Ramu Coast

­ Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

The Ramu Coast family consists of five languages spoken along and inland from the north coast of Papua New Guinea near the mouth of the Ramu River, just east of the border between Madang and East Sepik provinces, with Watam also spoken in East Sepik province. It is called the Ottilien Family in the works of Z'graggen, after the name first given to the Ramu River by German explorers (Z'graggen 1969, 1971: 74-75.)

Subclassification

The internal classification of Ramu Coast is as follows:

Ramu Coast

East Ramu Coast

Awar

Bosngun (Bosman)

North Ramu Coast

Bore (Gamei)

Kaian

Watam

Awar and Bosngun are significantly more different from one another than are the languages of the North Ramu Coast subgroup. Foley (p.c. 2020) considers Kaian and Watam to be dialects of the same language.

Z'graggen (1969, 1971: 75) gives lexicostatistical relationships between the languages of the Ottilien Family as follows:

Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Awar 63 41 39 38
Bosman 63 45 42 43
Gamei 41 45 77 73
Kaian 39 42 77 77
Watam 38 43 73 77

These subgroups are differentiated by a number of mutually exclusive isoglosses:

E. Ramu CoastN. Ramu Coast
1 sg. *ŋgo *…
2 sg. *mo *u(-n)
thigh/calf *b[i/e]n *mbuis
father *sate *ais
flesh/meat *sak *mbuis
know/think *j[e/a]mb- *jaŋmi-
mother *mame *aim
near *nuŋ *rambum
spirit/soul*ndom *andurum
tail *ŋgun *nambuŋgen
tree *kan *paraŋ
*… *…

Sources

[under construction]

Pöch (1908: 170-173) grammar sketch and vocabulary of Watam

Ray (1919) …

Capell (1951-1952: 132-138) sketch descriptions of and (pp. 198-200) 83 comparative terms for Watam, Gamai, Bosngun and Nubia (Awar,) with Watam attestations drawn from Pöch (1908)

Höltker (1966) Bosngun …

Z'graggen (1969, 1971: 74-76) … (pp. 90-91) … (pp. 110-118) 120 Kaian singular-plural pairs

Z'graggen (1972) 431 comparative terms for Watam, Kaian, Gamei, Awar and Bosman

Parrish (1989) grammar of Bore

Foley (1992) grammar of Watam (unobtained)

Foley (1999) grammar sketch of Watam

Foley (2005: 116-118) 65 comparative terms for Watam, Kaian, Gamay, Bosmun and Awar and (pp. 118, 119-121) 43 Proto-WAG (i.e. Ramu Coast) reconstructions

Levy (2002) grammar of Awar

Historical phonology

[under construction]

[NOTE: values given below are subject to change!]

Proto-Ramu Coast had 15 consonants and … vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *s *k
*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg
*w *r *j
*i *u
*e [*ɐ] *o
*a



Only a restricted set of consonants occurs initially:

*m *n
*w *r *j

Only a restricted set of consonants occurs finally:

*m *n
*p *t *s *k
*r

… stress …


Initial consonants correspond as follows:



Medial consonants correspond as follows:



Final consonants correspond as follows:



Vowels correspond as follows:



These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with attestions in the sections following drawn from Z'graggen (1971, 1972) and Levy (2002) unless otherwise indicated. Those drawn from Foley (2005: 116-118) are indicated by [WF]. Some of the comparisons presented below originate with Z'graggen (1971: 90-91) or Foley (2005: 116, 119-121.)


At first glance, Ramu Coast languages allow any consonant to appear initially and these consonants are generally retained in all descandants. However there are a number of examples in which a consonant which appears in the North Ramu Coast languages is absent from the East Ramu Coast languages along with the vowel which follows. This phenomenon has been found with only a few consonants, including nasals /*m *n/ and non-stops /*w *r *j/. Outcomparison to other Ramu languages which likewise preserve an attentuated set of original initial consonants, namely Igom and Tanggu of the Moam River subgroup and Waran (Banaro,) as well as those which drop all initial consonants but usually preserve the following vowels such as the languages of the Goam River subgroup, shows this limited subset to reflect bonafide initial consonants in proto-Ramu River, while the consonants which are not dropped in Awar or Bosngun were originally medial. The frequency of this word shape was increased by a number of loans from the Oceanic language Manam or a near relatiove thereof (below,) although some of them undergo the same process of initial loss.

This situation introduces major complications to the recontruction of Ramu Coast. First, if a root is attested only in North Ramu Coast, it is sometimes impossible to say whether an apparently initial cononant was really initial or had a preceding vowel which has been dropped. Further, loans from Oceanic are pervasive and, because the loaning language(s) in many instances can't have been Manam itself and some are quite ancient, they look nearly indistinguishable from native roots, “moon” being an excellent example. Because many native roots drop initial vowels, thus preserving the erstwhile medial consonant, it is sometimes the case that we cannot be sure if there was an intial vowel or if the word was a loan unless its etymology in either Ramu River or Oceanic is known.

Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is always retained as such in Watam and Kaian and sometimes lost in Bore and Kaian, its loss possibly conditioned by the character of the following stop. It is always lost in Awar and Bosngun:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
*m- Ø ØØ m Ø m Ø m
snake *mindop ndup ~ dup nduop mindop míndop
net bag *mendzait nziɛt ʒə̆t mɪndʌit mɛndzai mɛnzep
frog *mɨk[i/e]p k̯ɛp keːp
3 sg. *ma(-n) nə-na mʌ-n
heavy *makuk makuk makuk makuk
sap *manVŋgat manŋʌr maŋnat mangʌt
shore *maŋar maŋʌr maŋar maŋʌr
short *matʉp matʉp
loincloth *masiVk siɛʔ sjeʔ siʌk ~ síɔktíʌʔ mʌsík masík
rattan/rope*moneak moneaʔ ~ monʌʔmonɛaʔ ~ monɛʔ
sugarcane *mowit wít vit wɪt moɪt
stump/base *muniŋ nʉː nʉŋ mʉmʉŋ muniŋ mʊniŋ
smoke *mutur tur tur tʌʔ-tur
pig *marakum rãgʌm ɽɐɣɐmrakʌm markɨm markum markʊm

Initial apical nasal /*n/ is always retained as such in Watam and only sometimes in Bore and Kaian, its loss possibly conditioned by the character of the following stop. Like intiail bilabial /*m/ (above) it is always lost in Awar and Bosngun:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
*n- Ø Ø Ø n Ø n Ø n
night *nimoŋ mũː mu muŋ moŋ nimoŋ niːmaŋ
2 pl. *ne(-n) ne ne-n neːɪ
girl *namoŋ moŋ moŋ namoŋ namoŋ
tail *nambuŋgen bugan bugon nabugɛn
banana *naŋas ŋʌs ŋas ŋʌs ŋat ŋʌs naŋas
village *naŋu ŋu-niʔ ŋu-niʔ(u)gu-nisauŋ noŋ noŋ
shoulder *nakep ŋakɛp nakep nʌkp
mosquito *naŋgit ŋget ŋget ntsɛt ŋgit naŋgit naŋgit
vine *naŋgatik ŋgəriʔ ŋgɐriʔgətʉk gʌtʉk naŋtik naŋtik ~ naŋtɪ́k
crocodile*n[o/u]ŋgumaigumí: ŋgumi gomɛ mʊgmaɪ (?)noːmᶷɣʌɪ nʊgmʌɪ

Initial velar nasal /*ŋ/ …:

Ramu CoastAwar AwarBosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevyZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*ŋ- ŋ Ø
male child*ŋ[o]ndar ŋandar̃
water *ŋarum ŋarum arum

Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is retained as such in North Ramu Coast and lost in Awar and Bosngun:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen
*w- Ø ØØ w w [w u]w [w u]
louse/flea*wasis sɛt set watit wasis wasis
garden *wariŋ rĩ: ɽi reiŋ-pʌk warʉŋ wariŋ

Initial apical non-stop /*r/ …:

Ramu Coast Awar AwarBosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevyZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
*r- Ø Ø r Ø r r
hand drum *rindiŋ díŋ dindiŋ (?) rindiŋ rindiŋ
betel pepper*rʉndʉm ndʉm dʉm rʉndʉm
slit drum *r[ʉ/u]mb[ʉ/u]ŋmbə mbẽ bʉŋ rʉmbʊŋ rʊmbʊŋ rʊbʊk ~ rʊbʊg
come *rVkʉp- kʉw- kɨp kɨpʉ- kʉb- -rkub-
man/male *ramut mɔt mot mɔt ~ umɔt ramot namot namot
leaf *rapar pʌr paɽ pʌr rapar rapar rapʌr
basket sp. *ramba mbʌː mba rʌm ramp rʌmp
fingernail *rambaum rambam rambaum rabom
forehead *ramba[n] rambaŋgut
fly (v.) *raraji- - raji– rarei– rarai-
pour out *rumbuki- buki- rumki- rumki- rumki-
heart *ruɣut gut gut uguːt ~ ugutᶷrugut ~ ruɣutrukut

Initial palatal stop /*j/ has been identified in only one root, where it is retained in Bore and Kaian and lost in Awar and Bosngun. We ssume that it should be retained in Watam but have no examples against which to check this assumption. The reflex /l/ is regular in Bore for medial /*j/ as well (below):

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
*j- Ø ØØ l [l r]j l
slowly *jauŋan lɑŋʌn iaŋonɛam jauŋan
spear *japok poʔ poʔ ɛaʔpoʔ japok
know/think *jaŋmi- lamni- jaŋmi- iami-
push *jakVpak- rapaʔ- jaʔpʌʔ- jak̩pʌḳ(ka)-
ship *jaŋgum laŋgum jaŋgum jaŋgum
red *jawup- laup jaup iʌup
laugh *jaroŋg- roŋg- roŋg-rɔŋgɔ- laraŋg- iaruŋ(ɣ)-
neck/throat*joɣot wɔt vot ɔɣɔt logot jokot

Any consonant can occur medially. Medial consonants include those which prima facie appear to be initial but are secondary as discussed above; these are often shown below with an unspecified intial vowel <*VM> where the quality of the vowel cannot be determined through outcomparison.

Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants. Where initial vowels have been lost in all attestations, these can look like intiial /*m/ (above) but are distinguished from them because they are not dropped in East Ramu Coast:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen
*Vm- m mm m m m
areca nut *imindzak mindzak
tongue *Vm[i/e] mɛm mɛmraŋ mí:
woman *ameak mɛs mɛaʔ mɛaʔ
rain *amok mok mok mɔk
child (sg.)*Vmuŋ -mu -mu -muŋ ~ -moŋ
breast *Vmur mʉr mʉr mʉr mur muːr

… /*m/ …:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
*-m- m m m m m m
yam *eimi mí: ~ mí-mi eim im ~ iːm im í:m
mother/thumb*ami aim ~ aɪm aim aim
do/be/make *amo- moŋgo- mõ- ~ moŋg(o)-moŋgo- amo- ~ mo-mo- mo-
chin *akam-muniŋ kamani kɛmɪŋ kabgʉn kamuniŋ kamuniŋ
eye *arameak ramaʔ ramʌk lamniaʔ ramɛaʔ namʌk
now/today *mandeak mándes mandɛaʔ mandɛaʔ mandʌ
night *nimoŋ mũː mu muŋ moŋ nimoŋ niːmaŋ
crocodile *n[o/u]ŋgumaigumí: ŋgumi gomɛ mʊgmaɪ noːmᶷɣʌɪnʊgmʌɪ
man/male *ramut mɔt mot mɔt ~ umɔtramot namot namot
know/think *jaŋmi- lamni- jaŋmi- iami-

Medial apical nasal /*n/ …:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*Vn- n nn n n n
belly/inside*inik nɪk ~ niknik nís inik niːk níːk
child *Vnok nɔk nɔg -nɔʔ

… /*n/ …:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
*-n- n nn n n n
skin/bark *in[i]t ɲit ~ ɲɪtɪŋɪt
small *inok nɔg nɔʔ inɔk ~ inoʔ/inuk
give *…
paddle *anu[a]p nop noʌp nup anʊp anʊp
two *Vmbuniŋ buni buniŋ mbuniŋ mbuniŋ mboini
cassowary *Vmbunoŋ mbʊnu mbunubonoŋ mbunoŋ mbunoŋ
sap *manVŋgat manŋʌr maŋnat mangʌt
rattan/rope*moneak moneaʔ ~ monʌʔmonɛaʔ ~ monɛʔ
stump/base *muniŋ nʉː nʉŋ mʉmʉŋ [sic] muniŋ mʊniŋ
chin *akam-muniŋ kamani kɛmɪŋ kabgʉn kamuniŋ kamuniŋ
point *[w][i]n[i]m nɨm

Medial velar nasal /*ŋ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*-ŋ- ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ
branch *aŋak aŋʌʔ ŋak ~ aŋakŋʌʔ ŋʌk
shore *maŋar maŋʌr maŋar maŋʌr
banana *naŋas ŋʌs ŋas ŋʌs ŋat ŋʌs naŋas
village*naŋu ŋu-niʔ ŋu-niʔ(u)gu-nis auŋ noŋ noŋ
slowly *jauŋan lɑŋʌn iaŋonɛam jauŋan

In one example, Awar drops medial /*ŋ/ when followed by final /*n/:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
*-ŋ-/_VNØ Øŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ
head*apaŋan pʌn ~ panpan paŋan paŋʌn ~ paŋanpaŋan paŋan

Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
*Vp- p pp p p p
sore *Vpis pɪ̀s pis pɪ̀s pít piːt pís
dog *apiraŋ pɛraŋ piraŋ piraŋ
shadow *Vpapak papʌk papaʔ papʌʔ
tree/wood*Vparaŋ pʌraŋ paraŋ padaŋ
head *apaŋan pʌn ~ pan pan paŋan paŋʌn ~ paŋanpaŋan paŋan
arm/hand *apar pʌːr ~ pʌrpaɽ pʌːr pʌr par pʌr

… /*p/ …:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*-p- p pp p p p
mouth/lips *opu puː pu oʊp up up up
speak *Vmbop- bopo- mbop- mbop- mbop-
top (of tree)*upor por upur
shadow *Vpapak papʌk papaʔ papʌʔ
get up *Vŋgeap- gə- gəapa- ŋgep- ŋgep- ŋgepɛ-
leaf *rapar pʌr paɽ pʌr rapar rapar rapʌr
spear *japok poʔ poʔ ɛaʔpoʔ japok
push *jakVpak- rapaʔ- jaʔpʌʔ- jak̩pʌḳ(ka)-

When /*p/ is the initial segment of a suffix, it is lenited to non-stop /w// [w v] in Awar:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen
*p- w vp p
paucal*-pak -waʔ -vaʔ -pʌk -paʔ ~ -pʌʔ

Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
*-t- t t t [t d]t t
shin *itandaŋ tiɛndaŋ dɛndaŋ (?) teːndaŋ tɛndaŋ
wooden plate *[i]tuaŋ tũŋ duoŋ (?) tuoŋ tɔŋ
knee *[i]tu[p]tuptup tutup tutup tutup
buttocks *Vtok tɔʔ tɔk tok
testicles *otu oʊt ʊt-niŋ ʊːt-niŋ
swallow *Vt[uo]k- tu(ʔ)- mbʌ-tu(ʔ)-duɔko- (?)tuʔo- toʔ- tokɛ-
stand *utik- tik(ʌ)- ~ tíg-tik ~ tiɣɐtís(i)- wutʉk- utik- ut(i)ki-
climb *ɣote- tuɛ- otɛ- gotɛ-
*Vt- t t t t t t
bamboo *itam tíɛm tʲem
knee *[i]tu[p]tuptup tutup tutup tutup
buttocks *Vtok tɔʔ tɔk tok
piece of wood*[o]tʉp tʌp tʉp

…/*t/ …:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*-t- t tt t t t
short*matʉp matʉp
smoke*mutur tur tur tʌʔ-tur

Medial laminal voiceless /*s/ is merged with apical stop /t/ in Bore:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen
*s s s s t s s
bamboo *sa tʌː sa
mountain *Vsakur takur sakur sʌkᶷr-íŋ
walk/go *Vsaŋg- saŋg(a)- saŋg-/saŋga-saŋg(a)- taŋg- -sʌŋg- ~ saŋsaŋ-
saliva/spittle*Vsumbe sombe tʌb sʊːbe subɛ

… /*s/ …:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen
*-s- s ss t s s
run *osa- suʌ- swa- ɔs ot- ma-us- os-
fire *usak suʌʔ sʷaʔ suʌkᵅ tʌʔ saːk sʌk
armpit *isap tíʌp siap isap-
penis *esi si eɪs it í:s is
skin/hide *asik sʌk tík síːk ~ siːkasìg
father *ase ʌit ʌis ais
make bow *VsambVri- tabri- sʌbri-
far tawʌn sawʌn sawan
run *osa- suʌ- swa- ɔs ot- ma-us- os-
loincloth *masiVk siɛʔ sjeʔ siʌk ~ síɔktíʌʔ mʌsík masík
louse/flea*wasis sɛt set watit wasis wasis
see *wase- wʌs(ɛ)- vas- wasɛ- wat-

Loans from Manam (below) are likewise affected:

Manam Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
TurnerZ'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
s s ss t s s
tobacco sokai soɣaj soɣaⁱsokai tɔʔai sokai sokai
sea/saltmakasimɛsi- meⁱs makis makait maɣʌɪs

Final /*s/ …:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
*-s s ss t s s
flesh/thigh*umbis búit bis bis
sore *Vpis pɪ̀s pis pɪ̀s pít piːt pís
flesh/calf *… búit ~ buít ~bʊitbis bis
banana *naŋas ŋʌs ŋas ŋʌs ŋat ŋʌs naŋas
buttocks *… kabít kabɪs-
[European] *… kʌʔkɔt kʌkos

Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*k- k k k k k k
tanget *kindiŋ kʉndʉ kɨndɨŋ kindiŋ kindiŋ
speech *akam kam kam
chin *akam-muniŋkamani kɛmɪŋ kabgʉn kamuniŋ kamuniŋ
buttocks *… kabít kabɪs-
possum *kand[o]n kandon kandon kʌndon
aroww sp. *kakat kʌʔt-ʌr kʌkʌt
one *kaku goku kakʊ kʌkʊ-
[European]*… kʌʔkɔt kʌkos
basket sp.*akaram kɽɐm karʌm
moon *KɐrVwei kərí kɐɽi kɛrwi karwej kaɪre
ear *uk[o/u]ar kur kuɽ kur koʌr koar koʌr
canoe *k[u]or koːr koɽ kɔːr kɔr koːr kɔːr
*k-/_iak k s k
flying fox*ikakɐr kíʌgar kʲaɣɐɽsakʌr kɛkɛr̃

…:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*… g g g k k k
urine*… gʉmbʌr̃ gɐmbaɽgəm(bʌr) kɛmbar keːbʌr kebʌr

Medial …:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
*…
shoulder *nakep ŋakɛp nakep nʌkp
mountain *Vsakur takur sakur sʌkᶷr-íŋ
one *kaku goku kakʊ kʌkʊ-
older brother *… jakai jakʌi
*…
heart *ruɣut gut gut uguːt ~ ugutᶷ rugut ~ ruɣutrukut
*-k- g ɣ k k k k
scratch *indzik- nzig- ndʒik- dʒisi- íːk- íːg- iki-
sew *indzuk- tsʉg- dʒuk- ískʉ- juːk-
call out *ako- ko- ko- ʌʔ- ʌoʔ- aka-
taro *Vk[o/u]r kor koɽ kor kur
vomit *oweak- juʔɛ-; juːɛ- uaka- wɛʌʔ- ojʌk-
swallow *Vt[uo]k- tu(ʔ)- mbʌ-tu(ʔ)-duɔko- (?) tuʔo- toʔ- tokɛ-
frog *mɨk[i/e]p k̯ɛp keːp
heavy *makuk makuk makuk makuk
pig *marakum rãgʌm ɽɐɣɐm rakʌm markɨm markum markʊm
mountain *Vsakur takur sakur sʌkᶷr-íŋ
flying fox *ikakɐr kíʌgar kʲaɣɐɽ sakʌr kɛkɛr̃
aroww sp. *kakat kʌʔt-ʌr kʌkʌt
bow *warVkam wʌrkam warkam warkʌm-
arrow sp. *ndzikar dɪɣar ndiɣar dezɛr̃-pʌk ndikar ndʒikar ndzekar
sharp/bad *indzakak jakʌk tsʌkʌʔ dʒakʌk
come *rVkʉp- kʉw- kɨp kɨpʉ- kʉb- -rkub-
*… g ɣ g ɣ g g g
bone *aɣar(-ɣar)agʌr ~ gagʌrgaɣɐɽ agʌːr ~gʌːr~aɣʌr̃gagʌr ~ gagargaɣar ~ gagargagʌr
*… w v
b. hair/feather*… wrʌːr vɐɽaɽ rakʌr̃ laukʌr
*… w v
neck/throat *joɣot wɔt vot ɔɣɔt logot jokot

Final /*k/ is typically reflected as glottal stop [ʔ] in Awar, Bore and Kaian:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
*-k k [ʔ k]k [ʔ k]k k [ʔ k] k [ʔ k] k
small *inok nɔg nɔʔ inɔk ~ inoʔ/inuk
sky *irak rʌʔ ɽaʔ rʌk riaʔ ~ riʌʔ
liver *Vmbembek bebʌʔ bɛbɛk bɛbk
river *[ao]ka kwa ʌuk ɔʔ ɔk wɔk
rain *amok mok mok mɔk
skin/hide *asik sʌk tík síːk ~ siːk asìg
branch *aŋak aŋʌʔ ŋak ~ aŋak ŋʌʔ ŋʌk
trunk *arVk rʌk rag- arík
wing *awɐk wʌk vɐk awʌk wʉk auk ʊk-
bad *Vŋgoreak goreaʔ ŋgorɛaʔ
stone axe *oteak -tɛʔ teʔ wotu-tɛs oteaʔ otɛaʔ
fire *usak suʌʔ sʷaʔ suʌkᵅ tʌʔ saːk sʌk
bird *uŋgorak ŋgoraʔ ŋguɽaʔ goarak ŋgɔrʌʔ ŋgoraʔ ŋgorak
areca nut *imindzak mindzak
now/today *mandeak mándes mandɛaʔ mandɛaʔ mandʌ
loincloth *masiVk siɛʔ sjeʔ siʌk ~ síɔktíʌʔ mʌsík masík
heavy *makuk makuk makuk makuk
rattan/rope*moneak moneaʔ ~ monʌʔmonɛaʔ ~ monɛʔ
shadow *Vpapak papʌk papaʔ papʌʔ
paucal *-pak -waʔ -vaʔ -pʌk -paʔ ~ -pʌʔ
sit *amb[i/e]rak[a]mbɛra(ʔa)- mbiraʔ bɛraka- biraʔ- mbiraʔ- bir(a)ka-
areca nut *MBok mboʔ mboʔ bɔk mbɔʔ mboʔ
vine *naŋgatik ŋgəriʔ ŋgɐriʔ gətʉk gʌtʉk naŋtik naŋtik ~ naŋtɪ́k
child *nok nɔk nɔg -nɔʔ
buttocks *Vtok tɔʔ tɔk tok
sharp/bad *indzakak jakʌk tsʌkʌʔ dʒakʌk
chop down *wak- waʔ- waka-
hear *warak- uar(a)k- waraʔ- waraʔ-
eye *arameak ramaʔ ramʌk lamniaʔ ramɛaʔ namʌk
vulva *jok lɔʔ jɔʔ jɔːk
fence *… bʊɛ̃ʔ bɐʔ wuək ~ wʊəkwɔʌʔ goaʔ gʊʌk
spear *japok poʔ poʔ ɛaʔpoʔ japok
push *jakVpak- rapaʔ- jaʔpʌʔ- jak̩pʌḳ(ka)-

Bosngun reflects final /*k/ as /s/ when following …, an affectation found also in Aruamu (Mikarew) to the southeast:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
*-k/… k [k ʔ] k [k ʔ]s k [k ʔ]k [k ʔ]k
belly/inside*inik nɪk ~ nik nik nís inik niːk níːk
woman *ameak mɛs mɛaʔ mɛaʔ
stand *utik- tik(ʌ)- ~ tíg-tik ~ tiɣɐ tís(i)- wutʉk- utik- ut(i)ki-
sago *weak wɛʔ veʔ wɛs weaʔ wɛʌʔ wʌk

Prenasalized bilabial stop /*mb/ …:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
*mb- mb mbb mb mb mb
sister *imbi mbí mbí ~ mbi mbí
sit *amb[i/e]rak[a] mbɛra(ʔa)- mbiraʔbɛraka- biraʔ- mbiraʔ- bir(a)ka-
liver *Vmbembek bebʌʔ bɛbɛk bɛbk
thunder (v.) *Vmb[ʉ/u][t/r][i]-mbʉt- ~ mbʉr- mbʉtʉ- buri-
old *mbaŋgar bagaR bagʌr
~ pʌgʌr̃ (?)
bagʌr
speak *Vmbop- bopo- mbop- mbop- mbop-
areca nut *MBok mboʔ mboʔ bɔk mbɔʔ mboʔ
flesh/thigh *umbis búit bis bis
two *Vmbuniŋ buni buniŋ mbuniŋ mbuniŋ mboini
cassowary *Vmbunoŋ mbʊnu mbunu bonoŋ mbunoŋ mbunoŋ
nape *Vmbut tʌːn-bud mbut -but mbut
*-mb- mb mbmb mb [mb b]mb [mb b] b
liver *Vmbembek bebʌʔ bɛbɛk bɛbk
go inside *ambuk- mboa- mbug- ambuk- mbuku-
tail *nambuŋgen bugan bugon nabugɛn
make bow *VsambVri- tabri- sʌbri-
saliva/spittle*Vsumbe sombe tʌb sʊːbe subɛ
urine *… gʉmbʌr̃ gɐmbaɽgəm(bʌr) kɛmbar keːbʌr kebʌr
basket sp. *ramba mbʌː mba rʌm (?) ramp rʌmp
forehead *ramba[n] rambaŋgut
fingernail *rambaum rambam rambaum rabom
slit drum *r[ʉ/u]mb[ʉ/u]ŋ mbə mbẽ bʉŋ rʉmbʊŋ rʊmbʊŋ rʊbʊk ~ rʊbʊg
know/think *j[e/a]mb- jɛmb- jemb- jambʌ- ~ jam-

Ramu CoastAwar AwarBosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevyZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
* b- b- b-
flesh/calf*… búit ~ buít ~bʊitbis bis

Prenasalized apical stop …:

Ramu CoastAwar AwarBosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevyZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
*nd- nd nd [d] nd [nd d]nd nd [nd d]
kunai grass *Vndain dʌin ndain ndain ndain
tooth *andar ndʌr dʌːr̃ dʌr
*-nd- nd nd [nd d]nd nd nd
shin *itandaŋ tiɛndaŋ dɛndaŋ teːndaŋ tɛndaŋ
nose/point *indup -ɪndʉp iːndup
house *[i/e]ndau ɛndau ɪndaʊ
spirit/soul *andurum adʊrʊm dʊrʊm
finger *andam ndam andam
spirit/soul *undVm ndom ndomdom
snake *mindop ndup ~ dup nduop mindop míndop
now/today *mandeak mándes mandɛaʔ mandɛaʔ mandʌ
male child *ŋ[o]ndar ŋandar̃
tanget *kindiŋ kʉndʉ kɨndɨŋ kindiŋ kindiŋ
possum *kand[o]n kandon kandon kʌndon
hand drum *rindiŋ díŋ dindiŋ (?) rindiŋ rindiŋ
betel pepper*rʉndʉm ndʉm dʉm rʉndʉm

Laminal voiced prenasalized /*ndz/ …:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
*ndz- ndz ndz [nz]nd [d] ndz [ndʒ]
arrow sp.*ndzikar dɪɣar ndiɣardezɛr̃-pʌk ndikar ndʒikar ndzekar
lung *Vndzeram ndzɛram nzaram- dɛrʌm ndʒɛrm

… /*ndz/ …:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen
*ndz-/i_ndz [ts]ndz [dʒ]ndz [s]j ndz [ts]ndz [ndʒ]
sharp/bad*indzakak jakʌk tsʌkʌʔ dʒakʌk
sew *indzuk- tsʉg- dʒuk- ískʉ- juːk-

… /*ndz/ …:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*ndz-/i_i
scratch*indzik- nzig- ndʒik-dʒisi- íːk- íːg- iki-

Medial laminal prenasalized voiced /*ndz/ …:

Ramu CoastAwar AwarBosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevyZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen
*-ndz-ndz ʒ nd ndz [nz]ndz [ndz nz]
arrow sp.* ʒaŋ- andʌŋ anzaŋ anzaŋ
areca nut*mindzak mindzak
net bag *mendzait nziɛt ʒə̆t mɪndʌit mɛndzai mɛnzep

Velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
*ŋg- ŋg [ŋg g]ŋg ŋg [ŋg g]ŋg [ŋg g]ŋg [ŋg g] ŋg [ŋg g]
get up *Vŋgeap- gə- gəapa- ŋgep- ŋgep- ŋgepɛ-
elbow *ŋgʉn ŋgíngʉn -gʉn -ngɨn
bad *Vŋgoreak goreaʔ ŋgorɛaʔ
bird *uŋgorak ŋgoraʔ ŋguɽaʔ goarak ŋgɔrʌʔ ŋgoraʔ ŋgorak
nose/face*Vŋgum ŋgum ŋgum gum ŋgum ŋgʊm ŋgum
tail *Vŋgun ŋgun ŋgun ~ gun gun
*-ŋg-
young/new*[i]ŋgam ŋgam ~ ŋgʌm ŋgam ŋgʌm ~ gam ŋgam ŋgam ŋgam ~ ŋgʌm
back *aŋgɐr ŋgʌr- ~ ŋgr-
take *aŋgɐr- gər- ŋgɐɽ- ŋgʌra– aŋgʉ- m-aŋgɪr- aŋgi-
1 dl. *aŋga ŋga ŋga ŋgʌ ʌŋk aŋ- ʌŋga
sleep *aŋgo[r]- ŋgo- ŋgoː®- ŋgor- ŋgo- ŋgo-
sap *manVŋgat manŋʌr maŋnat mangʌt
old *mbaŋgar bagaR bagʌr ~ pʌgʌr̃bagʌr
tail *nambuŋgen bugan bugon nabugɛn
crocodile*n[o/u]ŋgumaigumí: ŋgumi gomɛ mʊgmaɪ noːmᶷɣʌɪ (?) nʊgmʌɪ
walk/go *Vsaŋg- saŋg(a)- saŋg-/saŋga-saŋg(a)- taŋg- -sʌŋg- ~ saŋ saŋ-
ship *jaŋgum laŋgum jaŋgum jaŋgum
laugh *jaroŋg- roŋg- roŋg- rɔŋgɔ- laraŋg- iaruŋ(ɣ)-

…:

Ramu CoastAwar AwarBosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevyZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*…-
chest*… ŋgəʊp gap- gʌdoup gʌdaʊp dadup

…:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*-ŋg- ŋg ŋgndz [nts]ŋg ŋg ŋg
mosquito*naŋgit ŋget ŋget ntsɛt ŋgit naŋgit naŋgit

… /*ŋ/ … /*ŋg/ … Outcomparison to Ruboni Range /*gurum/ suggests velar non-stop /*ɣ/:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*-ŋ- ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ
yesterday*u[ŋ/ŋg]Vr gur gur ugur ŋour ŋʌur ŋuːr
tomorrow *u[ŋ/ŋg]Vr-ɐpgur̃-əp gur-ɐpwuər-ap ŋor-ʌp ŋor-ʌp ŋʌːr-ap

Medial apical non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
*-r- r ɽ r r r r
go down/fall *irik- rig- rɨs(i)- irik- irik(i)-
sky *irak rʌʔ ɽaʔ rʌk riaʔ ~ riʌʔ
tree/wood *Vparaŋ pʌraŋ paraŋ padaŋ
spirit/soul *andurum adʊrʊm dʊrʊm
make bow *VsambVri- tabri- sʌbri-
basket sp. *akaram kɽɐm karʌm
trunk *arVk rʌk rag- arík
shoot/throw *arVŋg- rəŋg- rʉŋgɐ ~ rʉŋgatraŋgʌ- rʉŋg- ariŋ(g)- ariŋ-
day before y.*VrVr rur ɽuɽ rueːr raur raurᵘ
day after t. *VrVr-ɐp rur-əp rar-əp rar-ʌp rar-ʌp rʌr-ʌp
ripe *aru ru ɽu roː ru-ru aru- ʌru-
wash/bathe *aru- ruɛ- ruʌgɣʌ- ru- ʌru- aru-
bad *Vŋgoreak goreaʔ ŋgorɛaʔ
forest *oraŋ ruə̃: ɽuɛ̃ r̩ʌŋ raŋ raŋ oraŋ
bamboo knife *urim rim urim
swim *urir- dui- (?) ri- irir- mʌ-riri
bow *warVkam wʌrkam warkam warkʌm-
fingernail *rambaum rambam rambaum rabom
leg/foot *… r̃uɛ ɽʷe ɔr ~ or ɔr or ɔr
*-r- r ɽ r r r r
swim *urir- dui- (?) ri- irir- mʌ-riri
coconut *uraŋ duɛ (?) duɛ̃ (?) wər̃aŋ ruaŋ ɣʊaŋ (?) rʊaŋ
pig *marakum rãgʌm ɽɐɣɐm rakʌm markɨm markum markʊm
dog *apiraŋ pɛraŋ piraŋ piraŋ
sit *amb[i/e]rak[a]mbɛra(ʔa)-mbiraʔ bɛraka- biraʔ- mbiraʔ- bir(a)ka-
lung *ndzeram ndzɛram nzaram- dɛrʌm ndʒɛrm
water *ŋarum ŋarum arum
spirit sp. *… rarʌŋ rʌːraŋ raraŋ ŋʌraŋ (?)
moon *KɐrVwei kərí kɐɽi kɛrwi karwej kaɪre
bird *uŋgorak ŋgoraʔ ŋguɽaʔ goarak ŋgɔrʌʔ ŋgoraʔ ŋgorak
garden *wariŋ rĩ: ɽi reiŋ-pʌk warʉŋ wariŋ
hear *warak- uar(a)k- waraʔ- waraʔ-
fly (v.) *raraji- - raji– rarei– rarai-
laugh *jaroŋg- roŋg- roŋg- rɔŋgɔ- laraŋg- iaruŋ(ɣ)-

…:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*r- r ɽr l r n
sun*rao rau ɽao r̃ʌo raː ra nʌu
eye*arameak ramaʔ ramʌk lamniaʔ ramɛaʔ namʌk

Final /*r/ …:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
*-r r [r r̃]ɽ r [r r̃] r [r r̃] r [r ɛ Ø] r [r Ø]
back *aŋgVr ŋgʌr- ~ ŋgr-
lime *awir wɪr-waʔ viɽ-vaʔwər̃-pʌk ʌwɪr ai-pʌʔ
day before y. *VrVr rur ɽuɽ rueːr raur raurᵘ
taro *Vk[o/u]r kor koɽ kor kur
top (of tree) *upor por upur
shore *maŋar maŋʌr maŋar maŋʌr
smoke *mutur tur tur tʌʔ-tur
breast *mur mʉr mʉr mʉr mur muːr
arm/hand *apar pʌːr ~ pʌr paɽ pʌːr pʌr par pʌr
old *mbaŋgar bagaR bagʌr ~ pʌgʌr̃ bagʌr
tooth *andar ndʌr dʌːr̃ dʌr
mountain *Vsakur takur sakur sʌkᶷr-íŋ
arrow sp. *ndzikar dɪɣar ndiɣar dezɛr̃-pʌk ndikar ndʒikar ndzekar
flying fox *ikakɐr kíʌgar kʲaɣɐɽ sakʌr kɛkɛr̃
urine *… gʉmbʌr̃ gɐmbaɽ gəm(bʌr) kɛmbar keːbʌr kebʌr
ear *uk[o/u]ar kur kuɽ kur koʌr koar koʌr
male child *ŋ[o]ndar ŋandar̃
canoe *k[u]or koːr koɽ kɔːr kɔr koːr kɔːr
b. hair/feather*… wrʌːr vɐɽaɽ rakʌr̃ laukʌr
leaf *rapar pʌr paɽ pʌr rapar rapar rapʌr
fruit/seed/egg *jor lɔːr jor ~ joːr ~ joɛɪor ~ iɔr
bone *aɣar(-ɣar)agʌr ~ gagʌrgaɣɐɽ agʌːr ~gʌːr~aɣʌr̃gagʌr ~ gagargaɣar ~ gagar gagʌr

Initial palatal glide /*j/ is occluded to lateral non-stop /l/ in Bore:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
*j- j jj l [l r]j j
know/think *j[e/a]mb-jɛmb- jemb-jambʌ- ~ jam-
firewood *jajit laɪt jait ieɪt
good *jawoŋ ja jaŋ laŋ jaʊŋ ɛaʊŋ
younger brother*jap jab ~ japjap jʌp lʌːp jap jʌp
older brother *… jakai jakʌi
blood *… rʌkaint jakʌɪnt
excrement *j[o/u] loː jʊː-paʔ ío
vulva *jok lɔʔ jɔʔ jɔːk
fruit/seed/egg *jor lɔːr jor ~ joːr ~ joɛɪor ~ iɔr

… glide /*w/ …:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*w- w [w v] v w [w v]w w w [w v]
sago *weak wɛʔ veʔ wɛs weaʔ wɛʌʔ wʌk
stone *waut wuət woʊt waut waut voʊt
see *wase- wʌs(ɛ)- vas- wasɛ- wat-
hear *warak- uar(a)k- waraʔ- waraʔ-
*w- Ø Ø Ø w w w
louse/flea *wasis sɛt set watit wasis wasis
chop down *wak- waʔ- waka-
garden *wariŋ rĩ: ɽi reiŋ-pʌk warʉŋ wariŋ
bow *warVkam wʌrkam warkam warkʌm-
*w- Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø w
fat/grease *wawait wɛt wɛt ~ wet wer-paʔ wawʌɪt
clay pot *wun ɣʉn (?) wʉn ʊːn ʊːn
*-w- w v w Ø w w Ø w Ø
blow (fire)*iwi- biɛ- wiɛ- wiː-
lime *awir wɪr-waʔ viɽ-vaʔwər̃-pʌk ʌwɪr ai-pʌʔ
ashes *[a]weten wɛrɛn wɛtɛn
wing *awɐk wʌk vɐk awʌk wʉk auk ʊk-
many *awut wʉt aut aut
vomit *oweak- juʔɛ-; juːɛ- uaka- wɛʌʔ- ojʌk-
far tawʌn sawʌn sawan
sing/dance *[u]we wɛ- wɛ- wɛ- weː-
fat/grease *wawait wɛt wɛt ~ wet wer-paʔ wawʌɪt
good *jawoŋ ja jaŋ laŋ jaʊŋ ɛaʊŋ
red *jawup- laup jaup iʌup

…final consonants …:

Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*-m m mm m m m
bamboo *itam tíɛm tʲem
young/new *[i]ŋgam ŋgam ~ ŋgʌmŋgam ŋgʌm ~ gamŋgam ŋgam ŋgam ~ ŋgʌm
spirit/soul *andurum adʊrʊm dʊrʊm
speech *akam kam kam
basket sp. *akaram kɽɐm karʌm
spirit/soul *undVm ndom ndom dom
bamboo knife*urim rim urim
pig *marakum rãgʌm ɽɐɣɐmrakʌm markɨm markum markʊm
water *ŋarum ŋarum arum
lung *ndzeram ndzɛram nzaram- dɛrʌm ndʒɛrm
nose/face *Vŋgum ŋgum ŋgum gum ŋgum ŋgʊm ŋgum
point *[w][i]n[i]m nɨm
bow *warVkam wʌrkam warkam warkʌm-
fingernail *rambaum rambam rambaum rabom
betel pepper*rʉndʉm ndʉm dʉm rʉndʉm
ship *jaŋgum laŋgum jaŋgum jaŋgum

Final apical naasal /*n/ …:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
*-n n n n n n n
ashes *[a]weten wɛrɛn wɛtɛn
head *apaŋan pʌn ~ panpan paŋan paŋʌn ~ paŋanpaŋan paŋan
far tawʌn sawʌn sawan
tail *nambuŋgen bugan bugon nabugɛn
kunai grass*Vndain dʌin ndain ndain ndain
possum *kand[o]n kandon kandon kʌndon
elbow *Vŋgʉn ŋgíngʉn -gʉn -ngɨn
tail *Vŋgun ŋgun ŋgun ~ gungun
clay pot *wun ɣʉn wʉn ʊːn ʊːn
slowly *jauŋan lɑŋʌn iaŋonɛam jauŋan

Final velar nasal /*ŋ/ is dropped in Awar, often with nasalization of the preceding vowel:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
*-ŋ Ø Øŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ
shin *itandaŋ tiɛndaŋ dɛndaŋ teːndaŋ tɛndaŋ
wooden plate*[i]tuaŋ tũŋ duoŋ (?) tuoŋ tɔŋ
arrow sp. * ʒaŋ- andʌŋ anzaŋ anzaŋ
forest *oraŋ ruə̃: ɽuɛ̃ r̩ʌŋ raŋ raŋ oraŋ
coconut *uraŋ duɛ duɛ̃ wər̃aŋ ruaŋ ɣʊaŋ rʊaŋ
stump/base *muniŋ nʉː nʉŋ mʉmʉŋ [sic]muniŋ mʊniŋ
child (sg.) *muŋ -mu -mu -muŋ ~ -moŋ
dog *apiraŋ pɛraŋ piraŋ piraŋ
tree/wood *Vparaŋ pʌraŋ paraŋ padaŋ
two *Vmbuniŋ buni buniŋ mbuniŋ mbuniŋ mboini
cassowary *Vmbunoŋ mbʊnu mbunubonoŋ mbunoŋ mbunoŋ
night *nimoŋ mũː mu muŋ moŋ nimoŋ niːmaŋ
girl *namoŋ moŋ moŋ namoŋ namoŋ
tanget *kindiŋ kʉndʉ kɨndɨŋ kindiŋ kindiŋ
chin *akam-muniŋ kamani kɛmɪŋ kabgʉn (?) kamuniŋ kamuniŋ
hand drum *rindiŋ díŋ dindiŋ (?) rindiŋ rindiŋ
good *jawoŋ ja jaŋ laŋ jaʊŋ ɛaʊŋ
garden *wariŋ rĩ: ɽi reiŋ-pʌk warʉŋ wariŋ
slit drum *r[ʉ/u]mb[ʉ/u]ŋmbə mbẽ bʉŋ rʉmbʊŋ rʊmbʊŋ rʊbʊk ~ rʊbʊg

Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*-p p pp p p p
nose/point *indup -ɪndʉp iːndup
armpit *isap tíʌp siap isap-
path *V[t/r]Vp toʊp taup raup orop
paddle *anu[a]p nop noʌp nup anʊp anʊp
piece of wood *[o]tʉp tʌp tʉp
snake *mindop ndup ~ dupnduop mindop míndop
frog *mɨk[i/e]p k̯ɛp keːp
short *matʉp matʉp
shoulder *nakep ŋakɛp nakep nʌkp
knee *[i]tu[p]tuptup tutup tutup tutup
chest *… ŋgəʊp gap- gʌdoup gʌdaʊp dadup
younger brother*jap jab ~ japjap jʌp lʌːp jap jʌp
red *jawup- laup jaup iʌup

Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
*-t t tt t t t
skin/bark *in[i]t ɲit ~ ɲɪt ɪŋɪt
many *awut wʉt aut aut
net bag *mendzait nziɛt ʒə̆t mɪndʌit mɛndzai (?)mɛnzep (?)
sap *manVŋgat manŋʌr (?) maŋnat mangʌt
sugarcane *mowit wít vit wɪt moɪt
nape *Vmbut tʌːn-bud mbut -but mbut
mosquito *naŋgit ŋget ŋget ntsɛt ŋgit naŋgit naŋgit
aroww sp. *kakat kʌʔt-ʌr kʌkʌt
stone *waut wuət woʊt waut waut voʊt
fat/grease *wawait wɛt wɛt ~ wet wer-paʔ (?)wawʌɪt
man/male *ramut mɔt mot mɔt ~ umɔt ramot namot namot
heart *ruɣut gut gut uguːt ~ ugutᶷrugut ~ ruɣutrukut
neck/throat*joɣot wɔt vot ɔɣɔt logot jokot
firewood *jajit laɪt jait ieɪt

Ramu CoastAwar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
*V₁CV₂CV₂ CV₂V₁V₂CV₂C V₂C V₂C
yam *eimi mí: ~ mí-mi eim im ~ iːm im í:m
penis *esi si eɪs it í:s is
father *ase ʌit ʌis ais
call out *ako- ko- ko- ʌʔ- ʌoʔ- aka-
mouth/lips *opu puː pu oʊp up up up
testicles *otu oʊt ʊt-niŋ ʊːt-niŋ
run *osa- suʌ- swa- ɔs ot- ma-us- os-
village *naŋu ŋu-niʔ ŋu-niʔ (u)gu-nisauŋ noŋ noŋ
basket sp. *ramba mbʌː mba rʌm ramp rʌmp
*V₁CV₂CV₂ CV₂V₁C V₁C V₁C V₁C
river *[ao]ka kwa ʌuk ɔʔ ɔk wɔk
weep/cry *aj[e/a]- jʌ- ja- jɛː- aɪ- aɪ- m-ai-
top (of tree)*os os ɔːs
leg/foot * r̃uɛ ɽʷe ɔr ~ or ɔr or ɔr
*V₁CV₂ V₁V₂CV₁V₂CV₁V₂C
mother/thumb *ame aim ~ aɪmaim aim

… loss of initial vowels … This reduction is nearly invariable in Awar but rarely occurs in Watam:

Ramu Coast Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggen Levy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
skin/bark *in[i]t ɲit ~ ɲɪt ɪŋɪt
small *inok nɔg nɔʔ inɔk ~ inoʔ/inuk
bamboo *itam tíɛm tʲem
shin *itandaŋ tiɛndaŋ dɛndaŋ teːndaŋ tɛndaŋ
knee *[i]tu[p]tuptup tutup tutup tutup
young/new *[i]ŋgam ŋgam ~ ŋgʌmŋgam ŋgʌm ~ gam ŋgam ŋgam ŋgam ~ ŋgʌm
sky *irak rʌʔ ɽaʔ rʌk riaʔ ~ riʌʔ
rain *amok mok mok mɔk
branch *aŋak aŋʌʔ ŋak ~ aŋak ŋʌʔ ŋʌk
back *aŋgVr ŋgʌr- ~ ŋgr-
lime *awir wɪr-waʔ viɽ-vaʔwər̃-pʌk ʌwɪr ai-pʌʔ
wing *awɐk wʌk vɐk awʌk wʉk auk ʊk-
trunk *arVk rʌk rag- arík
ripe *aru ru ɽu roː ru-ru aru- ʌru-
stone axe *oteak -tɛʔ teʔ wotu-tɛs oteaʔ otɛaʔ
piece of wood*[o]tʉp tʌp tʉp
top (of tree)*upor por upur


Pronouns

[under construction]

Ramu Coast nominative pronouns are as follows, with all forms drawn from Z'graggen (1972) and Levy (2002: 184-190) as indicated:

Ramu CoastAwar AwarBosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevyZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
1 sg.*ŋg[o] ŋgo ŋgo ŋgɔ(-t) ʌuk ʌʔ jʌk
2 sg.*… mo mo mɔ(-t) un go ~ gwa
3 sg.*ma(-n) nəna(-t) mʌn
1 pl.*ai aⁱ ei(-t) (a)i (a)ɛ
2 pl.*ne(-n) ne ní(-t) nen neːɪ
3 pl.*… me me mɛ(-t) mɪn mi niŋga
1 dl.*aŋga ŋga ŋga ŋgʌ(-t) ʌŋk aŋ- ʌŋga
2 dl.*[n]oŋga ŋgo ŋga goʌ(-t) oŋk oŋ- noŋgo
3 dl.*[a]maniŋ aman ni mənɪŋ maniŋ maniŋ mɨŋga

Loans from neighboring languages

Ramu Coast languages have borrowed a number of terms from Manam, or a closely related extinct language, of the Schouten Islands subgroup of Oceanic, with Manam attestations drawn from Turner (1986, 1992, Turner, Manabung, Sagem and Kapata 1986.) In some details, the Ramu Coast words are more archaic than Turner's Manam, but Manam, spoken by 6,000 people (1981) living on Manam island some ten miles off the coast to the east, is the only Oceanic language in the vicinity (Turner 1986: 10, 13.) Several of these may have already been acquired by the breakup of Ramu Coast. Two terms for colors are suffixed with /-r/:

Manam Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Turner Z'graggenLevy Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen
yellow ˈaŋo-ˈaŋo ŋɔ-r-ŋɔ-r ŋo-r-ŋo-r
sea/salt makasi mɛsi- meⁱs makis makait maɣʌɪs
stone ˈpatu pʌut paᵒt
stone ˈpatu wuət woʊt waut waut voʊt
stingray vaɽ
areca nut bua mboʔ mboʔ bɔk mbɔʔ mboʔ
man/male taˈmwata mɔt mot mɔt ~ umɔtramot namot namot
sugarcane ˈtou tʌʊ taʊ
betel pepper dedau deːdaʊ dedaʊ
far tawʌn sawʌn sawan
wallaby saˈwaŋ seŋ dawain (?)sawaiŋ sawaŋ
tobacco sokai ~ ˈsoʔajsoɣaj soɣaⁱ sokai tɔʔai sokai sokai
dog ˈkeu ~ ˈʔeu kɪaw kʲaᵘ kíau
white ashes kapʉr gʌpʊr̃
older brother kʌkʌ
moon ʔaˈlea kərí kɐɽi kɛrwi karwej kaɪre
star goai guí goai gʊi
woman/female aˈine vein ~ weɪn
feather laˈlau rarau rarau
white waˈwawa wuwə-r vɐvɐ-ɽwuə-r̃ wawʌ-r

Most words shared with Bogia Bay (q.v. Z'graggen 1972) are probably mutual loans from Manam (above) or a near-relative thereof, with Monumbo attestations drawn from Vormann and Scharfenberger (1914) :

Monumbo Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Turner Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
fog ˈoa ɣəu ugou wau wau gaʊp
SE. monsoonŋgamaia gamaj gamaj gamai
star ŋgoi-ˈtuku guí goai gʊi
tobacco tsoˈqae soɣaj soɣaⁱsokai tɔʔai sokai sokai
NW. monsoonaˈwar wʌr vaɽ wʌr wʌr

…:

Awar Awar Bosman Gamei Kaian Watam
Z'graggenLevy Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen
iron knifesaŋgam saŋgam tɛŋgʌm
chicken kuakrɛ kʷakɽe kaʔakʊr kakur kʊkreŋ