Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
The Tairora family is comprised of at least three languages spoken by 13,000 people (2010) living south and southeast of Kainantu in the Kainantu and Obura-Wonenara districts subdistricts of Papua New Guinea's Eastern Highlands province (McKaughan 1973: 515, Vincent 2010: v, q.v. 2010: iv.)
The internal classification of Tairora is as follows:
Tairora
North Tairora
Omwunra
Vinaata
Vincent (2010: vi, v) conflates Omwunra and Vinaata in a single South Tairora language, defined by several grammatical and phonological features which have been lost in North Tairora. Examination of Omwunra and Vinaata materials (below) show this equivalence to be incorrect. It's possible that there are other Tairora languages or dialects yet to be identified.
Capell (1948-1949: 350-354) pronouns and 118 comparative terms for Taiora (North Tairora)
Vincent and Vincent (1961) (North) Tairora final verbs (unobtained)
Vincent and Vincent (1962) verbal morphology and syntax of (North) Tairora (unobtained)
Vincent and Vincent (1962) phonology of (North) Tairora (unobtained)
Vincent and Vincent (1964) grammar of (North) Tairora
Vincent and Vincent (1968) grammar of (North) Tairora (unobtained)
Vincent (1973: 530-546) nominal morphology of (North) Tairora of Bantura village
Vincent (1973: 561-587) verbal morphology of (North) Tairora
Vincent, compiler (1973: 625-688) (North) Tairora texts
Vincent (1994) dictionary of (North) Tairora
Vincent and Vincent (1994) sketch phonology of Northern Tairora
Vincent and Vincent (1994) sketch phonology of Obura-To'okena
Vincent and Vincent (1994) sketch phonology of Vinata
Vincent (2010) dictionary and grammar of (North) Tairora of Vaantura village, including some forms from Kuvaira (Suwaira) village
McKaughan (1964: 98-121) includes 546 comparative terms for (North) Tairora of Batainabura village, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 694-738)
McKaughan (1973: 588-597) (North) Tairora sequential clauses
Bee (1965: 1-37) 58 (North) Tairora reflexes of proto-Kainantu, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 739-768)
Kerr (1973: 598-624) verbal subjects for Obura
Kerr (1973: 769-799) 35 (North) Tairora reflexes of proto-Kainantu kin terms
Gajudsek (1980) brief ethnological description and a few words for Pinata
[under construction]
Proto-Tairora had perhaps 11 consonants and 6 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | [*nʲ] | ||
[*p] | *t | *s | [*k] | *ʔ |
*w | *ɾ | *j |
*i | *u | |
*e: | *ɐ | *o: |
*ɑ: |
In addition to the simple vowels above, four diphthongs occur:
*iᵄ | *uᵄ |
*ɐⁱ | *ɐᵘ |
Besides long vowels and diphthongs, sequential vowels do not occur in roots.
Consonants do not occur word-finally.
As in other Kainantu languages, medial clusters …
…
Simple consonants correspond as follows:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata |
*… | |||
*… | |||
*… | |||
*… | |||
*… | |||
*… | |||
[*p] | p | p | p |
*t | t | t | t |
*s | h | h | s |
[*k] | k | k | k |
*ʔ | ʔ | ʔ | ʔ |
*w | β | β | β |
*w/u_ | β | ø | ø |
*ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ |
*ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ø |
*j | k | kʲ | s |
Medial consonant clusters correspond as follows:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata |
*Nm | |||
*Nn | |||
*Np | mp | ||
*Nt | nt | t | nt |
*Ns | nt | s | |
*Nk | ŋk | k | ŋk |
*ʔn | nt | nt | n |
*ʔj | h | kʲ | s |
Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata |
*i | i | i | i |
*u | u | u | u |
*ɐ | ɐ | ɐ | ɐ |
*e: | e | e | e |
*o: | o | o | o |
*ɑ: | ɑ: | ɑ: | ɑ: |
*iᵄ | iᵄ | iᵄ | iᵄ |
*uᵄ | uᵄ | uᵄ | uᵄ |
*ɐⁱ | ɐⁱ | ɐⁱ | ɐⁱ |
*ɐᵘ | ɐᵘ | ɐᵘ | ɐᵘ |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with North Tairora of Vaantura drawn from Vincent (2010 ibid.,) Omwunra (Obura-To'okena) from Vincent and Vincent (1994) and Vinaata from Vincent and Vincent (1994.) Vincent's (2010) Kuvaira village forms are indicated with the abbreviation [Kuv].
As Omwunra and Vinaata data is limited to these sketch phonologies, gaps in attestation are not necessarily meaningful and aren't reliable guides for cognate frequencies. East Kainantu roots attested only in North Tairora aren't presented here, because they are very numerous and don't illustrate the differences between Tairora languages.
Bilabial nasal /*m/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*… | m | m | m | |
kite sp. | *me:mo:nɐ | memoɾɐ | memoɐ | memo |
leaves sp. | *mɐᵘnɐ | mɐᵘɾɐ | mɐᵘɐ | |
owl sp. | *mɐno:mɐni | mɐɾomɐɾi | mɐomɐi | mɐɾomɐi |
… /*m/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*m | β | ᵯ | β | |
3 sg. | *mi | βi- | ᵯi | |
maggot | *mimi | ᵯiᵯi | ||
arrow sp. | *mɐt[ɐ]ɾu | βɐtɐu |
… /*m/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*… | β | m | ||
now/today | *mɐte: | βɐte | mɐte |
… /*m/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*… | β | ᵯ | ᵯ | |
maggot | *mimi | ᵯiᵯi | ||
leech | *tumo[ʔ]ɐ | tuβoʔɐ | tuᵯokɐ | |
rat | *tumunɐ | tuβuɾɐ | tuᵯuɐ |
Apical nasal /*n/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*n | n | |||
bush/forest | *nɐʔnɐ | nɐntɐ | ɐnɐ | |
woman | *nɑ:je: | nɑ:ke | ɑ:se | |
mother | *no: | no- | o- | no- |
owl sp. | *no:Nko:ɾɐ | noŋkoɾɐ | nokoɾɐ |
… /*n/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*n | ɾ | ɾ | ||
june beetle | *ɑ:ni | ɑ:ɾi | ɑ:i | ɑ:ɾi |
leaves sp. | *mɐᵘnɐ | mɐᵘɾɐ | mɐᵘɐ | |
owl sp. | *mɐno:mɐni | mɐɾomɐɾi | mɐomɐi | mɐɾomɐi |
*n | ɾ | ø | ||
kite sp. | *me:mo:nɐ | memoɾɐ | memoɐ | memo |
owl sp. | *mɐnomɐni | mɐɾomɐɾi | mɐomɐi | mɐɾomɐi |
rat | *tumunɐ | tuβuɾɐ | tuᵯuɐ | |
*n | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | |
dog | *wɐⁱni | βɐⁱɾi | βɐⁱɾi | βɐⁱɾi |
*n | ɾ | ɾ | ø | |
orchid sp. | *o:te:nɐ | oteɾɐ | oteɾɐ | |
bark skirt | *pɐʔjɑ:nɐ | pɐhɑ:ɾɐ | pɐkʲɑ:ɾɐ | pɐsɑ: |
Palatal nasal /*nʲ/ is merged with both initial and medial reflexes of /*n/ in North Tairora:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*nʲ- | n | nʲ | nʲ | |
bird | *nʲɑ:mɐ | nʲɑ:ᵯɐ | ||
women's house | *nʲɑ:munʲɐ | nɑ:muɾɐ | nʲɑ:βunʲɐ | |
*-nʲ- | ɾ | nʲ | nʲ | |
women's house | *nʲɑ:munʲɐ | nʲɑ:βunʲɐ | ||
men's house | *wɐⁱnʲɐ | βɐⁱɾɐ | βɐⁱnʲɐ |
Bilabial stop /*p/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*p | p | p | p | |
bark skirt | *pɐʔjɑ:nɐ | pɐhɑ:ɾɐ | pɐkʲɑ:ɾɐ | pɐsɑ: |
Apical stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*t | t | t | t | |
headdress sp. | *tiNtiɾɐ | tintiɾɐ | tintiɐ | |
fireplace | *tɐʔi | tɐʔi | tɐʔi | |
bamboo | *tɐʔu | tɐʔu | tɐʔu | |
bird of paradise | *tɐɾiɾɐ | tɐɾiɾɐ | tɐɾiɐ | |
knee | *to:ɾi | toɾi | toɾi | toɾi |
edge/boundary | *to:jɑ: | tokɑ: | tosɐ-nʲɐ | |
leech | *tumo[ʔ]ɐ | tuβoʔɐ | tuᵯokɐ | |
rat | *tumunɐ | tuβuɾɐ | tuᵯuɐ | |
orchid sp. | *o:te:nɐ | oteɾɐ | oteɾɐ | |
plant (v.) | *utu- | uti | utu | |
netbag | *ut[u]ɐ | utɐ | tuɐ | tuɐ |
now/today | *mɐte: | βɐte | mɐte | |
arrow sp. | *mɐt[ɐ]ɾu | βɐtɐu | ||
head | *ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ |
Laminal /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/ in Omuwnra and North Tairora but retained as /s/ in Vinaata:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*s | h | h | s | |
cucumber | *se:sɐ | sesɐ | ||
greens sp. | *so:Nni | soni | ||
blackpalm/bow | *suɾu | huɾu | huɾu | suɾu |
sweat | *ʔɐᵘsɐ | ɐᵘsɐ | ||
frog sp. | *wisɐᵘʔnɐ | βihɐᵘntɐ | βisɐᵘnɐ | |
cuscus sp. | *wɐsi | βɐhi | βɐhi |
Velar stop /*k/ is retained as such in all descendants. Infrequency and semantic range suggest that it is found only in loans:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*k | k | k | k | |
shield | *kɐⁱNke: | kɐⁱŋke | kɐⁱke | |
Job's tears | *kuNkuɾɐ | kuŋkuɾɐ | kukuɾɐ | kuŋkuɾɐ |
Glottal stop /*ʔ/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*ʔ | ʔ | ʔ | ʔ | |
head | *ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ |
bandicoot sp. | *ʔiɾo:jɐ | ʔiɾokɐ | iɾokʲɐ | |
fireplace | *tɐʔi | tɐʔi | tɐʔi | |
bamboo | *tɐʔu | tɐʔu | tɐʔu | |
hand | *jɐᵘʔu | kɐᵘʔu | n-tʲɐᵘʔu |
Bilabial non-stop /*w/ is generally occluded to [β] in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*w | β | β | β | |
frog sp. | *wisɐᵘʔnɐ | βihɐᵘntɐ | βisɐᵘnɐ | |
arrow | *we:wɐ | βeβɐ | βeβɐ | βeβɐ |
be/exist | *wɐⁱ | βɐⁱ ≈ βɐki | βe | |
near | *wɐⁱ | βɐⁱ | βɐⁱ-ni | |
dog | *wɐⁱni | βɐⁱɾi | βɐⁱɾi | βɐⁱɾi |
men's house | *wɐⁱnʲɐ | βɐⁱɾɐ | βɐⁱnʲɐ | |
man | *wɐⁱ… | βɐⁱinti | βɐⁱntʲi | |
cuscus sp. | *wɐsi | βɐhi | βɐhi | |
eel | *wɑ:ʔni | βɑ:nti | βɑ:nti | βɑ:ni |
arrow | *we:wɐ | βeβɐ | βeβɐ | βeβɐ |
cassowary | *wuje:nɐ | βukeɾɐ | βukʲeɾɐ | βuseɾɐ [hmk] |
Medial /*w/ is dropped in Omwunra and in Vinaata when following high back vowel /*u/:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*w | β | ø | ø | |
fence | *uwijɐ | uβikɐ [Kuv.] | uisɐ | |
speech | *[ʔ]uwɐ | uβɐ | ʔuɐ |
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | |
eel slime | *ɾiɾi | ɾiɾi | ɾiɾi | |
bridge | *iɾi | iɾi | iɾi | iɾi |
legband | *iɾɐɾɐ | iɾɐɾɐ | iɾæ | |
pinkie | *e:ɾɐ | eɾɐ | eɾɐ | |
many | *ɐⁱɾi | ɐⁱɾi [Kuv.] | ɐⁱɾi | |
stone | *o:ɾi | oɾi | oɾi | oɾi |
owl sp. | *no:Nko:ɾɐ | noŋkoɾɐ | nokoɾɐ | |
bird of paradise | *tɐɾiɾɐ | tɐɾiɾɐ | tɐɾiɐ | |
knee | *to:ɾi | toɾi | toɾi | toɾi |
blackpalm/bow | *suɾu | huɾu | huɾu | suɾu |
Job's tears | *kuNkuɾɐ | kuŋkuɾɐ | kukuɾɐ | kuŋkuɾɐ |
… /*ɾ/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*ɾ | ɾ | ø | ||
legband | *iɾɐɾɐ | iɾɐɾɐ | iɾæ | |
arrow sp. | *mɐt[ɐ]ɾu | βɐtɐu | ||
headdress sp. | *tiNtiɾɐ | tintiɾɐ | tintiɐ | |
bird of paradise | *tɐɾiɾɐ | tɐɾiɾɐ | tɐɾiɐ |
Palatal non-stop /*j/ is occluded to /kʲ/ in Omwunra and to /k/ in North Tairora, a change shared with Kambaira to the northeast. In Vinaata, it is fricated to /s/ [s ts], a change shared with Awa of the South Kainantu family to the southwest:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*j | k | kʲ | s | |
taro | *jɐnɐ | kɐɾɐ | kʲɐɾɐ | |
sun | *juᵄni | kuᵄɾi | suᵄi | |
all | *e:jɑ: | ekɑ: | ekʲɑ: | |
song sp. | *ɐⁱjo:nɐ | ɐⁱkoɾɐ | ɐⁱsoɾɐ | |
fence | *uwijɐ | uβikɐ [Kuv.] | uisɐ | |
woman | *nɑ:je: | nɑ:ke | ɑ:se | |
edge/boundary | *to:jɑ: | tokɑ: | tosɐ-nʲɐ | |
fish sp. | *… | hɐβukɐ | hɐmpukʲɐ | tɐβusɐ |
bandicoot sp. | *ʔiɾo:jɐ | ʔiɾokɐ | iɾokʲɐ | |
older brother | *wɐjɑ: | βɐkɑ:- | m-pɐsɑ:- | |
cassowary | *wuje:nɐ | βukeɾɐ | βukʲeɾɐ | βuseɾɐ [hmk] |
….
… /*Nt/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Kuvaira | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*Nt | nt | t | nt | ||
headdress sp. | *tiNtiɾɐ | tintiɾɐ | titiɾɐ | tintiɐ |
… /*Ns/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Kuvaira | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*Ns | nt | t | s | ntʲ | |
animal | *ɑ:Nsɐᵘ | ɑ:ntɐᵘ | ɑ:sɐᵘ | ||
man | *wɐⁱ… | βɐⁱinti | βɐⁱiti | βɐⁱntʲi |
… /*Nk/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Kuvaira | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*Nk | ŋk | k | k | ŋk | |
owl sp. | *no:Nko:ɾɐ | noŋkoɾɐ | nokoɾɐ | nokoɾɐ | |
shield | *kɐⁱNke: | kɐⁱŋke | kɐⁱke | kɐⁱke | |
Job's tears | *kuNkuɾɐ | kuŋkuɾɐ | kukuɾɐ | kukuɾɐ | kuŋkuɾɐ |
… /*ʔn/ …:
Tairora | Vaantura | Kuvaira | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*ʔn | nt | nt | n | ||
neck/throat | *uʔnɐ | untɐ | unɐ | ||
bush/forest | *nɐʔnɐ | nɐntɐ | ɐnɐ | ||
frog sp. | *wisɐᵘʔnɐ | βihɐᵘntɐ | βisɐᵘnɐ | ||
eel | *wɑ:ʔni | βɑ:nti | βɑ:nti | βɑ:ni |
… :
Tairora | Vaantura | Kuvaira | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
* | h | tʲ | |||
enough | *t[i]o: | ho | tʲo | ||
fire | *it[i]ɐ | ihɐ | itʲɐ |
… /*ʔj/ … The Kuvaira forms are doublets, but it's not clear if one is from Vaantura or the other from Omwunra:
Tairora | Vaantura | Kuvaira | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*ʔj | h | h k | kʲ | s | |
bark skirt | *pɐʔjɑ:nɐ | pɐhɑ:ɾɐ | pɐhɑ:ɾɐ ≈ pɐkɑ:ɾɐ | pɐkʲɑ:ɾɐ | pɐsɑ: |
…:
Tairora | Vaantura | Vinaata | |
*w/N-_ | β | mp | |
older brother | *wɐjɑ: | βɐkɑ:- | |
*j/N-_ | k | ntʲ | |
hand | *jɐᵘʔu | kɐᵘʔu | n-tʲɐᵘʔu |
…
High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*i | i | i | i | |
fire | *it[i]ɐ | ihɐ | itʲɐ | |
bridge | *iɾi | iɾi | iɾi | iɾi |
legband | *iɾɐɾɐ | iɾɐɾɐ | iɾæ | |
june beetle | *ɑ:ni | ɑ:ɾi | ɑ:i | ɑ:ɾi |
stone | *o:ɾi | oɾi | oɾi | oɾi |
fence | *uwijɐ | uβikɐ [Kuv.] | uisɐ | |
3 sg. | *mi | βi- | ᵯi | |
maggot | *mimi | ᵯiᵯi | ||
owl sp. | *mɐno:mɐni | mɐɾomɐɾi | mɐomɐi | mɐɾomɐi |
headdress sp. | *tiNtiɾɐ | tintiɾɐ | tintiɐ | |
bird of paradise | *tɐɾiɾɐ | tɐɾiɾɐ | tɐɾiɐ | |
knee | *to:ɾi | toɾi | toɾi | toɾi |
fireplace | *tɐʔi | tɐʔi | tɐʔi | |
greens sp. | *so:Nni | soni | ||
bandicoot sp. | *ʔiɾo:jɐ | ʔiɾokɐ | iɾokʲɐ | |
frog sp. | *wisɐᵘʔnɐ | βihɐᵘntɐ | βisɐᵘnɐ | |
dog | *wɐⁱni | βɐⁱɾi | βɐⁱɾi | βɐⁱɾi |
man | *wɐⁱ… | βɐⁱinti | βɐⁱntʲi | |
cuscus sp. | *wɐsi | βɐhi | βɐhi | |
eel | *wɑ:ʔni | βɑ:nti | βɑ:nti | βɑ:ni |
sun | *juᵄni | kuᵄɾi | suᵄi | |
eel slime | *ɾiɾi | ɾiɾi | ɾiɾi |
High back vowel /*u/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*u | u | u | u | |
neck/throat | *uʔnɐ | untɐ | unɐ | |
plant (v.) | *utu- | uti | utu | |
netbag | *ut[u]ɐ | utɐ | tuɐ | tuɐ |
fence | *uwijɐ | uβikɐ [Kuv.] | uisɐ | |
arrow sp. | *mɐt[ɐ]ɾu | βɐtɐu | ||
bamboo | *tɐʔu | tɐʔu | tɐʔu | |
leech | *tumo[ʔ]ɐ | tuβoʔɐ | tuᵯokɐ | |
rat | *tumunɐ | tuβuɾɐ | tuᵯuɐ | |
fish sp. | *… | hɐβukɐ | hɐmpukʲɐ | tɐβusɐ |
women's house | *nʲɑ:munʲɐ | nɑ:muɾɐ | nʲɑ:βunʲɐ | |
blackpalm/bow | *suɾu | huɾu | huɾu | suɾu |
Job's tears | *kuNkuɾɐ | kuŋkuɾɐ | kukuɾɐ | kuŋkuɾɐ |
speech | *[ʔ]uwɐ | uβɐ | ʔuɐ | |
cassowary | *wuje:nɐ | βukeɾɐ | βukʲeɾɐ | βuseɾɐ [hmk] |
hand | *jɐᵘʔu | kɐᵘʔu | n-tʲɐᵘʔu |
Mid central vowel /*ɐ/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*ɐ | ɐ | ɐ | ɐ | |
fire | *it[i]ɐ | ihɐ | itʲɐ | |
legband | *iɾɐɾɐ | iɾɐɾɐ | iɾæ | |
pinkie | *e:ɾɐ | eɾɐ | eɾɐ | |
song sp. | *ɐⁱjo:nɐ | ɐⁱkoɾɐ | ɐⁱsoɾɐ | |
orchid sp. | *o:te:nɐ | oteɾɐ | oteɾɐ | |
neck/throat | *uʔnɐ | untɐ | unɐ | |
fence | *uwijɐ | uβikɐ [Kuv.] | uisɐ | |
kite sp. | *me:mo:nɐ | memoɾɐ | memoɐ | memo |
leaves sp. | *mɐᵘnɐ | mɐᵘɾɐ | mɐᵘɐ | |
owl sp. | *mɐno:mɐni | mɐɾomɐɾi | mɐomɐi | mɐɾomɐi |
now/today | *mɐte: | βɐte | mɐte | |
arrow sp. | *mɐt[ɐ]ɾu | βɐtɐu | ||
bark skirt | *pɐʔjɑ:nɐ | pɐhɑ:ɾɐ | pɐkʲɑ:ɾɐ | pɐsɑ: |
bush/forest | *nɐʔnɐ | nɐntɐ | ɐnɐ | |
owl sp. | *no:Nko:ɾɐ | noŋkoɾɐ | nokoɾɐ | |
headdress sp. | *tiNtiɾɐ | tintiɾɐ | tintiɐ | |
fireplace | *tɐʔi | tɐʔi | tɐʔi | |
bamboo | *tɐʔu | tɐʔu | tɐʔu | |
bird of paradise | *tɐɾiɾɐ | tɐɾiɾɐ | tɐɾiɐ | |
leech | *tumo[ʔ]ɐ | tuβoʔɐ | tuᵯokɐ | |
rat | *tumunɐ | tuβuɾɐ | tuᵯuɐ | |
bird | *nʲɑ:mɐ | nʲɑ:ᵯɐ | ||
women's house | *nʲɑ:munʲɐ | nɑ:muɾɐ | nʲɑ:βunʲɐ | |
cucumber | *se:sɐ | sesɐ | ||
Job's tears | *kuNkuɾɐ | kuŋkuɾɐ | kukuɾɐ | kuŋkuɾɐ |
head | *ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ |
bandicoot sp. | *ʔiɾo:jɐ | ʔiɾokɐ | iɾokʲɐ | |
sweat | *ʔɐᵘsɐ | ɐᵘsɐ | ||
speech | *[ʔ]uwɐ | uβɐ | ʔuɐ | |
frog sp. | *wisɐᵘʔnɐ | βihɐᵘntɐ | βisɐᵘnɐ | |
arrow | *we:wɐ | βeβɐ | βeβɐ | βeβɐ |
men's house | *wɐⁱnʲɐ | βɐⁱɾɐ | βɐⁱnʲɐ | |
cuscus sp. | *wɐsi | βɐhi | βɐhi | |
cassowary | *wuje:nɐ | βukeɾɐ | βukʲeɾɐ | βuseɾɐ [hmk] |
taro | *jɐnɐ | kɐɾɐ | kʲɐɾɐ |
Long mid front vowel /*e:/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*e: | e | e | e | |
pinkie | *e:ɾɐ | eɾɐ | eɾɐ | |
all | *e:jɑ: | ekɑ: | ekʲɑ: | |
orchid sp. | *o:te:nɐ | oteɾɐ | oteɾɐ | |
kite sp. | *me:mo:nɐ | memoɾɐ | memoɐ | memo |
now/today | *mɐte: | βɐte | mɐte | |
woman | *nɑ:je: | nɑ:ke | ɑ:se | |
cucumber | *se:sɐ | sesɐ | ||
shield | *kɐⁱNke: | kɐⁱŋke | kɐⁱke | |
arrow | *we:wɐ | βeβɐ | βeβɐ | βeβɐ |
cassowary | *wuje:nɐ | βukeɾɐ | βukʲeɾɐ | βuseɾɐ [hmk] |
Long mid back vowel /*o:/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*o: | o | o | o | |
song sp. | *ɐⁱjo:nɐ | ɐⁱkoɾɐ | ɐⁱsoɾɐ | |
orchid sp. | *o:te:nɐ | oteɾɐ | oteɾɐ | |
stone | *o:ɾi | oɾi | oɾi | oɾi |
kite sp. | *me:mo:nɐ | memoɾɐ | memoɐ | memo |
owl sp. | *mɐno:mɐni | mɐɾomɐɾi | mɐomɐi | mɐɾomɐi |
mother | *no: | no- | o- | no- |
owl sp. | *no:Nko:ɾɐ | noŋkoɾɐ | nokoɾɐ | |
enough | *t[i]o: | ho | tʲo | |
knee | *to:ɾi | toɾi | toɾi | toɾi |
edge/boundary | *to:jɑ: | tokɑ: | tosɐ-nʲɐ | |
leech | *tumo[ʔ]ɐ | tuβoʔɐ | tuᵯokɐ | |
greens sp. | *so:Nni | soni | ||
bandicoot sp. | *ʔiɾo:jɐ | ʔiɾokɐ | iɾokʲɐ |
Long low central vowel /*ɑ:/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*ɑ: | ɑ: | ɑ: | ɑ: | |
all | *e:jɑ: | ekɑ: | ekʲɑ: | |
june beetle | *ɑ:ni | ɑ:ɾi | ɑ:i | ɑ:ɾi |
animal | *ɑ:Nsɐᵘ | ɑ:ntɐᵘ | ɑ:sɐᵘ | |
bark skirt | *pɐʔjɑ:nɐ | pɐhɑ:ɾɐ | pɐkʲɑ:ɾɐ | pɐsɑ: |
woman | *nɑ:je: | nɑ:ke | ɑ:se | |
edge/boundary | *to:jɑ: | tokɑ: | tosɐ-nʲɐ | |
bird | *nʲɑ:mɐ | nʲɑ:ᵯɐ | ||
women's house | *nʲɑ:munʲɐ | nɑ:muɾɐ | nʲɑ:βunʲɐ | |
eel | *wɑ:ʔni | βɑ:nti | βɑ:nti | βɑ:ni |
older brother | *wɐjɑ: | βɐkɑ:- | m-pɐsɑ:- |
Diphthong /*iᵄ/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*iᵄ | iᵄ | iᵄ | iᵄ | |
head | *ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ | ʔiᵄtɐ |
Diphthong /*uᵄ/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*uᵄ | uᵄ | uᵄ | uᵄ | |
sun | *juᵄni | kuᵄɾi | suᵄi |
Diphthong /*ɐⁱ/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*ɐⁱ | ɐⁱ | ɐⁱ | ɐⁱ | |
many | *ɐⁱɾi | ɐⁱɾi [Kuv.] | ɐⁱɾi | |
song sp. | *ɐⁱjo:nɐ | ɐⁱkoɾɐ | ɐⁱsoɾɐ | |
shield | *kɐⁱNke: | kɐⁱŋke | kɐⁱke | |
near | *wɐⁱ | βɐⁱ | βɐⁱ-ni | |
dog | *wɐⁱni | βɐⁱɾi | βɐⁱɾi | βɐⁱɾi |
man | *wɐⁱ… | βɐⁱinti | βɐⁱntʲi | |
men's house | *wɐⁱnʲɐ | βɐⁱɾɐ | βɐⁱnʲɐ |
Diphthong /*ɐᵘ/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
*ɐᵘ | ɐᵘ | ɐᵘ | ɐᵘ | |
animal | *ɑ:Nsɐᵘ | ɑ:ntɐᵘ | ɑ:sɐᵘ | |
leaves sp. | *mɐᵘnɐ | mɐᵘɾɐ | mɐᵘɐ | |
sweat | *ʔɐᵘsɐ | ɐᵘsɐ | ||
frog sp. | *wisɐᵘʔnɐ | βihɐᵘntɐ | βisɐᵘnɐ | |
hand | *jɐᵘʔu | kɐᵘʔu | n-tʲɐᵘʔu |
[under construction]
…
Tairora | Vaantura | Omwunra | Vinaata | |
1 sg. | *… | te(-ɾe) | nte | |
2 sg. | *… | ɐ(-ɾe) | e | |
3 sg. | *… | βi(-βɐ) | ᵯi(-ɐ) | |
1 pl. | *… | te(-ɾe)-nɐβu | ? | |
2 pl. | *… | ne(-nɐβu) | ? | |
3 pl. | *… | βi(-nɐβu)-kɐ | ŋkʲe | |
1 dl. | *… | te(-ɾe)-tɐntɐ | ||
2 dl. | *… | ne-tɐntɐ | ||
3 dl. | *… | βi-tɐntɐ |
…
[under construction]
…