣɔp
smoke *akap -aʔap -ɐp -ʔaɸ -ɐʔɐp
blue/green *urip uriɸ urip
child *map map- map- map- map-
mouth/door *mop moːp ~ -mopmoᵘɸ ~ -mɔp -moɸ -mɔp
skin/bark *piep piep piɛɸ ~ -pijɛɸpiˈɛᵖ ~ piɛː- piɛp ~ -pijɛp
one *pira-kap-priaxap pirɐxɐɸ pidaˈxaɸ pirɐxɐp
hole *pokop poxop
bone *nɵmɵp nɵmɵp numuɸ numuʔ numup
sand *tʃinep tʃinːɛɸ tsiˈnɛɸ tʃiɲːɛp
star *supʉp supyp suʔpiɸ suˈβuɸ suβup
inside *kamop kɐmɔɸ kɐmɔɸ
fat/grease *wep weːp ueᵖ ~ weːᵖ
fingernail *wʉp -yp

Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …

Final laminal voiceless /*tʃ/ …

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*-tʃ
leech*itetʃ itʃɛit itʃetʃitʃɛit
dog *[o/u]p[o/u]tʃupotʃ ɔpɔit oˈɸutʃɔpɔit

Final laminal voiceless /*s/ …

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*-s s s
hornbill *[a]k[i]sakis
cassowary*um[u]is umuis umːis uːmis umːis
blood *wʉs wis us wuːs us

Velar voiceless stop /*k/ has not been found to ccur finally.

Bilabial non-stop /*w/ has not been found to occur finally.

Final apical non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in both dialects:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-r r r r [r ɾ] r
thorn *is[ie]r iʃir iˈʂʲɛɾ iʃir
foot/leg*apir apir ɐpːir ʔaːpir ɐpːir
one *pir -pir pir ~ pid- (?)-piɛr
white *k[o]p[a]rkopor kɐpːɐr kaˈpaɾ kɐpːɐr

Palatal non-stop /*j/ has not been found to occur finally.


Only one cluster is found finally, a bilabial voiceless stop followed by homorganic nasal /*pm/:

Voorhoeve Sidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*-pmpm [pm]pm [pm̩] pm [m̩ xm̩ m] pm [pm̩]
right (side)*ijapm iːjɐpm̩ iːjaˈm̩ iːjɐpm̩
seed *arapm ɐrɐpm̩ araˈm̩ ɐrɐpm̩
hair *upm upm upm̩ uxm̩ ~ -um upm̩
two *tʃopm tʃoːpm tʃɔːpm̩ tʃoːm̩ tʃɔːpm̩
leaf *kaepm kajepm xɐpm̩ -xam̩ xɐpm̩
knee/elbow *kupm kupm kupm̩ ~ -xupm̩koˈxm̩ kupm̩
hand/arm *japm japm jɐpm̩ iaˈm̩ ~ jaˈm
~jaˈxm̩
jɐpm̩
person *jokopm dʒoʔom̩

…vowels ….

High front vowel /*i/ …:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*i i i
left *pi pi piː pi
one *pir -pir pir ~ pid--piɛr (?)
mother *ini ini ini
cloud/sky *imip imip imːip imiɸ imːip
night *isi isi iːʃːi iːˈsi iʃːi
mosquito *iri iri riː ɾiː riː
river *miti miːtʃi miˈtʃi mitːi
man/husband *nimi nimːi nɪmi nimːi
ashes *ititip itʃitʃip iʔtʃitʃiɸiːtiˈtiɸ iʔtʃitʃip
weep/cry *nitie nitʃe nitʃiɛ nitʃiɛ
thorn *is[ie]r iʃir iˈʂʲɛɾ iʃir
leech *itetʃ itʃɛit itʃetʃ itʃɛit
sand *tʃinep tʃinːɛɸ tsiˈnɛɸ tʃiɲːɛp
snake *ikor[o/u]ikor ikːɔru ikor̃o ikːɔru
right (side) *ijapm iːjɐpm̩ iːjaˈm̩ iːjɐpm̩
ear *it[a]kop itʃoxop itʃɔːhɔp itʃaᵘˈxop ˈitʃɔːɣɔp
hear *itaka- jitʃaʔa-piʔtʃɐʔa-ɸ itʃɐʔa-p
one *pira-kap -priaxap pirɐxɐɸ pidaˈxaɸ pirɐxɐp
blue/green *urip uriɸ urip
cassowary *um[u]is umuis umːis uːmis umːis
1 pl. *n[e]pi nipi niɸi-r neˈβi niɸi
many *papi papi- pɐβi- paˈɸi pɐβi
sago porridge*tʃapi tʃaɸi tʃaɸi
sago flour *kari xɐri xɐri
net bag *japi jɐɸi jɐɸi
below *jani jɐni jɐni
foot/leg *apir apir ɐpːir ʔaːpir ɐpːir
die *kanikin kanikin kɐniʔkin kaniˈɣin kɐnkin
2 pl. *akani aʔani ɐʔɐnːi-r aʔani ɐʔɐnːi-r

Voorhoeve's high central rounded vowel [ʉ] corresponds to high back rounded [u] in Clouse's dialect:

Voorhoeve SidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
ʉ [y i] u
tree *wʉm wim uʔm uːm u- ~ um-
fingernail*wʉp -yp
blood *wʉs wis us wuːs us
star *supʉpsupyp suʔpiɸ suˈβuɸsuβup

High back rounded vowel /*u/ …:

VoorhoeveSidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*u u u u u
hair *upm upm upm̩ uxm̩ ~ -umupm̩
knee/elbow *kupm kupm kupm̩ ~ -xupm̩ koˈxm̩ kupm̩
louse *numu numu numːu nuˈmu numːu
bamboo *supu supu suɸːu suɸːu
blue/green *urip uriɸ urip
cassowary *um[u]is umuis umːis uːmis umːis
star *supʉp supyp suʔpiɸ suˈβuɸ suβup
earth/ground*upk[ie]mupkem uʔkiɛm ~ ukiɛm ʔuˈkɛm uʔkiɛm
canoe *amu ɐʔmu ɐˈmu
urine *anu ɐɲu ɐɲu
fire *atu atʃu ɐːtʃu aˈtʃu ɐːtʃu
stone *matu maˈtu
paddle *watu wɐʔtu wɐʔtu
black *sakum sakum ʃɐkʔkum ~ ʃɐkːumsaˈkum ʃɐkʔum
heavy *katum katʃum xaˈtʃum
pig *wakum wakum wɐkum waˈkum wɐkˈum

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*…

Mid front vowel /*e/ …:

VoorhoeveSidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*e
bow *pe pɛː pɛː
young/new *em em ɛːm- em ɛːm- ~ ɛm-
fat/grease *wep weːp ueᵖ ~ weːᵖ
rain *mene mene mɛnːɛ meˈne mɛnnːɛ
fish *peten peten pɛˈtɛn
this *pekem pekem pɛkːɛm peˈgem pɛgːɛm
rattan/rope*per[o/u]m perom pɛːrum ˈpɛɾum pɛːrum
tongue *mena-karVmmenaxarammɛnːɐxɐrummɛnaˈxarum mɛnːɐxɐrum
sand *tʃinep tʃinːɛɸ tsiˈnɛɸ tʃiɲːɛp
sun *t[e/a]me teme tɐmːɛ teˈme tɐmːɛ
roof *ape ɐpːɛ aˈpe ɐpːɛ
excrement *ane ane ɐnːɛ ɐnːɛ
belly *kape kape kɐpːɛ kaˈpe kɐpːɛ
not *mame[n] mame mɐmːɛ mamen mɐmːɛ
lip(s) *mapem mɐpːɛm mɐpːɛm
big *kamen xame xɐmːɛn xamen ~ xaˈmɛnxɐmɛn

Voorhoeve's mid central rounded vowel [ɵ] corresponds to high back rounded [u] in Clouse's dialect:

Voorhoeve SidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
ɵ [ɵ ə e]u u u
fly (n.)*mɵrɵ mɵrɵ muˈr̃u
finger *ɵnɵm ənəm uʔnum uˈnum unum
breast *ɵtɵm ɵtɵm utum uˈtum utum
red *mɵrɵmmerem murum mur̃ummurum
bone *nɵmɵpnɵmɵp numuɸ numuʔ numup
woman *ɵnɵpɵenepe
bird *wakɵmwakem wɐkum wakum wɐˈkum

Mid back rounded vowel /*o/ …:

Voorhoeve Sidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*o o o
mouth/door*mop moːp ~ -mopmoᵘɸ ~ -mɔp-moɸ -mɔp
two *tʃopm tʃoːpm tʃɔːpm̩ tʃoːm̩ tʃɔːpm̩
nose *opom opom ɔpːɔm ʔopom ɔpːɔm
water *okom oxom ɔʔxɔm ʔoxom ɔʔxɔm ~ -oxom
that *pokom pokom pɔkːɔm poɣom pɔgːɔm
hole *pokop poxop
person *jokopm dʒoʔom̩
arrow *sonoᵘ ʃonɔu ʃonɔᵘ
snake *ikor[o/u] ikor ikːɔru ikor̃o ikːɔru
tooth *[u/o]kokomukoxom ɔɣɔːxɔm okoxˈom ɔkɔxum
inside *kamop kɐmɔɸ kɐmɔɸ
ear *it[a]kop itʃoxop itʃɔːhɔp itʃaᵘˈxopˈitʃɔːɣɔp

Low central vowel /*a/ …:

Voorhoeve Sidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*a a a
child *map map- map- map- map-
hand/arm *japm japm jɐpm̩ iaˈm̩ ~ jaˈm
~jaˈxm̩
jɐpm̩
2 sg. *a-ka axa ɐʔɐ-r axa ɐxɐ ~ ɐʔɐ-r
1 sg. *na-ka naxa nɐʔxɐ ~ nɐʔɐ-r naˈxa nɐxɐ
see *saka- saʔa-p sɐʔɐ-ɸ sɐʔɐ-p
smoke *akap -aʔap -ɐp -ʔaɸ -ɐʔɐp
seed *arapm ɐrɐpm̩ araˈm̩ ɐrɐpm̩
sago *makam maʔam
eye *sakam saːm ʃɐʔːm saʔam sɐʔːm ~ sɐʔɐm-
fruit/egg *jakam jaʔam ~ -iam -iʔɐm -jiʔam ~ -iˈam -iʔɐm
moon *kakar[a/o]mkaʔaram kɐʔɐrum xaʔar̃om xɐʔɐrum
many *papi papi- pɐβi- paˈɸi pɐβi
sago porridge*tʃapi tʃaɸi tʃaɸi
sago flour *kari xɐri xɐri
below *jani jɐni jɐni
net bag *japi jɐɸi jɐɸi
foot/leg *apir apir ɐpːir ʔaːpir ɐpːir
2 pl. *akani aʔani ɐʔɐnːi-r aʔani ɐʔɐnːi-r
die *kanikin kanikin kɐniʔkin kaniˈɣin kɐnkin
tail *kapie kafie kɐɸiɛ xaɸiˈe xɐɸiɛː
sago tree *kapiem xɐɸiɛm xɐɸiɛm
canoe *amu ɐʔmu ɐˈmu
urine *anu ɐɲu ɐɲu
fire *atu atʃu ɐːtʃu aˈtʃu ɐːtʃu
stone *matu maˈtu
paddle *watu wɐʔtu wɐʔtu
black *sakum sakum ʃɐkʔkum ~ ʃɐkːumsaˈkum ʃɐkʔum
heavy *katum katʃum xaˈtʃum
pig *wakum wakum wɐkum waˈkum wɐkˈum
inside *kamop kɐmɔɸ kɐmɔɸ
sleep *api[i/e]n afin ɐɸin aɸɛn ɐɸin
roof *ape ɐpːɛ aˈpe ɐpːɛ
excrement *ane ane ɐnːɛ ɐnːɛ
belly *kape kape kɐpːɛ kaˈpe kɐpːɛ
not *mame[n] mame mɐmːɛ mamen mɐmːɛ
lip(s) *mapem mɐpːɛm mɐpːɛm
big *kamen xame xɐmːɛn xamen ~ xaˈmɛn xɐmɛn
long/far *kar[o/u]m karum- ~-xaramkɐrum karom ~ -garom kɐrum
right (side) *ijapm iːjɐpm̩ iːjaˈm̩ iːjɐpm̩
hear *itaka- jitʃaʔa-p iʔtʃɐʔa-ɸ itʃɐʔa-p
one *pira-kap -priaxap pirɐxɐɸ pidaˈxaɸ pirɐxɐp
tongue *mena-karVm menaxaram mɛnːɐxɐrum mɛnaˈxarum mɛnːɐxɐrum

… diphthongs …

…/*ie/ … :

VoorhoeveSidabutar Clouse Sawi
Jakamit Yagamit Jaukui Yahui
*ieie ie [ie iɛ]
skin/bark*piep piep piɛɸ ~ -pijɛɸpiˈɛᵖ ~ piɛː- piɛp ~ -pijɛp
weep/cry *nitie nitʃe nitʃiɛ nitʃiɛ
tail *kapie kafie kɐɸiɛ xaɸiˈe xɐɸiɛː
sago tree*kapiem xɐɸiɛm xɐɸiɛm

… /*uo/ …

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*uo
wife*n[uo] nuː nuː nuː

… /*ei/ …:

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*ei

… /*ou/ …

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*ou
old *oᵘ ow ɔu- ou ɔᵘ-
crocodile*koᵘ xow xɔᵘ xɔᵘ
house *woᵘ wow wɔwɐ uˈowa wɔᵘ
arrow *sonoᵘ ʃonɔu ʃonɔᵘ

… /*ai/ …

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*ai
father*ai ai ɐːi aːi ɐːi

… /*ae/ …

VoorhoeveSidabutarClouseSawi
Jakamit Yagamit JaukuiYahui
*ae
leaf*kaepm kajepm xɐpm̩ -xam̩ xɐpm̩

Pronouns

Voorhoeve (1971: 85-86, 1975: 368) gives pronouns for Kaugat in four case forms as follows. Voorhoeve gives no third person forms and only one indirect object:

subjectemphaticindirect objectpossessive
1 sg.naxa naʔa-r naʔa-kae ø-nam-or
2 sg.axa aʔa-r ? a-nem-or
1 pl.nipi nipi-r ? nip-m-or
2 pl.aʔani aʔane-r ? ekm-or

Clouse's (1987: 3) third person singular [puˈkum] is a demonstrative; cf. [peˈgem] “ini”, [poɣom] “itu”.

Verbal morphology

No information on Atohaim verbal morphology is currently available to us.