Asmat-Kamoro
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
The Asmat-Kamoro family consists of six languages spoken along the nearly the entirety of the southwestern coastal lowlands of New Guinea, from the southwest shore of Etna Bay in the northwest to just north of Kolopom island in the southeast.
Sources
Modera (1830) variety of Kamoro (unobtained)
Miklucho-Maclay (1876) variety of Kamoro (unobtained)
Robidé van der Aa (1879) Lakahia variety of Kamoro (unobtained)
van der Sande (1907) vocabularies of Nagramadu, Angádi and Goreda varieties of Kamoro
Dumas (1911) 435 terms for Mimika and Atuka rivers variety of Kamoro
Ray (1912: 326-330) comparative study of Angadi-Mimika (Kamoro) dialects, including Robidé van der Aa's Lakahia and van der Sande's Angádi, Nagramadu and Goreda as well as Utanata River, Mimika, Kupera Pukwa and Kiruru varieties of Kamoro
Feuilletau de Bruijn (1913) Kaja-kaja variety of Asmat (unobtained)
Feuilletau de Bruijn (1915) Kaja-kaja variety of Asmat (unobtained)
Drabbe (1950) unpublished comparative vocabularies of Kamoro, Sempan and Asmat
Boelaars (1950: 90-102) English-language recension of Drabbe's then-unpublished grammar of Tarjà Kàmoro
Drabbe (1953) grammar of Tarjà Kàmoro, comparison of Kamoro dialects and (pp. 96-104) 378 comparative terms for Kàmoro, Sémpan and Asmat
Drabbe (1954: 232-255) 100 comparative terms for Kàmoro, Sémpan and Kawenak (Central Asmat)t
Drabbe (1958) grammar of Keenok (Central Asmat) of Amor village
Drabbe (n.d.) dictionary of Keenok (Central Asmat) of Amor village
Drabbe (1959) grammar of Kawenak (Central Asmat) (unobtained)
Drabbe (1959) dictionary of Kawenak (Central Asmat) (unobtained)
Drabbe (1963) study of Asmat dialects and (pp. 212-233) 377 comparative terms for Kawenak, Keenok and Keenakap varieties of Central Asmat, Kaünak (Citak) and Kaweinag (Casuarina Coast)
Drabbe (n.d.) dictionary of Kàmoro (unobtained)
Drabbe (n.d.) dictionary of Sémpan (unobtained)
Galis (1955) 16 comparative terms and numbers drawn from the preceding literature
Voorhoeve (1965) dictionary and grammar of Flamingo Bay variety (Surú village) of Kawenak (Central) Asmat
Voorhoeve (1975: 369-374) general description of member languages based primarily upon Drabbe (1953, 1963)
Voorhoeve (1980) survey of Asmat dialects and (pp. 61-121) 455 reconstructed terms for Proto-Asmat, including supporting forms from Kamoro and Sempan drawn from Drabbe (1953)
Voorhoeve (2005: 148-149, 152-154, 158-164) Proto-Asmat-Kamoro correspondences and (unexempified) reconstructions
Roesler (1972) phonology of Asmat of Ajam (unobtained)
Roesler and Roesler (2011) dictionary of Asmat (Kawenak) of Ayam village
Bromley (1973) orthography of Citak (unobtained)
Bromley (1975) orthography of Citak (unobtained)
van Arsdale (1974: 31-32) 66 comparative terms for Awok (Keenakap,) Wooi-Karmbis, Jinak (Tamnim,) Brazza and Upper Eilanden (Citak)
Peckham (1991:160-166) 208 comparative terms for Nanesa (Etna Bay) Kamoro
Lebold, Kriens and Susanto (2013) 239 comaprative terms for Central Asmat (Kawenak) of Isyaman village
Subclassification
Asmat-Kamoro
Kamoro-Sempan
Kamoro
Sempan
Asmat
Casuarina Coast Asmat
Citak Asmat
North Asmat
Central Asmat
The Kamoro-Sempan node is too shallow to merit a reconstruction of its own. The Asmat-Kamoro languages can also be viewed as a chain from Kamoro in the northwest to Asmat in the southeast.
Historical phonology
[under construction]
Proto-Asmat-Kamoro had 11 consonants and probably 5 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | ||
*p | *t | *c | *k |
*f | *s | ||
*w | *r | *j |
*i | *u | |
*e | *o | |
*a |
This is mostly identical to the system presented in Voorhoeve (1980: 53) for Proto-Asmat.
Apical non-stop /*r/ does not occur initially.
Consonant clusters do not occur within roots.
Initial consonants correspond as follows:
Asm-Kam | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve |
*m- | m | m | *m | *m |
*n- | n | n | *n | *n |
*p- | p | p | *p | *p |
*t- | k | t | *t | *t |
*t-/_i | k | t | *c | *T |
*c- | k | t | *c | *T |
*k- | ø | ø | *k | *k |
*k-/verbs | k | k | *k | *k |
*f- | ø w | f | *f | *f |
*s- | t | h | *s | *s |
*w- | w | w | *w | *w |
*w-/kin | ø | w | *w | *w |
*j- | j | j | *j | *j |
*j-/_i u | ø | ø | *j | *j |
Medial consonants correspond as follows:
Asm-Kam | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve |
*-m- | m | m | *m | *m |
*-n- | n | n | *n | *n |
*-n-/_V# | n r | n | *n | *n |
*-p- | p | p | *p | *p |
*-t- | k | t | *t | *t |
*-t-/_i u e | k | t | *c | *T |
*-c- | k | t | *c | *T |
*-k- | k | k | *k | *k |
*-k-/… | ø | k | *k | *k |
*-f- | ø | f ø | *f | *f *w *ø |
*-F- | ø | f ø | *F | *f |
*-s- | t | h | *s | *s |
*-s-/f s_ | t | ø | *s | *s |
*-w- | ø | w | *w | *w |
*-w-/… | ø | ø | *w | *w |
*-r- | r | r | *r | *r |
*-j- | j | j | *j | *j |
Vowels and vowel sequences correspond as follows:
Asm-Kam | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve |
*i | i | i | *i | *i |
*u | u | i | *i | *i |
*u/#_ | u | ju i | *ju | *ju |
*e | e | e | *e | *e |
*o | o | o | *o | *o |
*a | a | a | *a | *a |
*iu | u | u | *iu | *iu |
*ui | i | i | *ui | *ui |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Kamoro and Sempan forms mostly drawn from Drabbe (1953: 96-104.) Forms drawm from Voorhoeve (1980: 61-121, 2007) are indicated by [CV]. The reconstruction presented here is based substantially upon Voorhoeve's (1980) Proto-Asmat in consultation with Drabbe (1963: 212-233,) and most of the comparisons below appear in one form or another therein. However our reconstructions of Proto-Asmat differ in some details, and Kamoro and Sempan comparisons have not hitherto been laid out completely and in a phonologically-driven manner, while comparisons involving only Kamoro and Sempan haven't hitherto been presented.
Any consonant can occur initially except for apical non-stop /*r/.
Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all three subgroups:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*m- | m | m | *m | *m | |
nose | *mi | ˈmi-rimu | mi-maˈkɛ | *mi(-emaek) | *mi(-mak) |
milk | *mi | -mi/td> | -mi/td> | — | |
beneath | *mimane | 'mimarə | 'mimanə | — | |
mucus | *mini | miˈni | — | ||
thought | *minipV | mipi | mipo (?) | *minipV | *minip |
python | *minewe | menewe [CV] | *min[i]w | *miniw | |
ghost sp. | *miwi | mii | *miwi | *miwi | |
husband | *miwisi | miwihi [CV] | *miwisi | *-miwis(i) | |
tail | *m[i/e]p[i/e] | ˈmipi | ˈmɛpə | *mep[e] | *mepe(-mak) |
thumb | *m[i/u]-tewu | ˈmitiwi | *mitiwitV | *mitit | |
mouth | *mea[f] | mwɛ (?) | meˈa | *mea[f] | *mea |
armband sp. | *metane | makare [CV] | metane [CV} | *metane | *metan(e) |
termite sp. | *mese | meˈhɛ | *mes[e] | *mes(e) | |
saliva | *mesa[p/f]u | maˈtaɔ | ˈmahapi | *masapi | *masap |
tip/point | *m[e/a]n[e] | -mare | *m[e/a]n[e] | *aw men(e) | |
back | *maeke | mekə | *maeke | *ma(e)ke | |
lightning | *mVro | ma'ra-pəta | maarɔ | *… | *(masa-)maro |
vomit | *m[a]o | 'maɔ | mɔ mɔ- | *m[a]o- | *mo- |
hand/arm | *mafane | ˈmaarə | ˈmafanə | *mafane | *mafane, *mane |
orphan | *manima | ma'nima-rə | 'manima- | *man[i]ma | *manema |
eye | *mana | ma-me | ma'nakə | *mana | *mana(-ka) |
path | *mato | mako [CV] | moto [CV] | *mato | *matot |
cry/weep | *mace | makə makə- | matə matə- | *mace mace- | *maTi maTi- |
knowledge | *mas[a/o]mo | 'matamɔ | 'mahamɔ | *mas[o]m[o] | *masom(o) |
wasp sp. | *m[a]ko | moko [CV] | *mako | *mako | |
Venus | *mawor[a] | *mawor[a] | *ma(i)wor | ||
foot/leg | *mawu | maw | maˈwi | *mawi | *maji ~ *mawi |
star | *mawuto | ˈmaakɔ | ˈmawətɔ | *mawito | *mawito |
day | *mare | mara-tja [CV] | mare [CV] | *mar[e]- | *mar(e) |
tail feather(s) | *m[a/o]to | -makɔ | mɔ'tɔ ~ -mɔkɔ | *-mot[o] | — |
trunk/nase | *mopane | mapare [CV] | mopane [CV] | *mopane | *mopane |
sugarcane | *monefV | mɔne | — | ||
tie/fasten | *mot[e/a]- | mɔke- | mota- [CV] | *motV- | *mot- |
not/none | *muna | -ˈmuna | -ˈmɔna (?) | *.mina. | *min(a) |
war | *mo[t/c]ane | ˈmɔkarə | ˈmatanə | — | |
chop down | *mo- | ˈmɔ- | ˈmɔ- | *mo- | *mo- |
wet | *mocofo | mɔkɔ | ˈmɔtɔ-kɔ | *moco(-ko) | *moTo(k) |
navel | *mok[o]per[e] | 'mɔɔrə (?) | meperə | *mokpere | *mokopere, *mopere |
blister | *moro | moro [CV] | *mor[o] | *mor(o) | |
lime | *mu | *mi | *mi | ||
water | *mui | mi | mi | *mui | *muˈi |
bathe | *mui- | mi- | *mui- | *mui- | |
root | *mumu | nuˈmu [sic] | miˈmi | *mimi | *mimi |
testicle(s) | *musa(-eake) | muta muˈta-eke [CV] | ˈmihakə | *misakV | *misaka |
mouse | *musu | muˈtu | miˈhi- | — | |
bamboo sp. | *muwisi | ˈmuiti | *muwis[i] | *muis |
Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in three subgroups:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*n- | n- | n- | *n | *n | |
dance | *ni | ni- [CV] | *ni ni- | *ni ni- | |
carry | *nek[e/a]- | neke- | neka- | — | |
eat/drink | *n[a/e]- | ne- | ne- | *n[a/e]- | *na-, *ne- |
slow | *namese | namehe [CV] | *names[e] | *namese | |
white | *napu | napu [CV] | *napi | *napi | |
go down | *nafu- | -naw- | -nafi- | *nafi- | *naj-, *now- |
raw/unripe | *nati | naˈki | naˈti | *nati | *naTi |
ghost | *nato | 'natɔ | *nato | *nat(o) | |
flesh/meat | *nasa | naˈta | naˈha | *nasa | *nasa |
just/only | *nasane | natare [CV] | nahana [CV] | *nasane | *nesen |
wound | *nas[o/u] | naˈtu | naˈhi | *nas[o/u] | *naso |
hide | *nawoma | 'naɔ'ma | 'naɔ'ma | — | |
1 pl. | *nare | narɛ | narɔ | *nare | *naro |
carry | *noco- | noko- [CV] | *noc[o]- | *noT- | |
1 sg. | *nore | nɔrɔ | nɔrɔ | *nore | *nor |
Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all three subgroups:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*p- | p | p | *p | *p | |
fish (v.) | *pi- | pi- [CV] | pi- [CV] | *pi- | *pi- |
fly (v.) | *pi- | pi-ɔnaɔ- | pi-aɔnaɔ- | *pi- | *pi- |
edge | *pima | pim-ini [CV] | pima [CV] | *pima | *pima |
smell | *pinVmo | ni'mu (?) | pinumɔ | *pinVm[o] | *pinum |
skin/bark | *pitini | ˈpikiri | ˈpitini | *pitini | *piTini |
blackpalm sp. | *pisi | piti [CV] | pihi [CV] | *pisi | *pise |
break | *piki-(mi)- | piki-(mi)- | piki-(mi)- | *piki-(m[i])- | — |
give birth | *pe- | pe- | pe- | *pe- | *pe- |
crab | *pea | pea [CV] | pea [CV] | *pea | *pea |
boil (n.). | *pem[e/a] | ˈpema [CV] | *pem[e] | *peme | |
tight/firm | *pepe | pepe [CV] | *pepe>/td> | *pepe | |
termite sp. | *penamo | ˈpenamo [CV] | *penam[o] | *penam(o) | |
vagina | *pere | pere-ta | pere [CV] | *pere | *per(e) |
scale(s) | *pa | pa [CV] | pa [CV] | *pa | *pa |
turn around | *pai- | paj- [CV] | *pai- | *paj- | |
wallaby | *painaro | 'pajnarə | 'pajnarɔ | — | |
shy/shame | *paisi | ˈpajti | ˈpajhi | — | |
dirty | *p… | panawa [CV] | pana-ko [CV] | *p… | *ponow(a) |
itch/scabies | *pa… | pateta [CV] | pajhi [CV] | *… | *pases |
mangrove | *pawe | paˈe [CV] | pawe [CV] | *paw[e] | *paw(e) |
seek | *paw[a/o]- | paɔ- | paɔ- | *paw[a/o]- | *powa-~*pawo- |
breadfruit | *pawo | pawo [CV] | *pawo | *pawo | |
pigeon sp. | *parufa | parua [CV] | *parif[i] | *pari | |
wide | *paj[a/o]ko | pa'jɔkɔ | pa'jakɔ | — | |
paddle | *po | pɔ | pɔ | *po | *po |
midrib | *po | po [CV] | po [CV] | *po | *po |
plant (v.) | *po-mo- | pe-me- [CV] | po-mo-[CV] | *po-m[o]- | *pom(o)- |
side | *p[o]mane | pamane [CV] | *poman[e] | *poman | |
ironwood sp. | *posa | pota [CV] | poha [CV] | *posa | *posa |
see/look | *por[a]- | poro- [CV] | pora- [CV] | *por[a]- | *por- |
ask | *poro- | -pɔrɔ- | -pɔrɔ- | *por[o]- | — |
girl | *… | ˈparaha- [CV] | *… | *-porawis | |
cassowary | *pu | pi | *pi | *pi | |
flatulate | *pu-m- | ˈahama pumu- | *as pu-m- | *asa pum- | |
forehead | *mana-pun[i/u] | maˈna-pini | *mana-pini | *manapin | |
ripe | *puwu | puu | piˈwi | *piwi | *piwi |
moon | *pura | puˈra | piˈra | *pira | *pira |
sea/coast | *puru | puru [CV] | piri [CV] | *piri | *piri |
Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is backed to velar /k/ in Kamoro:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*t- | k | t | *t | *t | |
do (?) | *te- | kə- | te- | — | |
rattan | *tema | kɛˈma | taˈma | *tema | *tama ~ *tema |
give | *tema- | kɛmə- | tea-tamɔ- | *te-tema- (sg.) *ta-tema- (pl.) | *tetam- (sg.) *tatam- (pl.) |
go up | *tepe- | tepe- [CV] | *tepe- | *tepe- | |
rain | *tefe | kee | te | *tefe | *te(e) |
take | *tewa- | ke- | tewa- | *tew[a]- | *tew- |
child/son | *tewu | tiˈwi | *t[i]wi | *tiwi | |
split (tr.) | *tere-me- | tere-me- [CV] | *tere-m[e]- | *terem- | |
belly | *tejake | teakə | *tejake | *tia(-ke) | |
jaw | *tVpane | kepare [CV] | *… | *topane | |
morning | *tamusija | ˈkaɔmutja | taməˈhɛ | — | |
banana | *tafu | kaw | *tafi | — | |
nipa fruit | *tas[e/a] | taha [CV] | *tase | *tase | |
taboo | *tasa | kaˈta | taˈha | *tasa | *tas(a) |
say/speak | *tawe- | tawə- | *tawe- | — | |
sago grub | *tawV | *tawV | *tow | ||
hit/beat | *tawaFo | kaɔ- | tafɔ- | *tawaF[o]- | *toaf- |
flying fox | *tare | tare [CV] | *tare | *tare | |
old | *tarawu | akaˈraw-tə | tarai-ha [CV] | *tarawi | *tarej |
yesterday | *towa | kɔˈa | tɔˈa | *towa | *to(a) |
front | *topVne | kopane [CV] | topene [CV] | *… | *Topon(e) |
on top | *tone | tone [CV] | *tone | *tom(e) |
When initial /*t/ is followed by high front vowel /*i/, it is merged with palatal /*c/ (below) in Asmat. It would be just as possible to recontruct these examples with /*c/ since the distinction between /*t *c/ is neutralized in Kamoro and Sempan, but we choose /*t/ because it assumed to be the less marked sound:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*t-/_i | k | t | *t | *T | |
cut up | *ti- | ki- [CV] | *ti- | *Ti | |
canoe | *tiu | ku | tu | *tiu | *Tiˈu |
leech | *tifi | kii | *tifi | *Ti | |
with (com.) | *tini | kiri [CV] | *tin[i]- | *Tin(i) | |
go upriver | *tini- | kini- [CV] | tini- [CV] | *tin[i]- | *Tin- |
secret | *t[i/u]r[i/u]wa | tiriwa [CV] | *tiriw[a] | *Tiruw(a) |
Initial palatal stop /*c/ is merged with the reflexes of /*t/ in Kamoro and in Sempan. Excepting sequences /*ci/ which are not contrastive with /*ti (above,) it appears to exist only followed by low central vowel /*a/, although medial /*c/ can be followed by /*o/ as well (below):
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*c- | k | t | *t | *T | |
kill | *cafa- | ta- [CV] | *cafa- | *Ta- | |
arrow | *c[ai]sa | tesa | *c[ai]sa | *Taisa ~ *Tiasa | |
house | *came | kame | tame | *came | *Tame |
penis | *camane | ˈkamarə | ˈtamanə | *camane | *Tamane |
sap | *capi | kapi [CV] | *capi | *Tapi | |
vagina | *cani | ta'ni | *cani | *Tani | |
below | *can[a]s[a] | ta'naha | *can[a]s[a] | *Tenes- | |
outside | *casane | ˈtahanə | *casane | *Tasane | |
one | *cawak[e/a] | eˈna-kɔa | taˈwahɛ | *cawaka | *Towaka |
nest | *cawa | ˈkao | ˈtao | *cawa | *Towa ~ *Tawa |
sago palm | *cawo | *cawo | *Tawo ~ *Towo | ||
woman/female | *cawoca | 'kaɔka | *cawoca | *TawoTa | |
who? | *carV | -kare [CV] | *carV | *Tar | |
2 pl. | *care | karɛ | tarɔ | *care | *Tara |
Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is uncommon. It is dropped in Kamoro and Sempan except in verb stems (below):
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*k- | ø | ø | *k | *k | |
two/double | *kapoma | apoma [CV] | *kapoma | *kapom | |
person | *k[a]we | we-nata | ɔwe-naha | *kawe | *kawej |
enough | *kawa | 'a-namɔ | 'awa-namɔ | *kawa | — |
tongue | *komane | mare | ˈɔmane | *komane | *(k)omane |
brain(s) | *kuisi | iˈti | ihi | *kuisi | *kuisi |
As /*k/ is retained only sporadically in Asmat varieties (Voorhoeve 1980: 90, 117, 118,) it's highly likely that some forms which have been reconstructed here with an initial vowel in fact began with /*k/. Some of these may be recoverable through outcomparison; for example /*ewo/ “crocodile” and /*apimi/ “sago pulp” may have really been /*kewo/ and /*kapimi/ as evidenced by Cook River /*keu/, Marind /*kiu/ “crocodile” and Cook River /*keipm/ “sago tree”, even though there is no longer any direct evidence for this in Asmat (q.v. p. 76.) We conclude that Asmat likely is (or was) in the process of eliminating initial /*k/ altogether.
Initial bilabial or labiodental voiceless fricative /*f/ is reflected as /w/ or zero /ø/ in Tarya Kamoro:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorheove | |
*f- | w ~ ø | f | *f | *f | |
vein/tendon | *fima | ima [CV] | 'fumapi [CV] | *fima | *fima(-pir) |
hair | *fini | iˈri | fiˈni | *fini | *(u-)fini |
nail | *f[i]ti | fiti | *fiti | *fiTi | |
turtle | *fiwa[t/c]o | ˈiɔkɔ | fiwatɔ | — | |
make thatch | *fe- | fe- [CV] | *fe- | *fe- | |
hard/strong | *feak[e] | ˈfakə | *feak[e] | *feak | |
sharp | *f[e/a]ro | feroko [CV] | *f[e/a]ro | *faro(t) | |
neck | *f[e/o]mak[e] | eˈma | *fomak[e] | *femak ~ *fomak | |
thorn/spine | *fa | fa [CV] | *fa | *fa | |
buttocks | *fae(-more) | 'fae-meɾə | *fae(-more) | *fae(a), *faemore | |
cuscus | *face | ˈwakə | fatə | *face | *faTi |
widow/widower | *fuisama | ˈfiama | *fuisam[a] | — |
Initial apical voiceless fricative /*s/ is occluded to /t/ in Kamoro, filling the gap left by the shift of /*t/ to /k/ (above.) In Drabbe's Sempan, /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/, though Drabbe (1953: 88) states that this varies between [h s] by dialect:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*s- | t | h [h s] | *s | *s | |
dig | *si- | ti- [CV] | hi- | *si- | *si- |
plait | *si- | ti- | *si- | *si- | |
sand | *simako | 'timakɔ | |||
sand | *sini | tiˈri | hiˈni | *mi-sini | *misini |
sour | *si[t/c]are | tikaɾə | 'hitaj | — | |
tooth | *sisi | titi | hi | *sisi | *sisi |
thorn | *s[i/e]sV[i/e] | tetə | hii | — | |
earth/mud | *sefe | tee | he | *sefe | *se |
pawpaw sp. | *sena | tena [CV] | hena [CV] | *sen[a] | *sen(a) |
egg | *sa | ta [CV] | ha [CV] | *sa | *sa |
distribution | *sai | haj- [CV] | *sai | *saj | |
shoulder | *sairi | ˈtairi | ˈhiari | *sairi | *saji |
dried/smoked | *saewa | hawa | *saewa | *saiwa (?) | |
death | *sapo | tapɔ- | hapɔ | — | |
be extinguished | *sapu-(mu)- | taˈpu- | hapi-(m)- | *sapi-(m[i])- | *sapim- |
murder | *s[a]nao | taˈnao [V] | hanaɔ | *… | *soˈnao |
split | *sakai- | takaj- takai-imi- [CV] | heke-me- [CV] | *sakai-/*saka-m- | *sakam- |
white | *sako | takɔ | ha'kɔ | — | |
sawfish sp. | *sa[w]ate | tawake [CV] | *sawate | *sawote | |
song | *sawo | taɔ | haɔ | *sawo | *so |
light (color) | *s[a]reco | hereto [CV] | *… | *sareT ~ *saroT | |
rope | *somane | ˈtɛma | 'hɔmanə | *somane | *somane |
lung(s) | *sofo | *sofo | — | ||
upper arm | *sofo | tɔɔ | hɔfɔ | *sofo-ope | *sope |
afraid | *sonV | tono [CV] | honae [CV] | *sone | *sone |
elbow | *sonane | ˈtɔra-pɔa | ˈhɔnanə | *sonane | *sonane |
charcoal/black | *sosV | *sosV | *sos | ||
black | *sosak[e] | tate | ˈhɔakɛ | *sosakV | *sosaka |
dry | *soso[to] | totoko [CV] | *soso[tV] | *sosot | |
heart | *soke | toke [CV] | ˈhɔkə | *sok | *sok(-Tan) |
Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is generally retained as such in all three subgroups:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*w- | w | w | *w | *w | |
other/another | *wen[i/u] | weni [CV] | *wen[i] | *ˈwen | |
wave (n.) | *wao | wao [CV] | wao [CV] | *wao | *ˈwao |
forest | *wafo(-asane) | ˈwaɔ | wahane [CV] | *waf[o](-asane) | *wa, *wasane |
garden/clearing | *wasa | wata [CV] | waˈha | *was | *was(a) |
red ochre | *wasae | watae [CV] | wahe- ~ waha [CV] | *was[ae] | *wasa |
bamboo sp. | *wakane | wakane [CV] | *wakan[e] | *wakan(e) | |
now/today | *wawa | wa-'wa | wa'wa | *wawa | *wawa |
liver | *waw[a/o] | waɔ | wawa | *waw[a/o] | *wao |
sheet lightning | *w[a]raki | ˈuraki | *waraki | *warakaj | |
bundle | *wo | wo [CV] | wu [CV] | *wo | *wu |
thunder | *wur[u] | wuru | *wiri | *wuru | |
palm cabbage | *wui[ja] | wia [CV] | *… | *ˈwui |
Two apparent exceptions in which Kamoro drops root-intiial /*w/ are kin terms which are typically prefixed by possessors:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*(-)w- | ø | w | *w | *w | |
father | *witu | iku | wɔti | *witi | *-wiT, *-ote |
mother (ref.) | *w[o]se | ɔtə | 'wɛhɛ | *wose | *wose |
Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is retained in all three languages when followed by mid and low vowels /*e *a *o/:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*j-/_e a o | j | j | *j | *j | |
stone | *j[e]ka | jaka | *j[e]ka | *jeka | |
enemy | *jewawe | jewawe | *jewawe | — | |
walking | *ja[e] | jae | jaɛ | *ja | *ja |
two | *jam[i/u]nV | jamane | ja'mina | *jamin[o]ko | *jaminuk |
salt/salty | *jame | jame [CV] | *j[a]me | *jeme | |
crooked | *jamerV | jamer [CV] | jame [CV] (?) | *jamerV | *jamer |
shield | *jamase | jamahe [CV] | *j[a]m[a]se | *jemese | |
armpit | *jamopu | ˈjamopu | jamapi [CV] | *jamopi | *jamopi |
ear | *jafane | ˈiini | ˈianə | *jafane | *jafane ~ jane(-maka) |
men's house | *jafawe | jafa [CV] | *jafawe | *jawe | |
wing | *jaf[a]ro | jaˈru | *jaf[a]ro | *jaoro | |
fat/grease | *jaf… | *jaf… | — | ||
call | *j[a]te- | jeke- | *j[a]te- | *jate- | |
charcoal | *jaka | *jaka | *jaka | ||
cook/burn | *jawi- | jaj-mi- | -jwi- | *jawi- | |
rib(s)/side | *jawimi | ˈjajmi | jajmi | *jawimi | *jawimi |
black ashes | *jawo | eˈaɔ | *jawo | *jowomiTi | |
sun | *jawu | jaw | jɔˈwi | *jawi | *jowe ~ *jowi |
go/walk | *jar[e]- | jare- [CV] | *jar[e]- | *jar- | |
hole | *j[a/o]Fa | ja'fa | *j[a/o]Fa | *jofa | |
b.o. paradise | *j[a/o]wa | 'jaw-makɔ | 'jɔw-mɔtɔ | *jowa(-mot[o]) | *jowa |
midday/noon | *joka | joka [CV] | *joka | *joka | |
river | *jow[a/o] | jɔ | jɔ | *jowa | *joa(k) |
There is at least one unexplained exception:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*[j]-/_a | ø | j | ? | — | |
snake | *[j]akas[i]a | ˈakatja | ˈjakəha | — |
When followed by high vowels /*i *u/, initial /*j/ is dropped in Kamoro and in Sempan. Note that initial /*ju/ develops differently from vowel sequence /*iu/ (below):
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*j-/_i | ø | ø | *j | ||
urine | *ji | ji | ˈitakə | *ji | *ji |
fish net | *jim[i/e] | ˈimi | ˈimi | *jim[i/e] | *jime |
nape | *jimas[i] | ˈimahi | *jimas[i] | — | |
cave/cavity | *jipa/td> | 'ipa | ipa [CV] | *jipa | *jip(a) |
shadow | *jipur | ipu [CV] | ipi [CV] | *jipir[u] | *jipuru |
pull | *jifi-mi- | ii-mi- [CV] | i-mi- [CV] | *jifi-m[i]- | *jim- |
knee | *jinifa | ˈiri-pɔ | ˈini-pɔ | *jinifa | *jina |
go outside | *jisi- | iti- [CV] | ihi- [CV] | *jis[i]- | *jis- |
bamboo | *jis[u]m[i/u] | ihimi | *jisim[i] | *jisim(i) | |
enter | *jiwi- | ii- [CV] | iwi- [CV] | *jiwi- | *jiw(i)- |
hear/sense | *jiwV- | i- | *jiwV- | — | |
casuarina | *jiw… | iiwi [CV] | *jiwase | *jiwase | |
rainbow | *jiri | 'iri | *jir[i] | *jir(i) | |
gall/bile | *jiri | i'ri | i'ri | *jiri | *jiri |
command | *jiri-mi- | iri-mi- | *jiri-m[i]- | *jirim- | |
cross river | *jira | ira- [CV] | *jirV- | *jir- | |
hornbill | *jiro | iiri [CV] | *jir[o] | *jiru | |
small | *j[i/u]wu | *jiwi | *jiwi | ||
*j-/_u | ø | ø | *j | *j | |
door | *jumasapu | ˈimapu | ˈimahapi | *jumasapi | *jimasapi(ne) ~ jimasapu(ne) |
cold | *juFoko | ˈifakɔ | *juFoko | *jufo(-to/ko) | |
heavy | *jutoro | *jutoro | *juturu ~ *jitoro | ||
dark | *juwiti | ˈiiki | ˈiwiti | *juwiti | *jiwiTi |
dog | *juwuri | uˈuri | iwiri | *juw[i]ri | *juwuri |
night | *jurama | ˈirama | *jurama | *jirama |
Kamoro retains /*j/ before /*i/ in only one word which is conspicuous for being a monosyllable; presumably Sempan would have retained it too had the root not been suffixed:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*j-/_i | j | ø | *j | ||
urine | *ji | ji | ˈi-takə | *ji | *ji |
Any consonant can occur medially/
Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all three subgroups:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-m- | m | m | *m | *m | |
same | *imini | imiri [CV]- | inim [CV] | *inim[i] | *inim(i) |
do/make | *[i/e]m[i/e]- | imi- | eme- | *em[e]- | *em- |
throw away | *iwi-aso-mo | ˈj-aɔtɔ-mɔ- | ˈiw-ahɔ-mɔ- | *iwi-asom[o]- | *iwi-asom- |
drum | *eme | eme | eme | *eme | *eme |
stand | *eme- | *em[e]- | *em- | ||
husband | *[e]mao | mjaɔ | 'maɔ | *… | *omo- |
wife | *eamo | eamɔ | amɔ | *eamo | *-emo |
bone | *emake | eˈmae | emaˈkɛ | *emake | *emake |
fish | *enamo | *enamo | *enamo | ||
top of tree | *amisi | amihi [CV] | *amis[i] | *amis(i) | |
lie down | *[a]mese- | mehe- | *[a]mes[e]- | *[a]mes- | |
snake sp. | *amerV | 'amerea [CV] | *… | *amer | |
hot | *amam[a] | a'mam-uru | *amam[a] | *amam | |
hot | *amapo | a'mapɔ-tɔ | *amapo | *amapo | |
owner | *[a]mato | amako [CV] | mato [CV] | *amat[o] | *amat(o) |
louse | *amo | ˈmamɔ | ˈw-amɔ | *ufu-amo | *wamo |
bow | *amoine | 'amɔrə | 'amene | *amoine | *amu'ine |
sago | *amosa | amuˈta | amaˈha | *amosa | *amosa |
story | *amok[a/o] | 'amɔkɔ- | 'amɔka- | — | |
smoke | *amuini | ˈimini | ˈamini | *amuini | *-amini~*amuni |
sago pulp | *apimi | apimi [CV] | *apim[i] | *apim(i) | |
voice/speech | *ata-kom[o] | 'atamɔ | *at[a]-kom[o] | *atakom, *atamo |
|
nipa palm | *akamo | ˈakamɔ | *akamo | *akamo | |
rub | *are-me- | are-me- [CV] | *are-m[e]- | *aram(e)- | |
younger sister | *[o]m[a/o]sV | ma'hae | *-omosi | ||
sky | *onamo | 'ɔnamɔ | *onamo | *wonamo | |
steal | *oso-mo- | 'ɔtɔ-mɔ | 'ɔhɔ-mɔ | *oso-mo- | *wosom- |
straighten | *oro-mo- | oro-mo- [CV] | *oro-mo- | *orom- | |
ashes | *umit[i/u] | *jawo-umiti | *jowomiTi | ||
beneath | *mimane | 'mimarə | 'mimanə | — | |
orphan | *manima | ma'nima-rə | 'manima- | *man[i]ma | *manema |
knowledge | *mas[a/o]mo | 'matamɔ | 'mahamɔ | *mas[o]m[o] | *masom(o) |
root | *mumu | nuˈmu [sic] | miˈmi | *mimi | *mimi |
edge | *pima | pim-ini [CV] | pima [CV] | *pima | *pima |
smell | *pinVmo | ni'mu | pinumɔ | *pinVm[o] | *pinum |
break (tr.) | *piki-mi- | piki-mi- | piki-mi- | *piki-m[i]- | — |
boil (n.). | *pem[e/a] | ˈpema [CV] | *pem[e] | *peme | |
termite sp. | *penamo | ˈpenamo [CV] | *penam[o] | *penam(o) | |
plant (v.) | *po-mo | pe-me- [CV] | po-mo-[CV] | *po-m[o]- | *pom(o)- |
side | *p[o]mane | pamane [CV] | *poman[e] | *poman | |
vein/tendon | *fima | ima [CV] | 'fumapi [CV] | *fima | *fima(-pir) |
neck | *f[e/o]mak[e] | eˈma | *fomak[e] | *femak ~ *fomak | |
widow/widower | *fuisama | ˈfiama | *fuisam[a] | — | |
slow | *namese | namehe [CV] | *names[e] | *namese | |
hide | *nawoma | 'naɔ'ma | 'naɔ'ma | — | |
rattan | *tema | kɛˈma | taˈma | *tema | *tama ~ *tema |
give | *tema- | kɛmə- | tea-tamɔ- | *te-tema- (sg.) *ta-tema- (pl.) | *tetam- (sg.) *tatam- (pl.) |
split (tr.) | *tere-me- | tere-me- [CV] | *tere-m[e]- | *terem- | |
morning | *tamusija | ˈkaɔmutja | taməˈhɛ | — | |
house | *came | kame | tame | *cane | *Tame |
penis | *camane | ˈkamarə | ˈtamanə | *camane | *Tamane |
sand | *simako | 'timakɔ | |||
extinguish | *sapu-mu- | /td> | hapi-m- | *sapi-m[i]- | *sapim- |
rope | *somane | ˈtɛma | 'hɔmanə | *somane | *somane |
eyebrows | *kimini | -kimiri | -himiri | — | |
two/double | *kapoma | apoma [CV] | *kapoma | *kapom | |
enough | *kawa-namo | 'a-namɔ | 'awa-namɔ | — | |
tongue | *komane | mare | ˈɔmane | *komane | *(k)omane |
push away | *ko-mo- | ko-mo- [CV] | *ko-mo- | *kom-asom- | |
fish net | *jim[i/e] | ˈimi | ˈimi | *jim[i/e] | *jime |
nape | *jimas[i] | ˈimahi | *jimas[i] | — | |
pull | *jifi-mi- | ii-mi- [CV] | i-mi- [CV] | *jifi-m[i]- | *jim- |
bamboo | *jis[u]m[i/u] | ihimi | *jisim[i] | *jisim(i) | |
command | *jiri-mi- | iri-mi- | *jiri-m[i]- | *jirim- | |
salt/salty | *jame | jame [CV] | *j[a]me | *jeme | |
two | *jam[i/u]nV | jamane | ja'mina | *jamin[o]ko | *jaminuk |
crooked | *jamerV | jamer [CV] | jame [CV] (?) | *jamerV | *jamer |
shield | *jamase | jamahe [CV] | *j[a]m[a]se | *jemese | |
armpit | *jamopu | ˈjamɔpu | jamapi [CV] | *jamopi | *jamopi |
rib(s)/side | *jawimi | ˈjajmi | jajmi | *jawimi | *jawimi |
door | *jumasapu | ˈimapu | ˈimahapi | *jumasapi | *jimasapi(ne) ~ jimasapu(ne) |
sago leaf | *[j]unVmo | inimo [CV] | *junVm[o] | *junumu | |
night | *jurama | ˈirama | *jurama | *jirama |
Medial apical nasal /*n/ …:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-n- | n | n | *n | *n | |
mother (add.) | *en[ai]wa | enea [CV] | enaj [CV] | *en[e]wa | *enewa |
fish | *enamo | *enamo | *enamo | ||
come | *[e]naw[a]- | naɔ- | naɔ- | *enaw[a]- | *enaw- |
smoke | *amuini | ˈimini | ˈamini | *amuini | *-amini~*amuni |
sky | *onamo | 'ɔnamɔ | *onamo | *wonamo | |
chin | *okone | 'ɔkɔnə | ɔ'kɔn | *okone | *wokone |
jungle fowl | *owane | *owane | *owo-(ne/to) | ||
spear | *uruna | ˈuruna | ˈuruna | — | |
mucus | *mini | miˈni | — | ||
python | *minewe | menewe [CV] | *min[i]w | *miniw | |
orphan | *manima | ma'nima-rə | 'manima- | *man[i]ma | *manema |
eye | *mana | ma-me | ma'nakə | *mana | *mana(-ka) |
forehead | *mana-pun[i/u] | maˈna-pini | *mana-pini | *manapin | |
sugarcane | *monefV | mɔne | — | ||
not/none | *muna | -ˈmuna | -ˈmɔna (?) | *.mina. | *min(a) |
smell | *pinVmo | ni'mu | pinumɔ | *pinVm[o] | *pinum |
termite sp. | *penamo | ˈpenamo [CV] | *penam[o] | *penam(o) | |
wallaby | *painaro | 'pajnarə | 'pajnarɔ | — | |
dirty | *p… | panawa [CV] | pana-ko [CV] | *p… | *ponow(a) |
side | *p[o]mane | pamane [CV] | *poman[e] | *poman | |
go upriver | *tini- | kini- [CV] | tini- [CV] | *tin[i]- | *Tin- |
front | *topVne | kopane [CV] | topene [CV] | *… | *Topon(e) |
on top | *tone | tone [CV] | *tone | *tom(e) | |
vagina | *cani | ta'ni | *cani | *Tani | |
low/below | *can[a]s[a] | ta'naha | *can[a]s[a] | *Tenes- | |
pawpaw sp. | *sena | tena [CV] | hena [CV] | *sen[a] | *sen(a) |
murder | *s[a]nao | taˈnao [V] | hanaɔ | *… | *soˈnao |
afraid | *sonV | tono [CV] | honae [CV] | *sone | *sone |
enough | *kawa-namo | 'a-namɔ | 'awa-namɔ | — | |
other/another | *wen[i/u] | weni [CV] | *wen[i] | *ˈwen | |
two | *jam[i/u]nV | jamane | ja'mina | *jamin[o]ko | *jaminuk |
ear | *jafane | ˈiini | ˈianə | *jafane | *jafane ~ jane(-maka) |
sago leaf | *[j]unVmo | inimo [CV] | *junVm[o] | *junumu |
One example shows an seeminglyirregular loss of medial /*n/ in Kamoro and Sempan:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-n- | ø | ø | *n | *n | |
thought | *minipV | mipi | mipo (?) | *minipV | *minip |
Many examples of medial /*n/ in subfinal position are reflecrted as /r/ in Kamoro, though this is not an exceptionaless rule as seen above. Perhaps the answer lies in borrowing across Kamoro dialects, for example Robidé van der Aa's (1879) Lakahia shows /n/ in this position (q.v. Ray 1912: 327):
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-n(-) | -r- | -n- | *-n- | *n | |
same | *imini | imiri [CV]- | inim [CV] | *inim[i] | *inim(i) |
lip(s) | *iwin[i/e] | ˈiiri | ˈiwini | *jw[i]n[e] | *iwene |
bow | *amoine | 'amɔrə | 'amene | *amoine | *amu'ine |
centipede | *anu | aru [CV] | *ani | *ani | |
groin | *apini | apiri [CV] | *apin[i] | *apin(i) | |
hip/thigh | *asini | ˈatiri | ˈahini | *asini | *asini |
coconut | *usini | ˈutiri | ˈihini | *jusini | *jusini |
beneath | *mimane | 'mimarə | 'mimanə | — | |
armband sp. | *metane | makare [CV] | metane [CV} | *metane | *metan(e) |
tip/point | *m[e/a]n[e] | -mare | *m[e/a]n[e] | *aw men(e) | |
hand/arm | *mafane | maarə | ˈmafanə | *mafane | *mafane, *mane |
trunk/nase | *mopane | mapare [CV] | mopane [CV] | *mopane | *mopane |
war | *mo[t/c]ane | ˈmokarə | ˈmatanə | — | |
skin/bark | *pitini | ˈpikiri | ˈpitini | *pitini | *piTini |
just/only | *nasane | natare [CV] | nahana [CV] | *nasane | *nesen |
with (com.) | *tini | kiri [CV] | *tin[i]- | *Tin(i) | |
jaw | *tVpane | kepare [CV] | *… | *topane | |
penis | *camane | ˈkamarə | ˈtamanə | *camane | *Tamane |
outside | *casane | ˈtahanə | *casane | *Tasane | |
rope | *somane | ˈtɛma (?) | 'hɔmanə | *somane | *somane |
elbow | *sonane | ˈtɔra-pɔ | ˈhɔnanə | *sonane | *sonane |
eyebrow(s) | *kimini | -kimiri | -himini | — | |
tongue | *komane | mare | ˈɔmane | *komane | *(k)omane |
hair | *fini | ˈwiri | fiˈni | *fini | *(u-)fini |
bamboo sp. | *wakane | wakane [CV] | *wakan[e] | *wakan(e) | |
sand | *sini | tiˈri | hiˈni | *mi-sini | *misini |
…:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-n- | r | n | *n | *n | |
elbow | *sonane | ˈtɔra-pɔ | ˈhɔnanə | *sonane | *sonane |
knee | *jinifa | ˈiri-pɔ | ˈini-pɔ | *jinifa | *jina |
Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all three subgroups:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-p- | p | p | *p | *p | |
older brother | *[e]poca | pɔka | *pɔta | *epoc[a] | *-epoT |
tail | *epe | *epe | *epe(-mak) | ||
hot | *amapo | a'mapɔ-tɔ | *amapo | *amapo | |
sago pulp | *apimi | apimi [CV] | *apim[i] | *apim(i) | |
groin | *apini | apiri [CV] | *apin[i] | *apin(i) | |
daughter | *[a]pija | pja | apja | ||
sit | *ape- | epə- | apə- | *ape- | *ape- ~ *jape- |
sago palm stem | *apapi | ˈapapi | ˈapapi | — | |
pronged spear | *ap[a/o]to | apoko [CV] | *ap[a]to | *apa-(ne/to) | |
kernel/core | *apoke | apeke ~ apoko [CV] | *apok[e] | *apok(e) | |
behind | *asapu | a'tapu | -ahapi | *asap[i] | *asap(e) |
high/above | *ope | ɔpə | ɔpe | *ope | *ope |
fly (n.) | *opoto | ˈkɔpɔkɔ [sic] | *opoto | *opoto | |
man/male | *upuc[i/a] | ˈupuka | ˈipita | *j[u]pit[i] | *jipiTi |
older sister | *upuca | ˈupuka | ˈupita | *upica | *-ipiTa ~ *-upiTa |
sweat | *uwaputi | 'waputi | 'jɔpiti | — | |
thought | *minipV | mipi | mipo (?) | *minipV | *minip |
tail | *m[i/e]p[i/e] | ˈmipi | ˈmɛpə | *mep[e] | *mepe(-mak) |
trunk/nase | *mopane | mapare [CV] | mopane [CV] | *mopane | *mopane |
tight/firm | *pepe | pepe [CV] | *pepe>/td> | *pepe | |
white | *napu | napu [CV] | *napi | *napi | |
go up | *tepe- | tepe- [CV] | *tepe- | *tepe- | |
jaw | *tVpane | kepare [CV] | *… | *topane | |
front | *topVne | kopane [CV] | topene [CV] | *… | *Topon(e) |
sap | *capi | kapi [CV] | *capi | *Tapi | |
death | *sapo | tapɔ- | hapɔ | — | |
be extinguished | *sapu-(mu)- | taˈpu- | hapi-(m)- | *sapi-(m[i])- | *sapim- |
larynx | *kapo | -kapu | -kaˈpɔ | — | |
two/double | *kapoma | apoma [CV] | *kapoma | *kapom | |
follow | *kap[u]- | kapu- [CV] | kapo- [CV] | *kapu- | *kapu- |
door | *jimasapu | ˈimapu | ˈimahapi | *jimasapi | *jimasapi(ne) ~ jimasapu(ne) |
cave/cavity | *jipa/td> | 'ipa | ipa [CV] | *jipa | *jip(a) |
shadow | *jipu[ru] | ipu [CV] | ipi [CV] | *jipir[u] | *jipuru |
armpit | *jamopu | ˈjamapu | jamapi [CV] | *jamopi | *jamopi |
One example shows an apparently irregular alternation between /*p/ and /*f/ (below):
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorheove | |
*-[p/f]- | ø [f] | p | *p | *p | |
saliva | *mesa[p/f]u | maˈtaɔ | ˈmahapi | *masapi | *masap |
Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is like intiial /*t/ (above) backed to velar /k/ in Kamoro, where it merges with the reflexes of /*k/ (below):
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-t- | k | t | *t | *t | |
owner | *[a]mato | amako [CV] | mato [CV] | *amat[o] | *amat(o) |
pronged spear | *ap[a/o]to | apoko [CV] | *ap[a]to | *apa-(ne/to) | |
voice/speech | *ata | ak-werə | 'ata-mɔ | *ata- | *atakom *atamo |
fly (n.) | *opoto | ˈkɔpɔkɔ [sic] | *opoto | *opoto | |
thumb | *m[i/u]-tewu | ˈmitiwi | *mitiwitV | *mitit | |
armband sp. | *metane | makare [CV] | metane [CV} | *metane | *metan(e) |
path | *mato | mako [CV] | moto [CV] | *mato | *matot |
star | *mawuto | ˈmaakɔ | ˈmawətɔ | *mawito | *mawito |
tail feather(s) | *m[a/o]to | -makɔ | mɔ'tɔ ~ -mɔkɔ (?) | *-mot[o] | — |
tie/fasten | *mot[e/a]- | mɔke- | mota- [CV] | *motV- | *mot- |
ghost | *nato | 'natɔ | *nato | *nat(o) | |
sawfish sp. | *sa[w]ate | tawake [CV] | *sawate | *sawote | |
dry | *soso[to] | totoko [CV] | *soso[tV] | *sosot | |
call | *j[a]te- | jeke- | *j[a]te- | -*jate- | |
heavy | *jutoro | *jutoro | *juturu ~ *jitoro |
When medial /*t/ is followed by high front vowel /*i/, it is merged with palatal /*c/ (below) in Asmat. It would be just as possible to recontruct these examples with /*c/ since the distinction between /*t *c/ is neutralized in Kamoro and Sempan, but we choose /*t/ because it assumed to be the less marked sound:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-t-/_i | k | t | *t | ||
thorn | *iti | iki [CV] | iti [CV] | *iti | *(j)iTi |
nape | *ititi | ˈikiki | *itit[i] | — | |
nettle leaves | *atiwi | aki [CV] | atiwi [CV] | *atiwi | *aTuw(i) |
platform | *atiri | akiri [CV] | *atir(i) | *aTir(i) | |
ashes | *umit[i/u] | *jawo-umiti | *jowomiTi | ||
sweat | *uwaputi | 'waputi | 'jɔpiti | — | |
skin/bark | *pitini | ˈpikiri | ˈpitini | *pitini | *piTini |
nail | *f[i]ti | fiti | *fiti | *fiTi | |
raw/unripe | *nati | naˈki | naˈti | *nati | *naTi |
dark | *juwiti | ˈiiki | ˈiwiti | *jiwiti | *jiwiTi |
When /*t/ is followed by /*u/, it is also palatalized in Asmat.:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-t-/_u | k | t | *c | *T | |
father | *witu | iku | wɔti | *witi | *-wiT, *-ote |
Because the reflexes of /*t/ and /*c/ have merged in Kamoro and in Sempan (below,) it is sometimes impossible to distringuish the two where there is no Asmat attestation:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-[t/c]- | k | t | ? | — | |
jungle fowl | *owo[t/c]o | ˈɔkɔ | ˈɔwɔtɔ | *owo-(ne/to) | |
war | *mo[t/c]ane | ˈmokarə | ˈmatanə | — | |
turtle | *fiwa[t/c]o | ˈiɔkɔ | ˈfiwatɔ | — | |
sour | *si[t/c]are | tikaɾə | 'hitaj | — |
Medial palatal voiceless stop /*c/ is found before low central and low mid back rounded vowels /*a *o/, where it contrasts with the reflexes of /*t/ (above):
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-c- | k | t | *c | *T | |
older brother | *[e]poca | pɔka | pɔta | *epoc[a] | *-epoT |
frog | *eco | ekɔ | etɔ | *eto | *eTo |
younger brother | *[e]waoca | aɔka | ɔta | *ewaoc[a] | *-ewaoc |
where? | *ocare | okare [CV] | *ocar[e] | *uTar(e) | |
man/male | *upuc[i/a] | ˈupuka | ˈipita | *j[u]pit[i] | *jipiTi |
older sister | *upuca | ˈupuka | ˈupita | *upica | *-ipiTa ~ *-upiTa |
wet | *mocofo | mɔkɔ | ˈmɔtɔ-kɔ | *moco(-ko) | *moTo(k) |
carry | *noco- | noko- [CV] | *noco]- | *noT- | |
woman/female | *cawoca | 'kaɔka | *tawota | *TawoTa | |
light (color) | *s[a]reco | hereto [CV] | *… | *sareT ~ *saroT |
Unlike intiial /*c/ which is always followed by low central vowel /*a/, medial /*c/ is found also followed by mid front /*e/:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-c-/_e | k | t | *c | *T | |
goanna sp. | *[o]ce | oke [CV] | ote [CV] | *… | *wuTi |
laugh | *[o]ce | ɔkɔ kɔ- | ɔtə ɔtɔ- | *… | *wuTi woTi- |
cry/weep | *mace | makə makə- | matə matə- | *mace mace- | *maTi |
cuscus | *face | ˈwakə | fatə | *face | *faTi |
Media velar voicless stop /*k/, including root-initial /*k/ in compounds, is generally retained as such in all three subgroups:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-k- | k | k | *k | *k | |
eyebrow(s) | *-kimini | -ˈkimiri | -ˈhimini [sic] |  —; | |
larynx | *-kapo | -kapu | -kaˈpɔ | — | |
fruit/seed | *eake | -ekə | -ɛˈkɛ | *eake | *eake |
story | *amok[a/o] | 'amɔkɔ- | 'amɔka- | — | |
kernel/core | *apoke | apeke ~ apoko [CV] | *apok[e] | *apok(e) | |
bitter/pain | *asako | 'atakɔ | a'hakɔ | *… | — |
nipa palm | *akamo | ˈakamɔ | *akamo | *akamo | |
egg | *oka | ɔˈka | *oka | *oka | |
chin | *okone | 'ɔkɔnə | ɔ'kɔn | *okone | *wokone |
back | *maeke | mekə | *maeke | *ma(e)ke | |
wasp sp. | *m[a]ko | moko [CV] | *mako | *mako | |
break | *piki-(mi)- | piki-(mi)- | piki-(mi)- | *piki-(m[i])- | — |
wide | *paj[a/o]ko | pa'jɔkɔ | pa'jakɔ | — | |
hard/strong | *feak[e] | ˈfakə | *feak[e] | *feak | |
neck | *f[e/o]mak[e] | eˈma | *f[e/o]mak[e] | *femak ~ *fomak | |
carry | *nek[e/a]- | neke- | neka- | — | |
belly | *tejake | teakə | *tejake | *tia(-ke) | |
sand | *simako | 'timakɔ | |||
split | *sakai- | takaj- takai-imi- [CV] | heke-me- [CV] | *sakai-/*saka-m- | *sakam- |
white | *sako | takɔ | ha'kɔ | — | |
heart | *soke | toke [CV] | ˈhɔkə | *sok | *sok(-Tan) |
bamboo sp. | *wakane | wakane [CV] | *wakan[e] | *wakan(e) | |
sheet lightning | *w[a]raki | ˈuraki | *waraki | *warakaj | |
tie up | *j[i/e]ka- | eka- | *j[i]k[a]- | *jik- | |
stone | *j[e]ka | jaka | *j[e]ka | *jeka | |
charcoal | *jaka | *jaka | *jaka | ||
snake | *[j]akas[ij]a | ˈakatja | ˈjakəha | — | |
midday/noon | *joka | joka [CV] | *joka | *joka |
Likewise, root-initial /*k/ is retained in verbs, which are typically prefixed:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*(-)k- | k | k | *k | *k | |
tear/loosn | *kai- | kaj- [CV] | kaj- [CV] | *kaj- | *kaj- |
follow | *kap[u]- | kapu- [CV] | kapo- [CV] | *kapu- | *kapu- |
push away | *ko-mo- | ko-mo- [CV] | *ko-mo- | *kom-asom- | |
go down | *koro- | kɔrɔ-naw- | kɔrɔ-nafi- | *koro- | *kor(a)- |
…:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-k | ø | k | k | *k | |
bone | *emake | eˈmae | emaˈkɛ | *emake | *emake |
testicle(s) | *musa(-eake) | muta muˈta-eke [CV] | ˈmihakə | *misakV | *misaka |
wet | *mocofo-ko | ˈmɔtɔ-kɔ | *moco-ko | *moTo(k) | |
one | *cawak[e/a] | eˈna-kɔa | taˈwahɛ [sic] | *cawaka | *Towaka |
black | *sosak[e] | tate | ˈhɔakɛ | *sosakV | *sosaka |
sneeze | *jaki | jaje | ja'hi [sic] | *jaki | — |
Medial bilabial or labiodental voiceless fricative /*f/ is, like the medial reflexes of bilabial non-stop/*w/ (below,) dropped completely in Tarya Kamoro; however it is retained as [f h] in Kamoro's Wania dialects (Drabbe 1953: 85.) It is retained only sporadically in Sempan. Because medial /*f/ is not reliably attested in any of our main sources, some examples can be inferred only indirectly from vowel length in Tarya Kamoro or from outcomparison to Kamrau Bay cognates:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-f- | ø | f ~ ø | *f | *f *w *ø | |
wasp sp. | *ifi | ii [CV] | ifi [CV] | *ifi | *i(f)i |
leaf | *efe | ee | je | *efe | *ee |
near | *afarV | a'warɔ- | 'afarə | — | |
pig | *ofo | ɔɔ [ˈɔfɔ] | ˈɔfɔ | *ofo | *ofo |
goura pigeon | *ufo | ˈuu | 'ifɔ | *jufo | *jofo |
head | *ufu | u- [ufu] | u- | *ufu | *u- |
head louse | *ufu-amo | ˈw-amɔ | *ufu-amo | *wamo | |
hand/arm | *mafane | ˈmaarə | mafanə | *mafane | *mafane, *mane |
sugarcane | *monefV | mɔne | — | ||
wet | *mocofo | mɔkɔ | ˈmɔtɔ-kɔ | *moco(-ko) | *moTo(k) |
pigeon sp. | *parufa | parua [CV] | *parif[i] | *pari | |
go down | *nafu- | -naw- | -nafi- | *nafi– | *naj-, *now- |
leech | *tifi | kii | *tifi | *Ti | |
rain | *tefe | kee [kefe] | te | *tefe | *te(e) |
banana | *tafu | kaw [kafu] | *tafi | — | |
kill | *cafa- | ta- [CV] | *cafa- | *Ta- | |
earth/mud | *sefe | tee | he | *sefe | *se |
lung(s) | *sofo | *sofo | — | ||
upper arm | *sofo | tɔɔ | hɔfɔ | *sofo-ope | *sope |
forest | *wafo(-asane) | ˈwaɔ | wasane [CV] | *waf[o](-asane) | *wa, *wasane |
pull | *jifi-mi- | ii-mi- [CV] | i-mi- [CV] | *jifi-m[i]- | *jim- |
knee | *jinifa | ˈiri-pɔ | ˈini-pɔ | *jinifa | *jina |
ear | *jafane | ˈiini | ˈianə | *jafane | *jafane ~ jane(-maka) |
men's house | *jafawe | jafa [CV] | *jafawe | *jawe | |
wing | *jaf[a]ro | jaˈru | *jaf[a]ro | *jaoro | |
fat/grease | *jaf… | *jaf… | — |
… /*F/ …:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-F- | ø | f ~ ø | *F | *f | |
finger | *eFe | ee | *eFe | *efe | |
rotten | *oF[o] | *oF[o] | *ofa(k) | ||
hit/beat | *tawaFo | kaɔ- [kafɔ] | tafɔ- | *tawaF[o]- | *toaf- |
hole | *j[a/o]Fa | ja'fa | *j[a/o]Fa | *jofa | |
cold | *juFoko | ˈifakɔ | *jFfoko | *jufo(-to/ko) |
Medial apical voiceless fricative /*s/, like intiial /*s/ (above), is occluded to /t/ in Kamoro and deoccluded to /h/ in Drabbe's Sempan, though Drabbe (1953: 88) states that this varies between [h s] by dialect:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-s- | t | h [h s] | *s | *s | |
mosquito | *isi | iˈti | iˈhi | *isi | *isi |
throw away | *iwi-aso-mo | ˈj-aɔtɔ-mɔ- | ˈiw-ahɔ-mɔ- | *iwi-asom[o]- | *iwi-asom- |
blood/red | *ese | ete | ehe | *ese | *ese |
sleep | *ese | ete | ehe | *ese | *esi (es-) |
plaited bag | *esae | e'tae [CV] | 'ehae [CV] | *es[ae] | *esa(-ke)/td> |
top of tree | *amisi | amihi [CV] | *amis[i] | *amis(i) | |
lie down | *amese- | mehe | *ames[e]- | *[a]mes- | |
sago | *amosa | amuˈta | amaˈha | *amosa | *amosa |
afternoon | *jawu-asi | ew-ati [CV] | jaw-ahi [CV] | ||
hip/thigh | *asini | ˈatiri | ˈahini | *asini | *asini |
excrement | *asa | aˈta | aˈha | *asa | *asa |
grandmother | *asao[k] | a'taɔ | a'haɔ-ro | *… | *-asok |
behind | *asapu | a'tapu | -ahapi | *asapi | *asap(e) |
bitter/pain | *asako | 'atakɔ | a'hakɔ | *… | — |
big | *as[o]wa | atɔ'a | *… | *asuw | |
new | *ajasa | 'ajha | *ajas[a] | — | |
younger sister | *[o]m[a/o]sV | ma'hae | *-omosi | ||
tree/wood | *ose | ɔtə | ˈɔhɔ | *ose | *wose |
cough/phlegm | *osV | ɔ'taj | ɔ'hɔ | *osV | *os(e) |
steal | *oso-mo- | 'ɔtɔ-mɔ | 'ɔhɔ-mɔ | *oso-mo- | *wosom- |
coconut | *usini | ˈutiri | ˈihini | *jusini | *jusini |
firewood/fire | *usa | uta | juˈha | *jusa | *jusa |
name | *uwase | 'u-nata | ˈiwahɛ | *juwas[e] | *juwas |
husband | *miwisi | miwihi [CV] | *miwisi | *-miwis(i) | |
termite sp. | *mese | meˈsɛ | *mes[e] | *mes(e) | |
saliva | *mesa[p/f]u | maˈtaɔ | ˈmahapi | *masapi | *masap |
knowledge | *mas[a/o]mo | 'matamɔ | 'mahamɔ | *mas[o]m[o] | *masom(o) |
testicle(s) | *musa(-eake) | muta muˈta-eke [CV] | ˈmihakə | *misakV | *misaka |
mouse | *musu | muˈtu | miˈhi- | — | |
bamboo sp. | *muwisi | ˈmuiti | *muwis[i] | *muis | |
blackpalm sp. | *pisi | piti [CV] | pihi [CV] | *pisi | *pise |
shy/shame | *paisi | ˈpajti | ˈpajhi | — | |
itch/scabies | *pa… | pateta [CV] | pajhi [CV] | *… | *pases |
ironwood sp. | *posa | pota [CV] | poha [CV] | *posa | *posa |
girl | *… | ˈparaha- [CV] | *… | *-porawis | |
slow | *namese | namehe [CV] | *names[e] | *namese | |
flesh/meat | *nasa | naˈta | naˈha | *nasa | *nasa |
just/only | *nasane | natare [CV] | nahana [CV] | *nasane | *nesen |
wound | *nas[o/u] | naˈtu | naˈhi | *nas[o/u] | *naso |
morning | *tamusija | ˈkaɔmutja | taməˈhɛ | — | |
taboo | *tasa | kaˈta | taˈha | *tasa | *tas(a) |
arrow | *c[ai]sa | teha | *c[ai]sa | *Taisa ~ *Tiasa | |
low/below | *can[a]s[a] | ta'naha | *can[a]s[a] | *Tenes- | |
outside | *casane | ˈtahanə | *casane | *Tasane | |
charcoal/black | *sosV | *sosV | *sos | ||
black | *sosak[e] | tate | ˈhɔakɛ | *sosakV | *sosaka |
dry | *soso[to] | totoko [CV] | *soso[tV] | *sosot | |
brain(s) | *kuisi | iˈti | ihi | *kuisi | *kuisi |
clearing/garden | *wasa | wata [CV] | waˈha | *wasa | *was(a) |
red ochre | *wasae | watae [CV] | wahe- ~ waha [CV] | *was[ae] | *wasa |
mother (ref.) | *w[o]se | ɔtə | 'wɛhɛ | *wose | *wose |
nape | *jimas[i] | ˈimahi | *jimas[i] | — | |
go outside | *jisi- | iti- [CV] | ihi- [CV] | *jis[i]- | *jis- |
bamboo | *jis[u]m[i/u] | ihimi | *jisim[i] | *jisim(i) | |
shield | *jamase | jamahe [CV] | *j[a]m[a]se | *jemese | |
snake | *[j]akas[i]a | ˈakatja | ˈjakəha | — | |
door | *jumasapu | ˈimapu (?) | ˈimahapi | *jumasapi | *jimasapi(ne) ~ jimasapu(ne) |
Where medial /*s/ follows another fricative /*f *s/, it is dropped in Sempan:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | ||
*-s-/fV_ | t | ø | *s | — | |
widow/widower | *fuisama | ˈfiama | *fuisam[a] | — | |
*-s-/sV_ | t | ø | *s | *s | |
tooth | *sisi | titi | hi | *sisi | *sisi |
thorn | *s[i/e]s[i/e] | tetə | hii | — | |
black | *sosak[e] | tate | ˈhɔakɛ | *sosakV | *sosaka |
dry | *soso[to] | totoko [CV] | *soso[tV] | *sosot | |
itch/scabies | *pa… | pateta [CV] | pajhi [CV] | *… | *pases |
Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is dropped in Tarya Kamoro. It is retained in the Kamoro's Wania dialects (q.v. Drabbe 1953: 84):
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-w- | ø | w | *w | *w | |
throw away | *iwi-aso-mo | ˈj-aɔtɔ-mɔ- | ˈiw-ahɔ-mɔ- | *iwi-asom[o]- | *iwi-asom- |
lip(s) | *iwin[i/e] | ˈiiri | ˈiwini | *iw[i]n[e] | *iwene |
crocodile | *ewV | ewe | *ewo | *ewo | |
nettle leaves | *atiwi | aki [CV] | atiwi [CV] | *atiwi | *aTuw(i) |
big | *as[o]wa | atɔ'a | *… | *asuw | |
cheek | *aware | 'awarə (?) | 'awarə | — | |
branch | *awa[k] | a'wakə | *awa | *awa | |
breast | *awo | ˈaɔ | ˈawɔ | *awo | *awo |
banana | *owV | ɔ'wae | *owV | *oo ~ *uu | |
jungle fowl | *owane | *owane | *owo-(ne/to) | ||
jungle fowl | *owo[t/c]o | ˈɔkɔ | ˈɔwɔtɔ | *owo-(ne/to) | |
name | *uwase | 'u-nata | ˈiwahɛ | *juwase | *juwas |
long | *urawa | i'rawa-kɔ | *… | *jurao | |
ghost sp. | *miwi | mii [miwi] | *miwi | *miwi | |
husband | *miwisi | miwihi [CV] | *miwisi | *-miwis(i) | |
thumb | *m[i/u]-tewu | ˈmitiwi | *mitiwitV | *mitit | |
Venus | *mawor[a] | *mawor[a] | *ma(i)wor | ||
foot/leg | *mawu | maw | maˈwi | *mawi | *maji ~ *mawi |
star | *mawuto | ˈmaakɔ | ˈmawətɔ | *mawito | *mawito |
bamboo sp. | *muwisi | ˈmuiti | *muwis[i] | *muis | |
mangrove | *pawe | paˈe [CV] | pawe [CV] | *paw[e] | *paw(e) |
breadfruit | *pawo | pawo [CV] | *pawo | *pawo | |
ripe | *puwu | puu | piˈwi | *piwi | *piwi |
turtle | *fiwa[t/c]o | ˈiɔkɔ | ˈfiwatɔ | — | |
secret | *t[i/u]r[i/u]wa | tiriwa [CV] | *tiriw[a] | *Tiruw(a) | |
take | *tewa- | ke- | tewa- | *tew[a]- | *tew- |
child/son | *tewu | tiˈwi | *t[i]wi | *tiwi | |
say/speak | *tawe- | tawə- | *tawe- | — | |
one | *cawak[e/a] | eˈna-kɔa | taˈwahɛ | *cawaka | *Towaka |
sago palm | *cawo | *cawo | *Tawo ~ *Towo | ||
woman/female | *cawoca | 'kaɔka | *cawoca | *TawoTa | |
dried/smoked | *saewa | hawa | *saewa | *saiwa (?) | |
person | *k[a]we | we-nata | ɔwe-naha | *kawe | *kawej |
enough | *kawa | 'a-namɔ | 'awa-namɔ | *kawa | — |
liver | *waw[a/o] | waɔ | wawa | *waw[a/o] | *wao |
enter | *jiwi- | ii- [CV] | iwi- [CV] | *jiwi- | *jiw(i)- |
hear/sense | *jiwV- | i- | *jiwV- | — | |
casuarina | *jiw… | iiwi [CV] | *jiwase | *jiwase | |
small | *j[i/u]wu | *jiwi | *jiwi | ||
enemy | *jewawe | jewawe | *jewawe | — | |
men's house | *jafawe | jafa [CV] | *jafawe | *jawe | |
cook/burn | *jawi- | jaj-mi- | -jwi- | *jawi- | |
black ashes | *jawo | eˈaɔ | *jawo | *jowomiTi | |
sun | *jawu | jaw | jɔˈwi | *jawi | *jowe ~ *jowi |
dark | *juwiti | ˈiiki | ˈiwiti | *jiwiti | *jiwiTi |
kunai grass | *juwa | *juwa | — | ||
dog | *juwuri | uˈuri | iwiri | *juw[i]ri | *juwuri |
… medial /*w/ … dropped in Sempan as well as in Tarya Kamoro:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-w- | ø | ø | *w | *w *ø | |
mother (add.) | *en[ai]wa | enea [CV] | enaj [CV] (?) | *en[e]wa | *enewa |
come | *[e]naw[a]- | naɔ- | naɔ- | *enaw[a]- | *enaw- |
younger brother | *[e]waoca | aɔka | ɔta | *ewaoc[a] | *-ewaoc |
sweat | *uwaputi | 'waputi | 'jɔpiti | — | |
seek | *paw[a/o]- | paɔ- | paɔ- | *paw[a/o]- | *powa-~*pawo- |
girl | *… | ˈparaha- [CV] | *… | *-porawis | |
hit/beat | *tawaFo | kaɔ- | tafɔ- | *tawaF[o]- | *toaf- |
hide | *nawoma | 'naɔ'ma | 'naɔ'ma | — | |
sago grub | *tawV | *tawV | *tow | ||
old | *tarawu | akaˈraw-tə | tarai-ha [CV] | *tarawi | *tarej |
yesterday | *towa | kɔˈa | tɔˈa | *towa | *to(a) |
nest | *cawa | ˈkao | ˈtao | *cawa | *Towa ~ *Tawa |
song | *sawo | taɔ | haɔ | *sawo | *so |
rib(s)/side | *jawimi | ˈjajmi | jajmi | *jawimi | *jawimi |
river | *jow[a/o] | jɔ | jɔ | *jowa | *joa(k) |
One example in which Kamoro unexpectedly retains medial /*w/ is probably a redupication, at least in Kamoro where the expected form would otherwise be [waa]:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-w- | w | w | *w | *w *ø | |
now/today | *wawa | wa-'wa | wa'wa | *wawa | *wawa |
Medial apical non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in all three subgroups:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-r- | r | r | *r | *r | |
snake sp. | *amerV | 'amerea [CV] | *… | *amer | |
near | *afarV | a'warɔ- | 'afarə | — | |
platform | *atiri | akiri [CV] | *atir(i) | *aTir(i) | |
cheek | *aware | 'awarə (?) | 'awarə | — | |
rub | *are-me- | are-me- [CV] | *are-m[e]- | *aram(e)- | |
3 sg./this | *are | arɛ | arɔ | *are | *ara |
where? | *ocare | okare [CV] | *ocar[e] | *uTar(e) | |
2 sg. | *ore | ɔrɔ | ɔrɔ | *ore | *woro |
straight | *oro | 'ɔrɔ | *oro- | *orom- | |
long | *urawa | i'rawa-kɔ | *… | *jurao | |
spear | *uruna | ˈuruna | ˈuruna | — | |
day | *mare | mara-tja [CV] | mare [CV] | *mar[e]- | *mar(e) |
lightning | *mVro | ma'ra-pəta | maarɔ | *… | *(masa-)maro |
Venus | *mawor[a] | *mawor[a] | *ma(i)wor | ||
navel | *mok[o]per[e] | 'mɔɔrə (?) | meperə | *mokpere | *mokopere, *mopere |
blister | *moro | moro [CV] | *mor[o] | *mor(o) | |
vagina | *pere | pere-ta | pere [CV] | *pere | *per(e) |
wallaby | *painaro | 'pajnarə | 'pajnarɔ | — | |
girl | *… | ˈparaha- [CV] | *… | *-porawis | |
pigeon sp. | *parufa | parua [CV] | *parif[i] | *pari | |
see/look | *por[a]- | poro- [CV] | pora- [CV] | *por[a]- | *por- |
ask | *poro- | -pɔrɔ- | -pɔrɔ- | *por[o]- | — |
cassowary | *pu | pi | *pi | *pi | |
moon | *pura | puˈra | piˈra | *pira | *pira |
sea/coast | *puru | puru [CV] | piri [CV] | *piri | *piri |
sharp | *f[e/a]ro | feroko [CV] | *f[e/a]ro | *faro(t) | |
1 pl. | *nare | narɛ | narɔ | *nare | *naro |
1 sg. | *nore | nɔrɔ | nɔrɔ | *nore | *nor |
secret | *t[i/u]r[i/u]wa | tiriwa [CV] | *tiriw[a] | *Tiruw(a) | |
split (tr.) | *tere-me- | tere-me- [CV] | *tere-m[e]- | *terem- | |
flying fox | *tare | tare [CV] | *tare | *tare | |
old | *tarawu | akaˈraw-tə | tarai-ha [CV] | *tarawi | *tarej |
who? | *carV | -kare [CV] | *carV | *Tar | |
2 pl. | *care | karɛ | tarɔ | *care | *Tara |
sour | *si[t/c]are | tikaɾə | 'hitaj (?) | — | |
shoulder | *sairi | ˈtairi | ˈhiari | *sairi | *saji |
light (color) | *s[a]reco | hereto [CV] | *… | *sareT ~ *saroT | |
go down | *koro- | kɔrɔ-naw- | kɔrɔ-nafi- | *koro- | *kor(a)- |
sheet lightning | *w[a]raki | ˈuraki | *waraki | *warakaj | |
thunder | *wuru | wuru | *wiri | *wuru | |
rainbow | *jiri | 'iri | *jir[i] | *jir(i) | |
gall/bile | *jiri | i'ri | i'ri | *jiri | *jiri |
command | *jiri-mi- | iri-mi- | *jiri-m[i]- | *jirim- | |
cross river | *jira | ira- [CV] | *jirV- | *jir- | |
hornbill | *jiro | iiri [CV] | *jir[o] | *jiru | |
crooked | *jamerV | jamer [CV] | jame [CV] (?) | *jamerV | *jamer |
wing | *jaf[a]ro | jaˈru | *jaf[a]ro | *jaoro | |
go/walk | *jar[e]- | jare- [CV] | *jar[e]- | *jar- | |
heavy | *jutoro | *jutoro | *juturu ~ *jitoro | ||
dog | *juwuri | uˈuri | iwiri | *juw[i]ri | *juwuri |
w. cockatoo | *[j]urV | *jurV | *jur | ||
night | *jurama | ˈirama | *jurama | *jirama |
Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*-j- | j | j | *j | *j | |
new | *aji | 'aj-ku | *aji | ||
new | *ajasa | 'ajha | *ajas[a] | — | |
daughter | *[a]pija | pja | apja | ||
wide | *paj[a/o]ko | pa'jɔkɔ | pa'jakɔ | — | |
morning | *tamusija | ˈkaɔmutja | taməˈhɛ | — | |
palm cabbage | *wuija | wia [CV] | *… | *ˈwui |
… compounds …
… vowels …
Initial high back rounded vowel /*u/ …:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*u/#_ | u | ju i | *ju | *ju | |
man/male | *upuc[i/a] | ˈupuka | ˈipita | *j[u]pit[i] | *jipiTi |
goura pigeon | *ufo | ˈuu | i'ifɔ | *jufo | *jofo |
coconut | *usini | ˈutiri | ˈihini | *jusini | *jusini |
firewood/fire | *usa | uta | juˈha | *jusa | *jusa |
kunai grass | *uwa | *juwa | — | ||
sweat | *uwaputi | 'waputi | 'jɔpiti | — | |
name | *uwase | 'u-nata | ˈiwahɛ | *juwase | *juwas |
long | *urawa | i'rawa-kɔ | *… | *jurao |
Three seeming exceptions to this rule …:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*u/-_ | u | u | *u | *u | |
head | *ufu | u- [ufu] | u- | *ufu | *u- |
ashes | *umit[i/u] | *jawo-umiti | *jowomiTi | ||
older sister | *upuca | ˈupuka | ˈupita | *upica | *-ipiTa ~ *-upiTa |
One exception is probably a loan from Kamoro into Sempan:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*u/-_ | u | u |  ? | —*u | |
spear | *uruna | ˈuruna | ˈuruna | — |
Following initial palatal non-stop /*j/, /*u/ merges with /i/ in Kamoro and Sempan but remains /*u/ in Asmat:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*u/j_ | i | i | *u | *u | |
cold | *juFoko | ˈifakɔ | *juFoko | *jufo(-to/ko) | |
heavy | *jutoro | *jutoro | *juturu ~ *jitoro | ||
dark | *juwiti | ˈiiki | ˈiwiti | *juwiti | *jiwiTi |
night | *jurama | ˈirama | *jurama | *jirama |
One exception …:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*u/j_ | u | i | *u | *u | |
dog | *juwuri | uˈuri | iwiri | *juw[i]ri | *juwuri |
Voorhoeve (1980: 56) observes that clear examples of /*u/ are uncommon in his data.
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*u | u | i | *i | *i | |
centipede | *anu | aru [CV] | *ani | *ani | |
man/male | *uputa | ˈupuka | ˈipita | *j[u]pit[i] | *jipiTi |
lime | *mu | *mi | *mi | ||
root | *mumu | nuˈmu | miˈmi | *mimi | *mimi |
not/none | *muna | -ˈmuna | -ˈmɔna (?) | *.mina. | *min(a) |
mouse | *musu | muˈtu | miˈhi- | — | |
testicle(s) | *musa(-eake) | muta muˈta-eke [CV] | ˈmihakə | *misakV | *misaka |
pigeon sp. | *parufa | parua [CV] | *parif[a] | *pari | |
cassowary | *pu | pi | *pi | *pi | |
forehead | *mana-pun[i/u] | maˈna-pini | *mana-pini | *manapin | |
ripe | *puwu | puu | piˈwi | *piwi | *piwi |
moon | *pura | puˈra | piˈra | *pira | *pira |
sea/coast | *puru | puru [CV] | piri [CV] | *piri | *piri |
behind | *asapu | a'tapu | -ahapi | *asap[i] | *asap(e) |
man/male | *upuc[i/a] | ˈupuka | ˈipita | *j[u]pit[i] | *jipiTi |
older sister | *upuca | ˈupuka | ˈupita | *upica | *-ipiTa ~ *-upiTa |
white | *napu | napu [CV] | *napi | *napi | |
be extinguished | *sapu- | taˈpu- | hapi- | *sapi- | *sapim- |
door | *jumasapu | ˈimapu | ˈimahapi | *jumasapi | *jimasapi(ne) ~ jimasapu(ne) |
shadow | *jipu[ru] | ipu [CV] | ipi [CV] | *jipir[u] | *jipuru |
armpit | *jamopu | ˈjamapu | jamapi [CV] | *jamopi | *jamopi |
go down | *nafu- | -naw- | -nafi- | *nafi- | *naj-, *now- |
banana | *tafu | kaw | *tafi | — | |
foot/leg | *mawu | maw | maˈwi | *mawi | *maji ~ *mawi |
star | *mawuto | ˈmaakɔ | ˈmawətɔ | *mawito | *mawito |
child/son | *tewu | tiˈwi | *t[i]wi | *tiwi | |
old | *tarawu | akaˈraw-tə | tarai-ha [CV] | *tarawi | *tarej |
father | *witu | iku | wɔti | *witi | *-wiT, *-ote |
small | *j[i/u]wu | *jiwi | *jiwi | ||
sun | *jawu | jaw | jɔˈwi | *jawi | *jowe ~ *jowi |
Sequence /*ui/ (below) is not affected.
Oneapparent exception to this rule might be explained as onomatopoeic, but even so, /*u/ is fronted in several Asmat varieties (q.v. Drabbe 1963: 224-225, Voorhoeve 1980: 116) and should probably be reconstructed with /*i/:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | ||
*u/w_ | u | *i | *u | ||
thunder | *wuru | wuru | *wiri | *wuru |
A more intractable example …:
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*u/w_ | u | *u | *u | ||
flatulate | *pu-m | ˈahama pumu | *as pu-m | *asa pum- |
Sequences of high vowels /*iu *ui/ are reduced to /u/ and /i/ respectively in Kamoro and Sempan. Note that the reflexes of /*iu/ differ from those of /*ju/ (above):
Asmat-Kamoro | Kamoro | Sempan | Asmat | Voorhoeve | |
*iu | u | u | *iu | *iu | |
canoe | *tiu | ku | tu | *tiu | *Tiˈu |
*ui | i | i | *ui | *ui | |
smoke | *amuini | ˈimini | ˈamini | *amuini | *-amini~*amuni |
water | *mui | mi | mi | *mui | *muˈi |
bathe | *mui- | mi- | *mui- | *mui- | |
widow/widower | *fuisama | ˈfiama | *fuisam[a] | — | |
brain(s) | *kuisi | iˈti | isi | *kuisi | *kuisi |
palm cabbage | *wuija | wia [CV] | *… | *ˈwui |
Pronouns
[under construction]
Verbal morphology
[under construction]
Asmat-Kamoro languages have a complicated system of verbal desinences which indicate not only subjects but also objects as well as tense, mood and aspect.
…