Table of Contents

Kimaghama

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

Kimaghama (Kimaama, Kimaam) is spoken by approximately 2,000 people (1949) living in 14 villages in the northeast and southwest portions of Kolopom (Yos Sudarso, Frederik-Hendrik) island (Drabbe 1949: 1.) Drabbe names these villages as Jaové, Wébu, Kivaru, Waniè, Térö, Kàroa, Tjìghaé, Tjàvudo, Bàmu, Wanggambön, Kàwe in the northeast and Kàrada, Sàbon and Tor in the southwest (q.v. Drabbe 1949: 3 3.)

Dialects

Comparison of Drabbe's (1949: 14-24) Kimaghama vocabulary with those of Geurtjens (1933: 388-433) shows that there are at least two fairly distinct dialects of Kimaghama, one spoken in the northeast and one in the southwest, with Geurtjens' Teri KAlwasch representing the northeastern dialect and Kaladdar respresenting the southwestern dialect:

Kimaghama

North Kimaghama

South Kimaghama

Sources

Geurtjens (1933: 398-433) 455 comparative terms for Kaladdarsch and Teri Kalwasch

Drabbe (1949) brief description of and (pp. 14-24) 469 comparative terms for Kimaghama

Boelaars (1950: 33-36) English-language recension of Drabbe's Kimaghama (1949)

Drabbe (1950) comparative vocabulary for Kimaghama

Drabbe (1954: 231-255) 100 comparative terms for Kimaghama

Voorhoeve (1975: 365) phonological inventory and pronouns for Kimaghama following Drabbe (1949)

Voorhoeve (1975“ 96) 40 comparative terms for Kimaghama following Drabbe (1949)

Menanti and Susanto (2001) surtvey of Kimaam (unobtained)

Phonology

[under construction]

Drabbe (1949: 3-4) gives 26 consonants and 7 vowels for Kimaghama as follows:

m n ŋ
p t tr k
b d dr g
ntr ntʲ
mb nd ndr ndʲ ŋg
s
β ɣ
w r j
i u
e œ o
ɛ
a

This inventory of consonants is far too complicated.

Drabbe's velar nasal [ŋ] is given in only one word, [ˈiŋa] “sago”, where Geurtjens indicates medial /ŋg/ [ŋg].

Drabbe's <ov gh> [β ɣ] are not phonemic but originate as the regulat lenitions of root-medial voiceless stops /p k/. Similarly, root-medial apical /t/ is lenited to voiced stop or non-stop [d r]. Medial palatal /tʲ/ is generally not affected by lenition.

Drabbe's plain voiced stops [b d g] occur root-initially while prenasalized [mb nd ŋg] are found root-medially, both reflecting phonemic prenalized voiced stops /mb nd ŋg/.

Palatal stops /tʲ ndʲ/ are often realized in Geurtjens' phonetic transcriptions as [tʃ ndʒ]. Drabbe's palatal plain voiceless stop [dʲ] seems to exist only in possessed kin terms where it appears to be an allophone of /j/. Laminal voiceless fricative [s] is not given in Drabbe's termlist at all except as [ts] which is an allophone of palatal /tʲ/ and its inclusion in Drabbe's inventory would seem to be an unintentional error.

Drabbe's [tr dr ndr] are not unit phonemes but clusters as they are in Riantana. The following clusters have been identified




Accordingly, we propose a much simpler inventory of 13 consonants and 6 vowels as follows:

m n
p t k
mb nd ndʲ ŋg
w r j
i u
œ o
ɛ
a

….


… Kimaghama attestations drawn from Drabbe (1949: …) and teri Kalwasch and Kaladdar from Geurtjens (!933: …) Drabbe's forms are substantially more reliable, but Geurtjens' nevertheless help to shed light upon the phonological variations and morphological phenomena at work.




Bilabial nasal /m/ occurs intially and medially

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
m- m- m-
flat/smooth ˈmidœrœ
enough ˈmidɛ
stab mindɛrɛ
sweat ˈmijaɣa megai-da mihi
rib(s)/side mœrœ æmæræ
gather mœjɛ
stone ˈmɛtɛ matɛ
fence ma maa -ma
breast ma man-da maː
mother mam-ˈu
big ˈmamu mamun mamra
young man maβuˈrɛrɛ maworedeː moureːda
five ˈmado mando madoa
mother -ma-ka -ŋ-ka (?)
lime/white maɣa- maɣa ~ maa-da
~ maa-ra
tongue ˈma-ku mæ-ku ma-ku
not maw
eat/drink muˈjɛ mudʲɛ ~ mojɛ muja
brain mu
hair muna munara
~ muna-
mune(ː)ra
~ muna-
tie miˈɛ
come muinanɛ mowija
rain ˈmoa ~ mue muwo mowa
-m- -m- -m-
earthquake ˈimi
swim imu-imu imu-imu
river ˈiɾamu iramu
chin ˈamata amata amad
bird ˈaɣanɛmœ ahanem
aranemu
big ˈmamu mamun mamra
hill/mound ˈbamu mbamu
louse nœˈmɛ nʌmːɛ nʌmːen-dəreː
~ -nʌmmɛ
hide tumaˈjɛ tomːaja tamaja
door tˈramu tʌrːam
get up/stand upˈtʲɛmœ
buttocks tʲœˈmɛ bœrœtʃʌmːɛ
cheek ˈtʲama tʲama
crocodile ˈkuramu kramu kʌrːamu
thigh ˈβɛrimu

Apical nasal /n/ occurs initially and medially:

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
n- n- n-
1 pl. nom. ni ni
full count
rope niˈɛ njɛ
weep/cry niˈɛ ~ nœˈɛ ne-wada nɛɛ
yesterday neɛnœ nənɛ
machete neɛrœ
name neːɛ-neː
dog nœɛ nʌwːʌ̆ noi
go down nœɛˈrɛ nʌrːe-tʃinɛ
louse nœˈmɛ nʌmːɛ nʌmːen-dəreː
~ -nʌmmɛ
one nœβɛrɛ nʌwːeːda
spirit/ghost numbai
plait nœnœ nʌnːə nʌnːʌ
1 sg. poss. na naa na-
brother nan-ˈu
wallaby na naːr
sharp naˈwe
1 sg. nom. no -
fly (v.) ˈnumbo numba
finger numbu nomba
drum ˈnumbu numbu numbu
wind ˈnuo nuwa
know ˈnua-no nuwo -nowa-(no)
-n- -n- -n-
bird ˈaɣanɛmœ ahanem
aranemu
son/boy munaduwa-
-ˈrɛrɛ
monadowo
hair muna munara
~ muna-
mune(ː)ra
~ muna-
yesterday neɛnœ nənɛ
without ˈpuna ~ -βuna -buna ~ -wana -pona ~ -wona
plait nœnœ nʌnːə nʌnːʌ
ripe ˈpuranu peranə (?)
bite tˈra-nawɛ tʌrːa-nami tʌrːa-nowa
small ˈtʲaɣanu tʃeːhanu tʃanera
axe ˈkaβuna kawona
moon ˈkumbanu kumban kumbon
sweet potatoˈβɛẽ kuni wain-konɛ jiwon-kani

Initial bilabial voiceless stop /p/ \is realized as [p]:

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
p- p- p-
heavy pi pi-wino pi-na
jump ˈpɛtʲe petʃɛ peːtʃa-tʃina
three pendʲi peːndʲi pandʃii
mucus pœˈrɛ pʌrːen-ko
back ˈpae pa
ground/belowpadae(-da) pada-d
shallow padoro paderu
wound/yaws ˈparu padu parːa
coconut paŋga poŋgara
mouse/rat poj paï
not ˈpuna
belly ˈpuri-kwo
~ puˈri-
podi-kwo puri
lie down puˈda puta pula
ripe ˈpuranu peranə (?)
flesh pi pui

Medial ilabial voiceless stop /p/ …

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
-p- [β w] -p- [b w] -p- [b w]
three -wendʃi
sleepy -βaβuˈjɛ
young woman iβoˈtʲɛrɛ iwatʃa
~ iwatʃelɛ
knee ˈiduβœ idowa-kwa
stone axe ˈɛβœ
see ˈaβu
eye ˈaβ-uo ab-uwo ~ a-wo- a-w ~ a-wo-
hit/beat ˈawra aula -awra
wing uˈβa aban-da
child ˈaɣaβœ arabu
young man maβuˈrɛrɛ maworedeː moureːda
head/thumb ˈtuβa
~ ˈtua-kwo
teba-ku
~ toba-
towa-da
~ tuwa-
sick/ill ˈduo dowa ndoa
thunder tʲœnduˈβu tʃinduwu
forget tʲawo tʃawejɛ
steal ˈkaeβu kewo
two ˈkaβe kabi kaweː
axe ˈkaβuna kawona
heel kuˈra βɛ kura-weː
sole kuˈra βudu kəra-bada kura-buda
coconut shellkuˈo-tuˈbo kwa-towara kwa-towa

Apparent exceptions to the /p/ lenition rule probably indicate a compound:

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
-p- [p] -p- [p]
dry tu-ˈpa tu-pa
shortka-ˈpaj-bœrœka-pa-berʌ ka-pwʌ-bːərə

Variation between lenited and unlenited reflexes of /p/ is evident in the realization of the postposed /puna/ “without”:

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
(-)p- [p β](-)p- [b w](-)p- [p w]
blind ˈaβ-uo ˈpuna
empty aɣa βuna
tame ˈao-punae
light (weight)pi-βuna pi-wana pi-wona
skinny pidʃi-punara
not know nuwo buna
soft/weak ˈtɛe-βuna teː-pona
blunt tˈra-βuna
honest waw-buna

Initial apical voiceless stop /t/ is realized as [t]:

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
t-
ashes tii tin-da tin-dara
laugh teˈɛn-teˈɛ tʃien-tʃɛ (?) teːɛ
hard/strong ˈtɛ-inɛ ~ ˈtɛe- teː(i)-
carry tɛˈmbɛje tæmbæ tembeːa
straight/erecttɛmbœrœ teːmbr
forehead tʌ-kwo tu
spit -ta
grandparent ˈtad-u
head/thumb ˈtuβa
~ ˈtua-kwo
teba-ku
~ toba-
towa-da
~ tuwa-
hide tumaˈjɛ tomːaja tamaja
elbow tu tun-kɛ tuuŋ
dry tu-ˈpa tu-pa
woomera tumbui tumbui
long tudu tutura
six tuˈro tʌlwa turua ~ tʌrːa
~ turːewa
mosquito tra tʌrːa tʌnːa
shin tœrœe jɛ trindʃɛ
excrete -tra -tera
tooth tra-ˈβae tʌrːa tʌrːa
door tˈramu tʌrːam
bite tˈra-nawɛ tʌrːa-nami tʌrːa-nowa

Root-medial apical voiceless stop /t/ is lenited to voiced stop or non-stop [d r]:

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
-t- [t d r] -t- [t d]-t- [t d r l]
grandparent -dad
excrete -dra -ra
liver idumbu itumbu
~ irimbu
knee ˈiduβœ idowa-kwa
chin ˈamata amata amad
give birth uˈdajɛ udə-udə
flat/smooth ˈmidœrœ
stone ˈmɛtɛ matɛ
young man maβuˈrɛrɛ maworedeː moureːda
five ˈmado mando (?) madoa
ground/belowpadae(-da) pada-d
shallow padoro paderu
wound/yaws ˈparu padu parːa
belly ˈpuri-kwo
~ puˈri-
podi-kwo puri
lie down puˈda puta pula
one nœβɛrɛ nʌwːeːda
blood dœrœ dʌdːʌ ndzʌrːə
mouth ˈdadu dado dalo
raw/unripe tʲɛˈrɛ tʃiet-nɛ tʃeːdarərə
navel ˈtʲɛdœ tʃedːə tʃeːru-kwa
think ˈtʲo-kadu
arrow ˈkida kid ə
chest koˈdam-bœrœ keddanamo kelam-bərə
coconut husk kadi-pi kareː
centipede kadaˈmbu kadambu
near ˈkaroduˈru karoda karodːʌ
sole kuˈra βudu kəra-bada kura-buda
belch ˈkote kwatɛ
far ˈjodo jodːa joda

Two apparent execptions indicate reduplication and a coumpond:

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
(-)t- [d](-)t- [t]
long tudu tutura
(-)t- [t](-)t- [t]
coconut shellkuˈo-tuˈbo kwa-towara kwa-towa

Initial palatal voiceless stop /tʲ/ …

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
tʲ- [tʲ ts]tʲ- [tʲ tʃ]tʲ- [tʃ]
leech tʲi
man/person tʲĩ tʃin-do tʃin
shame/taboo tʲin-dʲi tʃin-di tʃin-dʃi
new tʲitʲiraˈɣa tʃtʃra
sand tʲiˈji tʃirə
cough tʲiˈrɛ-iˈrɛ
bathe tʲietʲɛ tʃindʃi tʃii
deep tʲiˈɛ tʃieː
morning ˈtʲɛ-mœdɛ tʃeːi
firewood tʲeˈɛ tʃia-da tʃeː
bitter ˈtʲɛ-ine
get up/stand upˈtʲɛmœ
heart/soul ˈtʲɛn-dʲe tʃiɛ
sweet tʲen-tʲe tʃie-tʃiɛ
hear ˈtʲɛrɛ tʃidɛ tʃeːreran
navel ˈtʲɛdœ tʃedːə tʃeːru-kwa
lip(s) tʲɛtʲiˈrɛ tʃetʃireː tʃetʃireː
raw/unripe tʲɛˈrɛ tʃiet-nɛ tʃeːdarərə
buttocks tʲœˈmɛ tʃʌmːɛ
thunder tʲœnduˈβu tʃinduwu
taro ˈtʲae tʃæ tʃɛ
cheek ˈtʲama tʲama
calf ˈtʲambu-ku tʃambu-ku tʃambu-ku
ear ˈtʲa-kra tʃa-kr tʃa-kura
small ˈtʲaɣanu tʃeːhanu tʃanera
forget tʲawo tʃawejɛ
break (stone) tʲaˈro
banana tʲõ tʃaŋ tʃaː~ tʃaŋ
leaf ˈtʲu-ku tʃu-kun
water tʲu ~ tsu tʃu ~ tsu tʃu
black tʲu- tʃu- tʃu-
intestines ˈtso bœrœ
think ˈtʲo-kadu

Medial palatal voiceless stop /tʲ/ does not generally undergo lenition as do medial /p t k/ (above, below):

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
-tʲ- [tʲ]-tʲ- [tʃ] -tʲ- [tʃ s]
young womaniβoˈtʲɛrɛ iwatʃa
~ iwatʃelɛ
sneeze aˈtʲi atʃi
jump ˈpɛtʲe petʃɛ peːtʃa-tʃina
new tʲitʲiraˈɣa tʃtʃra
lip(s) tʲɛtʲiˈrɛ tʃetʃireː tʃetʃireː
hand kiˈtʲɛ ketʃa- ketʃa- ~ kes-
many ˈkatʲa-ˈraɣa katʃara
good ˈkutʲi kutʃiŋ kutʃin-era
shoulder ˈwatʲo watʃo watʃeː

… suffix … which looks to derive adjectives from nominals:

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
skinny mwi-mˈw-inɛ
heavy pi-wino (?) pi-na
dead -buˈrao iˈnɛ
hard/strong ˈtɛ-inɛ
wide tɛˈrin-inɛ
bitter ˈtʲɛ-ine
stink tʲœβœ iˈnɛ
wet ˈtʲu-inɛ tʃuw-ino
slippery &nˈri-
-ɣaˈr-inɛ
soft βɛrœ-
βɛrœ-iˈnɛ
quick/fast woode-inɛ
cooked i tʲiˈnɛ
pregnant puˈri tʲiˈnɛ
tired ˈdara tʲiˈnɛ
black tʃu-tʃina
red/white (?) keːe-tʃina

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
coughtʲiˈrɛ-iˈrɛ

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
bathetʲietʲɛ tʃindʃi tʃii

Initial velar voiceless stop /k/is realized as [k]:

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
k- k- k-
arrow ˈkida kid ə
root kiˈjɛ kijɛ -ɣia
hand kiˈtʲɛ ketʃa- ketʃa- ~ kes-
chest koˈdam-bœrœ keddanamo kelam-bərə
coconut husk kadi-pi kareː
coconut plug kandu kandə
sugarcane ˈkunda kʌnda konda-konda
urine ka n- ka kan-
two ˈkaβe kabi kaweː
short ka-ˈpaj-bœrœ ka-pa-berʌ ka-pwʌ-bːərə
axe ˈkaβuna kawona
scabies kambi-kambi kambi-
call/scream ˈkambu kambu kambu
centipede kadaˈmbu kadambu
many ˈkatʲa-ˈraɣa katʃara
excrement kaɣa kaɣa ~ ka kaɣa-
plant (v.) ˈkao kaw
bow ˈkara kara kara ~ ɣara
near ˈkaroduˈru karoda karodːʌ
cocktoach koaˈɣa koara
pig ku ku-ku ku
moon ˈkumbanu kumban kumbon
tail/behind ˈkumbu kumbu- -kumba
foot kuˈra kəra kura
sit kui kwij kwi
coconut shellkuˈo-tuˈbo kwa-towara kwa-towa
belch ˈkote kwatɛ
fruit/seed kuˈo ~ ko- kuo
crocodile ˈkuramu kramu kʌrːamu
skin/bark kraˈra ~ ˈkrarakʌrːada -keradera

Root-medial velar voiceless stop /k/ is lenited to velar non-stop [ɣ]. This is further supported by reduplications such as Drabbe's [kaˈri-ɣaˈri-nɛ] “glibberig (slippery)” amd compounds such as Geurtjens' Kaladdarsch [joneː-ɣia] “wortel (root)”:

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
-k- [ɣ] -k- [ɣ h r g ø] -k- [ɣ h ø]
bird ˈaɣanɛmœ ahanem
aranemu
child ˈaɣaβœ arabu
sweat ˈmijaɣa megai-da mihi
lime/white maɣa- maɣa ~ maa-da
~ maa-ra
new tʲitʲiraˈɣa tʃtʃra
small ˈtʲaɣanu tʃeːhanu tʃanera
many ˈkatʲa-ˈraɣakatʃara
excrement kaɣa kaɣa ~ ka kaɣa-
cocktoach koaˈɣa koara
kunai grassˈwaga (?) waa
house ˈwaɣara woharæ
smoke ˈjuhu (?)

Apparent exceptions to the /k/ lenition rule generally indicate a compound:

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
(-)k- (-)k- (-)k-
leaf -ku -kun -ku
tongue ˈma-ku mæ-ku ma-ku
calf ˈtʲambu-kutʃambu-ku tʃambu-ku
think ˈtʲo-kadu
sweet potatoˈβɛẽ kuni wain-konɛ jiwon-kani
bad ja-ka ja-ka

This is especially evident in the case of the numerous compounds involving suffixation of /kwo/ “fruit/seed”:

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
(-)k-(-)k- (-)k-
knee idowa-kwa
belly ˈpuri-kwopodi-kwo
forehead tʌ-kwo
head ˈtua-kwo teba-ku
navel tʃeːru-kwa

Terms for “mother” and “father”, probably referential in contrast to address forms with suffix /-u/ (below,) are suffixed with an element /-ka/ which is found also in Riantana:

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
- (-)k- (-)k-
mother -ma-ka -ŋ-ka
father -dʲi-ka tʲi-tʲa (?)

The word for “ear” is likely the root for “thought/feelings” /tʲwa/ (as seen more clearly in Riantana /rwa/) suffixed with /kra/ “skin”:

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
- (-)k- (-)k-
earˈtʲa-kra tʃa-kr tʃa-kura

Initial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /mb/ …

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
mb- [b]mb- [b mb] mb- [mb b]
star bœˈrɛe mbʌrːewa
chop down bœriˈjɛ bʌrːijɛ
~ bʌrːije
chop/break ˈbœrœ bʌrːandu
hill/mound ˈbamu mbamu
ditch bando mbanderoo
take/receiveˈbandʲa bendʲa
speech baŋgu mbaŋgu
nape bom-bœrœ bam-br
neck bu bu-da
lime gourd bu mbu
roofing buŋ bun-da
die buˈrao boraw-ino mburow
bamboo bujɛ mbweː ~ bɛ
play buã mbwa

Root-medial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /mb/is invariably reflected as prenasalized [mb]:

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
-mb- [mb]-mb- [mb]-mb- [mb]
liver idumbu itumbu
~ irimbu
spirit/ghost numbai
fly (v.) ˈnumbo numba
drum ˈnumbu numbu numbu
carry tɛˈmbɛje tæmbæ tembeːa
straight/erecttɛmbœrœ teːmbr
woomera tumbui tumbui
calf ˈtʲambu-ku tʃambu-ku tʃambu-ku
scabies kambi-kambi kambi-
call/scream ˈkambu kambu kambu
centipede kadaˈmbu kadambu
moon ˈkumbanu kumban kumbon
tail/behind ˈkumbu kumbu- -kumba
nail ˈβɛmbœ wemben-da weːmbe-tawa

Initial apical prenasalized voiced stop /nd/ …

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
nd- [d]nd [d nd] nd [nd d]
fat/grease di ndi
stand diˈɛ ndijɛ
make/do diwo ndiwo
canoe diˈjɛ dijɛ dijan
fish da deːn-da
blood dœrœ dʌdːʌ ndzʌrːə (?)
3 sg. poss. da
go up da daa -da
path da daan doː
mouth ˈdadu dado dalo
sick/ill ˈduo dowa ndoa
bone/upper armduˈro dʌrːowa
~ ndəro-
drowa
~ durwa
~ -dʌrːoa
lazy ndu du-dʃa
tree/wood do da- ndar (?)

Root-medial apical prenasalized voiced stop /nd/ …

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
-nd- [nd]-nd- [nd]-nd- [nd]
3 sg. obl. anda
stab mindɛrɛ
ditch bando mbanderoo
thunder tʲœnduˈβu tʃinduwu
coconut plug kandu kandə
sugarcane ˈkunda kʌnda konda-konda
four ˈjando jaːndu jaːndo
hunger ˈjonda-tʲœ jonda-tʃə jonda

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
son/boymunaduwa-
-ˈrɛrɛ
monadowo

Palatal prenasalized voiced stop /ndʲ/ …

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
ndʲ-
-ndʲ- [ndʲ]-ndʲ- [ndʲ]-ndʲ- [ndʲ ndʃ]
three pendʲi peːndʲi pandʃii
~ wendʃi
take/receiveˈbandʲa bendʲa
lightning oˈandʲi wandʲi wandʃi
body ˈjɛndʲe jeːndʲa

Inital velar prenasalized voiced stop /ŋg/ …

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
ŋg- [g]ŋg- [g ŋg]
2 pl. poss.gi
2 sg. poss.ga ga-
forest gaˈru ŋgaro
nose ˈgon-da wan-da (?)

Medial velar prenasalized voiced stop /ŋg/ …

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
ŋg [ŋg ŋ]ŋg ŋg
2 pl. nom.ˈiŋgi ŋgi-
sago ˈiŋa iŋga eiŋga
2 sg. nom.ˈuŋgu eŋgu
coconut paŋga poŋgara
speech baŋgu mbaŋgu
plain(s) waŋga woŋga

Bilabial non-stop /w/…

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
w- [w u o β]
beard uˈi wi wui ~ -wi
dream uˈi
night/dark wi-bœrœ weː-br ʌ-bːʌrːʌ (?)
fish net wijɛ
ghost ˈβɛe wɛi
nail ˈβɛmbœ wemben-da weːmbe-tawa
thigh ˈβɛrimu
sweet potato ˈβɛẽ kuni wain-konɛ jiwon-kani
shoulder ˈwatʲo watʃo watʃeː
lightning oˈandʲi wandʲi wandʃi
kunai grass ˈwaga waa
house ˈwaɣara woharæ
lie (n.) wau ~ waw- -owa
wave waru warom-bwa
plain(s) waŋga woŋga
egg uˈo ~ -uo -uwo ~ -wo -w ~ -wo
fly (n.) urowr
-w-
eye ˈaβ-uo ab-uwo ~ a-wo- a-w ~ a-wo-
cassowary aˈwi awi awi
wild ˈao-ˈtɛrɛrɛ
not maw
son/boy munaduwa-
-ˈrɛrɛ
monadowo
come muinanɛ mowija
rain ˈmoa ~ mue muwo mowa
flesh pi pui
die buˈrao boraw-ino mburow
bamboo bujɛ mbweː ~ bɛ
play buã mbwa
one nœβɛrɛ nʌwːeːda
sharp naˈwe
bite tˈra-nawɛ tʌrːa-nami (?) tʌrːa-nowa
six tuˈro tʌlwa turua ~ tʌrːa
~ turːewa
bone/upper armduˈro dʌrːowa
~ ndəro-
drowa
~ durwa
~ -dʌrːoa
rain ˈmoa ~ mue muwo mowa
wind ˈnuo nuwa
know ˈnua-no nuwo -nowa-(no)
make/do diwo ndiwo
plant (v.) ˈkao kaw
sit kui kwij kwi
coconut shell kuˈo-tuˈbo kwa-towara kwa-towa
belch ˈkote kwatɛ
fruit/seed kuˈo ~ ko- kuo
woman/wife jo ~ dʲa jʌ- ~ -dʲa ja ~ -dʲowa
rattan juˈo juwo

Apical non-stop /r/occurs only medially:

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
-r- [r] -r- [r l] -r- [r]
river ˈiɾamu iramu
sun œˈrɛ hʌrːa
hit/beat ˈawra aula -awra
flat/smooth ˈmidœrœ
stab mindɛrɛ
rib(s)/side mœrœ æmæræ
young man maβuˈrɛrɛ maworedeː moureːda
mucus pœˈrɛ pʌrːen-ko
shallow padoro paderu
ripe ˈpuranu peranə (?)
star bœˈrɛe mbʌrːewa
chop down bœriˈjɛ bʌrːijɛ
~ bʌrːije
chop/break ˈbœrœ bʌrːandu
die buˈrao boraw-ino mburow
machete neɛrœ
go down nœɛˈrɛ nʌrːe-tʃinɛ
straight/erecttɛmbœrœ teːmbr
shin tœrœe jɛ trindʃɛ
six tuˈro tʌlwa turua ~ tʌrːa
~ turːewa
mosquito tra tʌrːa tʌnːa (?)
excrete -tra ~ -dra -tera ~ -ra
tooth tra-ˈβae tʌrːa tʌrːa
door tˈramu tʌrːam
bite tˈra-nawɛ tʌrːa-nami tʌrːa-nowa
bone/upper armduˈro dʌrːowa
~ ndəro-
drowa
~ durwa
~ -dʌrːoa
new tʲitʲiraˈɣa tʃtʃra
cough tʲiˈrɛ-iˈrɛ
lip(s) tʲɛtʲiˈrɛ tʃetʃireː tʃetʃireː
hear ˈtʲɛrɛ tʃidɛ tʃeːreran
ear ˈtʲa-kra tʃa-kr tʃa-kura
break (stone) tʲaˈro
many ˈkatʲa-ˈraɣa katʃara
bow ˈkara kara kara ~ ɣara
near ˈkaroduˈru karoda karodːʌ
foot kuˈra kəra kura
crocodile ˈkuramu kramu kʌrːamu
skin/bark kraˈra ~ ˈkrarakʌrːada -keradera
forest gaˈru ŋgaro
thigh ˈβɛrimu
house ˈwaɣara woharæ
wave waru warom-bwa
fly (n.) urowr
hot ˈjoru jolo

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
sandtʲiˈji tʃirə

Initial palatal non-stop /j/ …

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
j- j- j-
body ˈjɛndʲe jeːndʲa
spittleˈjɛœ jʌ- jeːʌ-
paddle ja jaː ija
four ˈjando jaːndu jaːndo
bad ja-ka ja-ka
woman jo jʌ- ja
far ˈjodo jodːa joda
hunger ˈjonda-tʲœjonda-tʃə jonda
hot ˈjoru jolo
smoke ˈjuhu
rattan juˈo juwo

Root-initial /j/ in kin terms is realized as voiced palatal stop [dʲ] when preceded by a possessive pronoun. Here Drabbe's free forms with the otherwise prohibited initial [dʲ] result from misanalysis of possessive phrases:

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
-j-/N_ [dʲ]-j-/N_ [dʲ]-j-/N_ [dʲ]
fatherdʲi nan-dʲi-ka tʲi-tʲa (?)
wife dʲa gan-dʲa nan-dʲowa

Medial palatal non-stop /j/ …

KimaghamaTeri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
-j- -j- -j-
sweat ˈmijaɣa megai-da mihi
gather mœjɛ
eat/drinkmuˈjɛ mudʲɛ ~ mojɛ muja
chop downbœriˈjɛ bʌrːijɛ
~ bʌrːije
carry tɛˈmbɛje tæmbæ tembeːa
hide tumaˈjɛ tomːaja tamaja
stand diˈɛ ndijɛ
canoe diˈjɛ dijɛ dijan

… final consonants …

… suffix /-u/ on kin terms …:

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
C-u
mother mam-ˈu
brother nan-ˈu
grandparentˈtad-u

… nasalization …:

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
Ṽ [Ṽ ø]Ṽ [Ṽ ŋ n ø]Ṽ [ŋ n ø]
roofing buŋ
play buã mbwa
dog nœɛ nʌwːʌ̆ noi
elbow tu tuuŋ
man/persontʲĩ tʃin
canoe diˈjɛ dijɛ dijan
banana tʲõ tʃaŋ tʃaː~ tʃaŋ
path. da daan doː
leaf -ku -kun -ku
good ˈkutʲi kutʃiŋ

… reduplication …

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
C₁V₁N-C₁V₁C₁V₁N-C₁V₁C₁V₁N-C₁V₁
laugh teˈɛn-teˈɛ tʃien-tʃɛ
shame/tabootʲin-dʲi tʃin-di (?) tʃin-dʃi
heart/soul ˈtʲɛn-dʲe
sweet tʲen-tʲe tʃie-tʃiɛ

… suffix /-nda/ [-da] …

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
V-nd [d] V-d [d] V-d [d]
sweat megai-da
lime/white maa-da
~ maa-ra (?)
ground/belowpadae-da pada-d
neck bu-da
head towa-da
firewood tʃia-da ː
skin/bark kraˈ-ra
~ ˈkra-ra (?)
kʌrːa-da -kera-dera
N-nd [nd] N-nd [nd]
wing aban-da
breast man-da
roofing buŋ bun-da
ashes tin-da tin-dara
fish deːn-da
man/person tʃin-do
nose ˈgon-da wan-da
nail wemben-da

…suffix /mbœrœ/ [-bœrœ]:

Kimaghama Teri Kalwasch Kaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
V-mb- [b] V-mb- [b] V-mb- [b]
firewood tʃeː buwarːərə
intestinesˈtso bœrœ
buttocks tʲœˈmɛ bœrœ
short ka-ˈpaj-bœrœ ka-pa-berʌ ka-pwʌ-bːərə
night/darkwi-bœrœ weː-br ʌ-bːʌrːʌ
N-mb- [mb]N-mb- [mb]N-mb- [mb]
buttocks bem-bero
nape bom-bœrœ bam-br
chest koˈdam-bœrœ kelam-bərə

… compound of /tʲi(n)/ “man/person” and the root for “die”:

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
N-mb- [mb] N-mb- [mb]
dead persontʲĩm-buˈrao iˈnɛ tʃim-burow

… suffix which is found more extensively in Riantana …

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
eye a-wondoʌba
toe kurandubu
fingerkiˈtʲɛn-umbuketʃan-omba

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
good kutʃin-era

… “bone” …

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
bone ka-drowa
spineˈjan-duro

… “water” …

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
milk man-tʲu
~ man-tsu
man-tʃu
urineka n-tʲu

… /tra/ “excrete” preceded by /kaɣa/ “excrement” and /ka(n)/ “urine”:

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
defecatekaɣa dra kaɣa-ra
urinate ka n-tra kan-tera

Kimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
chest keddanamo
dead persontʲĩm-buˈrao iˈnɛ tʃim-burow
wave warom-bwa
mucus pœˈrɛ pʌrːen-ko
elbow tun-kɛ

… vowels …

High front vowel /i/ …

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
i i i
firei i i

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens

KimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens

Pronouns

Drabbe (1949: 5-6) gives Kimaghama pronouns in three case forms as follows:

nominativeobliquepossessive
1 sg.no ni'ɛ na
2 sg.'uŋgu 'aŋga ga
3 sg.'anda da
1 pl.ni ni'rɛ ni
2 pl.'iŋgi 'aŋge gi
3 pl.ii 'ande dii

Geurtjens' (1933: 430-431) pronouns are unreliable and are not presented here.

Verbal morphology

[under construction]

Like Riantana and Ndom, Kimaghama stands out within Trans New Guinea in being an isolating language with no verbal morphology.

Loans from neighboring languages

[under construction]

… Marianne Strait …:

Marianne StraitKimaghama Teri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
liver *… idumbu itumbu
~ irimbu
cassowary *awi aˈwi awi awi
young man *… maβuˈrɛrɛ maworedeː moureːda
belly *put ˈpuri-kwo podi-kwo puri
star *mb… bœˈrɛe mbʌrːewa
many/all *ndom ndom
sand *sir tʲiˈji tʃirə
chest *keɣen koˈdam-bœrœkeddanamo kelam-bərə
coconut plug*… kandu kandə
bow *ɣaræw ˈkara kara kara ~ ɣara
crocodile *karam[o̝i] ˈkuramu kramu kʌrːamu
forest *ŋg… gaˈru ŋgaro
lightning *wandir oˈandʲi wandʲi wandʃi
house *… ˈwaɣara woharæ
sun/day *jaua tʲuˈo

… Marind …:

MarindKimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
cuscus*mbeamˈbajamu
ghost *ɣeis ˈβɛe wɛi

… Indonesian …:

IndonesianKimaghamaTeri KalwaschKaladdar
Drabbe Geurtjens Geurtjens
knifepisaᵘ piˈtʲɛ