Marind
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
The Marind family consists of as many as five closely related languages spoken by 6,000-7,000 people (1955) living in the plains along and inland from the coast from the Marianne Strait in the west to the Maro river to the east, just west of the Papua New Guinea border, in the Merauke, Muting, Kurik and Okaba subdistricts of the Merauke regency of Indonesia's Papua province (Boelaars 1950: 1, Drabbe 1955: 13; q.v. Drabbe 1955: 190, Nevermann 1939: 2, Kriens 2003: 5, Sohn 2006: 4, Sohn, Lebold and Kriens 2009: 7, Lebold, Kriens and de Vries 2010: 7.)
Drabbe (1955: 13-15) divides the coastal Marind area from east to west into five regions, Ngawir between the Papuan border and the Maro (Maroh,) Rahuk between the Maro and the Kumbe (Kumb) river, an unnamed region between the Kumbe and the Bian (Mbian) river, Dali between the Bian and the Bulaka (Mbulàka) river, and Imah between the Bulaka and Marianne Strait (Mulì.) Marind languages are also spoken inland along the Kumbe, Eli and Bian rivers.
The internal distribution of Marind languages suggests the family to have originated in the northeastern portion of their current range, an assumption in accord with the locations of Marind's nearest relatives, Yaqay-Warkay and Lake Murray (Boazi-Zimakani.) The reconstruction of Awyu in particular necessitates a history of contact with proto-Marind or proto-Marind-Yaqay, while the southward expansions of Awyu, Dumut and Lowland Ok occured in relatively recent times. It's also probable that Marind's vowel harmony rules, along with Marind-Yaqay's deocclusion of Fly River's bilabial fricative, codeveloped with those of Lowland Ok. Thus it is reasonable to assume that proto-Marind-Yaqay was originally spoken near where the southernmost Mandobo dialects are spoken today, just west of the Fly River along which the other members of the Fly River family were located.
More recently, the westernmost dialects have had extensive contact with and have significantly influenced the unrelated Bulaka River languages and the only distantly related languages of the Kolopom and South Marianne Strait families (q.v. Geurtjens 1933: 398-433,) while the southeast dialect has very significantly influenced Moraori, a Kolopom language that was very likely separated from its nearest relatives to the west by the southward intrusion of the Marind.
Subclassification
[under construction]
Drabbe (1955: 13-15) distinguishes five dialects of Marind with locations as follows:
Marind
Mbian – Bian river
Kumb – Kumbe river
Ooster (East) – coast east of the Maro river and between the Maro and the Kumbe
Wester (West) – coast between the Kumbe river and Marianne Strait
Atìh – Sangahè (Sanggase) village on the coast to Jaimu (Yawimu) inland of the West dialect region
Drabbe's fivefold division is supported by the results of recent surveys by members of the Summer Institute of Linguistics (Lebold, Kriens and de Vries 2010: 22-24, 27-29, 29-30.) It is our opinion that Lebold, Kriens and de Vries' (pp. 22-24) speaker judgments are more reliable than their lexical similarity calculations (pp. 27-29) and that the speech varieties of Makeling, Iwol and Alaku villages should be considered to belong to the West Marind dialect rather than with Atih.
The internal classification of Marind is as follows:
Marind
Bian River Marind
Central Marind
Kumbe River Marind
Southeast Marind
Atih
West Marind
Of these, (Upper) Bian River is the most lexically divergent, with the other four dialects forming a Central Marind subgroup. The Atih and West dialects are very similar phonologically …. West Marind is distinguished from Southeast Marind primarily by the dispositions of non-stops, which codevelop with those of Maklew of the Bulaka River family to the west. Kumbe River is distinguished from Southeast Marind primarily by the presence in Kumbe River of a number of vocabulary terms otherwise found only in Bian River, a chaining pattern which suggests some remaining degree of mutual comprehensibility between all varieties of Marind.
…isoglosses…:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West |
*… |
Sources
[under construction]
Ray (1907: 391-412) … comparative terms for Tugeri after Montague (n.d.)
van der Kolk and Vertenten (1922) dictionary of Marindineesch
van der Kolk (1926) Marindineesch kin terms
Geurtjens (1926) Marindineesch grammar (unobtained)
Geurtjens (1933: 46-350) dictionary of Marindineesch (Gawir, i.e. Southeast Marind,) (pp. 373-383) 591 comparative terms for Sangaseesch (Atih,) (pp. 385-395) 693 comparative terms for Boven-Biansch (Mbian) and (pp. 398-433) 455 comparative terms for Marindineesch, occasional Imâh (West Marind) terms throughout
Nevermann (1939: 15, …) … for Marind-anim (Southeast Marind)
Boelaars (1950: 1-18) English-language recension of Drabbe's unpublished grammar of Gawir (Southeast Marind)
Drabbe (1954: 99-117) grammar of Boven-Mbian of Kolam village and (pp. 128-142) 427 comparative terms for Boven-Mbian and Gawir (Southeast Marind)
Drabbe (1955: ibid.) grammar of East Marind of Urumb village and (pp. 148-151) 98 comparative terms for Ooster (East,) Wester (West,) Atih, Kumb and Mbian dialects
Donohue (1996) 159 comparative terms for Kuler (Southeast Marind) and Sanayu (Kumbe) villages
Sohn, Lebold and Kriens (2009: 31-42) 204 comparative terms for Matara village (Southeast Marind)
Lebold, Kriens and de Vries (2010: 46-56) 240 comparative terms for Alaku, (West Marind,) Ihalik (Atih,) Kaptel (A) and Sanggase (A) villages and 69 comparative terms for Alatepi (A,) Boepe/Kwemsid (A,) Dufmira (W,) Iwol (W,) Kaniskobat (A,) Makaling (W,) Nakias (A,) Okaba (W,) Poepe (A,) Tagaepe (A) and Wambi (W) villages
Olsson (2015) Marind verbal objects
Olsson (2015) 215 comparative terms for Duvmirav village (West Marind) in Carroll ed.
Olsson (2015) 912 terms for Wambi village (West Marind)
Olsson (2016) Marind resultatives
Olsson (2016) Marind gender
Historical phonology
[under construction]
Proto-Marind had 17 consonants and 5 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | |||
*p | *t | *k | ||
*b | *d | *g | ||
*mb | *nd | *ŋg | ||
*s | *h | |||
*w | *ɾ | *j | *ɣ |
*i | *u | |
*e | *o | |
*a |
The reflexes of nasals, stops and fricatives remain stable throughout the family, but the those of non-stops /*w *ɾ *j *ɣ/ vary substantially between dialects (q.v. Drabbe 1955: 14-15,) with the western dialects generally agreeing with Maklew and the northeastern ones with Boazi (q.v. Drabbe 1950: 566-574, 1954: 128-142, 1955: 148-151.)
The contrast between /*h *ɣ/ is unusual in New Guinea; here /*h/ reflects Fly River bilabial fricative /*ɸ/.
Internal distributions and comparison to other Fly River families suggest the contrast between plain voiced and prenasalized stops to be of relatively recent origin, with Fly River prenasalized stops /*mb *nd *ŋg/ yielding Marind /*b *d *ɣ/ initially and /*mb *nd *ŋg/ medially, the phonemic difference between the two having been established by loanwords from the Morehead River family to the east and compounding.
Drabbe (1954) distinguishes closed [e] <é> from open [ɛ] <e>, but this distinction is drawn by default throughout much of his New Guinea corpus, and in (1955: 15) is explicitly denied to be contrastive.
Any consonant can occur initially, medially or finally. There are no consonant clusters except across morpheme boundaries.
Any vowel can occur initially, medially or finally. Unlike consonants, vowels can occur sequentially. Vowel length is indicated in Drabbe (1954,) but in (1955: 15) is explicitly denied to be contrastive.
Stress falls on the final syllable of the root, as it does in the distantly-related Lowland Ok family to the northeast; Drabbe (1955: 16) characterizes this as a rise in pitch or tone. Trisyllablic roots receive secondary stress on the initial syllable, leading to syncope and the formation of medial consonant clusters in Mbian and Kumb. Probably most families with regular root-final stress reflect penultimate stress in words previously of the form /*(C)V'CVCV/, and in this instance we know this to be true from the absorption of pre-Fly River postposed gender articles /*e *u *i/ into the root (below) followed by the dropping of the articles; however, this may have already been the case by the time of proto-Fly River.
Diphthongs are phonetically distinguished from other vowel sequences by stress, as final sequences /*V₁V₂(C)/ are realized as [V₁'V₂(C)] but diphthongs as ['V₁ᵛ₂(C)]. Conversely, sequences /*ia *ua/, which are found only initially, are realized as semivowel-initial syllables [ja wa], as is the sequence /*ui/ [wi] if not preceded by a consonant. The distinction between these three types is secondary, as, despite the different assignment of stress, their qualities are in no instance contrastive. Which sequences are realized as diphthongs, which with initial semivowels and which as distinct syllables is predictable according to a ranking rule by which stress is preferentially assigned to the either the first or second member of the sequence in the following order: /*a *o *e *i *u/. The same order governs the assignation of stress in the diphthongs given for East Marind in Drabbe (1955: 15-16) with only one exception (below.) The phonetic realizations of observed vowel sequences are as follows:
*a | *o | *e | *i | *u | |
*a | — | ? | *aᵉ | *aⁱ | *aᵘ |
*o | *oa | — | ? | ? | *oᵘ |
*e | *ea | *eo | — | *eⁱ | ? |
*i | *ⁱa | ? | ? | — | *iᵘ |
*u | *ᵘa | ? | ? | *ᵘi/*ui | — |
As suggested by the realization of /*ui/ as [*ᵘi] or [*ui] depending upon whether it is root-initial or follows a consonant, it's probable that the distinction in stress between [*ᵘa *ⁱa] on the one hand and [*oa *ea *eo] on the other can be reduced to the conditioned variation of a single subtype. Drabbe's (1955: 150-151) comparative vocabularies give <eo> in initial /*eoɣ/ 2 pl., but this root as given as <ᵉoh> in the grammar of the East dialect (pp. 15-16,) and otherwise the difference between these two groups can be explained by the same rule which governs the disposition of /*ui/, as sequences /*ua *ia/ are attested only intially, while /*ea *oa/ have been observed only following consonants.
There are two remaining inconsistencies. The first is that Drabbe (p. 16) gives /*mui/ “flesh” as East [muⁱ] rather than [mu'i]. However, /*ŋgui/ “tail” is given as [ŋgu'i] in Mbian (1954: 136,) and diphthong [uⁱ] isn't otherwise indicated in the comparative vocabularies. The second is that what would otherwise be reconstructed as /*koi/ “lime” is given as [ko'i] in Sohn, Lebold and Kriens' Matara (2009: 34.) As Sohn et al. give Moraori [kwuoi] alongside it, it's probable that the Marind term was really /*kuoi/ or the like, as sequences of three vowels are not construed as single syllables.
Sequences which are realized as diphthongs are broadly similar in range to those of proto-Awyu, which does not otherwise allow sequential vowels. It's possible that contact with Awyu influenced the development of these segments in Marind.
Consonants correspond as follows:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West |
*m | m | m | m | m | m |
*n | n | n | n | n | n |
*p | p | p | p | p | p |
*t | t | t | t | t | t |
*k | k | k | k | k | k |
*b | b | b | b | b | b |
*d | d | d | d | d | d |
*g | g | g | g | g | g |
*mb | mb | mb | mb | mb | mb |
*nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd |
*ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg |
*s | s | s | s | s | s |
*h | h | h | h | h | h |
*w | v | v | v | hʷ | hʷ |
*ɾ | l | ɾ | ɾ | l | l |
*j | z | z | z | hʲ | hʲ |
*ɣ | ɣ | h | h | ʕ | ɣ |
Vowels and vowel sequences correspond as follows:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West |
*i | i | i | i | i | i |
*i₂ | a | i | i | i | i |
*u | u | u | u | u | u |
*u₂ | a | u | u | u | u |
*e | e | e | e | e | e |
*o | o | o | o | o | o |
*a | a | a | a | a | a |
*iu | iᵘ | iᵘ | iᵘ | iᵘ | iᵘ |
*ei | eⁱ | eⁱ | eⁱ | eⁱ | eⁱ |
*ou | oᵘ | aᵘ | aᵘ | aᵘ | aᵘ |
*ai | eⁱ | aⁱ | aⁱ | aⁱ | aⁱ |
*au | aᵘ | aᵘ | aᵘ | aᵘ | aᵘ |
*ae | aᵉ | aᵉ | e | e | e |
*ia | ia | ia | ia | ia | ia |
*ui | ui | ui | ui | ui | ui |
*ua | ua | ua | ua | ua | ua |
*eo | eo | eo | eo | eo | eo |
*ea | ea | ea | ea | aⁱa | aⁱa |
*oa | oa | ? | oa | ? | ? |
*V₁CV₁ | V₁CV₁ | V₁CV₁ | V₁CV₁ | V₁CV₁ | V₁CV₁ |
*aCV₁ | aCV₁ | aCV₁ | aCV₁ | aCV₁ | aCV₁ |
*V₁Ca | V₁Ca | V₁Ca | V₁Ca | V₁Ca | V₁Ca |
*iCu | iCi | uCu | uCu | uCu | uCu |
*CeCi | CeCi | ? | CaCi | ? | ? |
*CeCu | CeCu | ? | CaCu | ? | ? |
*CeCa | CeCa | CaCa | CaCa | CaCa | CaCa |
*oCi | uCi | uCi | uCi | uCi | oCi |
*haCV | hCV | haCV | haCV | haCV | haCV |
*ahV | hV | ahV | ahV | ahV | ahV |
*VCVCV | VCCV | VCCV | VCVCV | VCVCV | VCVCV |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with all attestations drawn from Drabbe (1954: 99-117, 128-142, 1955: ibid., 148-151) unless otherwise specified. Examples based solely upon (1954) will include attestations only in East and Mbian dialects; thus their lack of exemplification in other dialects is not necessarily meaningful.
Drabbe (1954) distinguishes open and close mid front vowels [ɛ e] as well as vowel length. Because these are not contrastive (Drabbe 1955: 15,) and aren't particularly indicative of anything else, they have been eliminated in our recapitulations below. Stress, while not consistently indicated, is shown here because it is sometimes contrastive due to inflection and compounding (Drabbe 1955: 16.) Drabbe's <r> is represented here as <ɾ>.
Boven-Mbiansch (Bian,) Gawir (Southeast Marind) and Sangaseesch (Atih) attestations drawn from Geurtjens (1933) are indicated with [hg]. Matara village (Southeast Marind) forms from Sohn, Lebold and Kriens (2009: 31-42) are indicated with [ms] and Atih and West Marind attestations from Lebold, Kriens and de Vries (2010: 46-56) as [rl]. These are simplified and regularized to conform with the orthographical conventions described above. West Marind forms drawn from Olsson (2015) are indicated with [bo].
…
For the purposes of our reconstruction below, our sources are correlated to dialects as follows:
Geurtjens | Drabbe 1954 | Drabbe 1955 | Lebold et al. | Sohn et al. | |
Bian River | Boven-Biansch | Boven-Mbian | Mbian | ||
Kumbe River | — | — | Kumb | ||
Southeast | Gawir | Gawir | Ooster | ||
Atih | Sangaseesch | — | Atih | ||
West Coast | Imâz | — | Wester |
Nasals /*m *n/ are invariable across dialects and occur in all positions.
Bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*m- | m | m | m | m | m | |
base/molar | *mit | mit | mit [+hg] | |||
be crooked (3 sg.) | *mik-e-w | mik-e-v [hg] | mik-e-ø [hg] | mik-e-h [bo] | ||
knee | *mig | mig | mig [+hg] | mig ~ mig̚ [rl] | mig [bo] | |
be sitting (sg.) | *miɾ | miɾ [hg] | mil [bo] | |||
village | *miɾaw | mi'laf | mi'ɾav [pd] miɾáv [hg] | mi'lah [rl] | milah [bo] | |
bow | *mij | miz | miz | miz [+hg] | mih | mih [+bo] |
tree sp. | *mijaɾ | mizaɾ [hg] | mihal [bo] | |||
know | *mea[i/e] | me'ai | me'ae [pd] méai [hg] | ma'jaj ~ mɛjaj [rl] | majaj [bo] | |
speech/voice | *mean | me'an | mean ~ men | me'an [pd] méen [hg] | majan [pd] ma'jan ~ mɛjan [rl] | majan [+bo] |
lean (3 sg.) | *me-ø-ab | mj-ab [hg] | me-ø-b [hg] | me-ø-b [bo] | ||
perfective | *mend- | mend- | mend- [bo] | |||
old/ripe/dry | *mes | mes | mes [+hg] | mes [rl] | mes [bo] | |
old woman | *mes iuag | 'mes-iwag | 'mes-iwag [pd] més-iwâg [hg] | mes-iwag [bo] | ||
way | *meŋg | meŋg [hg] | -meŋ [rl] | meŋ [rl] | ||
garden | *mVɾu | mulu [hg] | maɾu [+hg] | ma'lu [rl] | malu [bo] | |
future | *ma- | ma- | ma- [bo] | |||
braid(s) | *maiub | majub [hg] | majub [bo] | |||
sago bark | *mam | mam [hg] | mam [bo] | |||
lotus sp. | *mamat | mamat [hg] | mamat [bo] | |||
savanna | *mamui | mamui [hg] | mamuj [bo] | |||
rat | *mambit | ma'mbit [+hg] | mambit [rl] | |||
pinch/trap (3 sg.) | *matap-e-b | matap-e-b [hg] | matap-e-b [bo] | |||
shade/shadow | *matuɾ | matuɾ [hg] | matul [bo] | |||
come (sg.) | *ma[n] | ma | man | man [+hg] | man | man [+bo] |
wife's brother | *mandaɣ | manda [hg] | mandaɣ [bo] | |||
moon | *mandou | mandoᵘ ~ ma'ndow | mandaᵘ | mandaᵘ ~ ma'ndaw [pd] mandow [hg] | mandaᵘ | mandaᵘ [pd] mandaw [bo] |
lean/be bent (3 sg.) | *maset-o-k | masét-o-k [hg] | maset-o-k [bo] | |||
bend (tr.) | *masud | masud [hg] | masud [bo] | |||
bend (intr.) | *masuk | masuk [hg] | masuk [bo] | |||
earth/below | *mak[a/o]n | ma'kan | makon ~ makan | ma'kan | makan | makan |
egg | *magaw | ma'gaf | ||||
tooth/teeth | *maŋgat | maŋgat | maŋgat [+hg] | maŋgat | maŋgat [+bo] | |
get angry | *mahid | mahid [hg] | mahid [bo] | |||
dance | *mahai | mahai [hg] | mahaj [bo] | |||
far | *mahut | ma'hut | ||||
goura pigeon | *mahuk | mhuk | mahuk | mahuk [+hg] | mahuk | maɣuk [pd] mahuk [bo] |
Marind | *maɾi[n/nd] | maɾind [hg] | malin- [bo] | |||
rainbow | *maɾ[e/o]b | maleb [+hg] | maɾob [hg] | |||
plant sp. | *maɾ[o]b | maɾob [hg] | malob [bo] | |||
body decor. | *maɣi | mahi [hg] | maɣi [bo] | |||
first | *maɣai | maɣai ~ majĕ [hg] | mahai [hg] | maé [hg] | ||
mucus | *mo[m/mb] | mom | momb [pd] mómb [hg] | mom [bo] | ||
fruit | *mokom | mo'kom | ||||
widow/widower | *moɣa | 'moɣa | 'moha | |||
flesh/meat | *mui | mui ~ muj [pd} mui [hg] | mui | mui [pd] muj [bo] |
||
tree sp. | *mumb[a]ɾ[a] | mumbɾ [hg] | mumbala [bo] | |||
elbow | *muk | muk [+hg] | muk [+hg] | muk̚ ~ mug̚ [rl] | muk [bo] | |
buzz/hum | *muŋgew | muŋgev [hg] | muŋgeh [bo] | |||
*-m- | m | m | m | m | m | |
pandanus sp. | *iuma | juma [hg] | juma [bo] | |||
Imah | *imaj | imaz | imah | |||
sago petiole | *ij[e]mi | iz'mi [pd] izmi [hg] | izimi [hg] | ihémi [hg] | ihimi [bo] | |
hunger | *emeɾ | emeɾ [pd] eméɾ [hg] | emel [bo] | |||
grandfather | *amai | |||||
kunai grass | *omasa | oma'sa [+hg] | om'sa [rl] | umasa [bo] | ||
cloud/sky | *omom | o'mom [pd] óm-om [hg] | omom [rl] | omom [bo] | ||
spread mat | *omos | omos [hg] | omos [bo] | |||
sweet coconut | *uimap | wimap [hg] | wimap [bo] | |||
stand up (pl.) | *uaɣaman | wahaman [hg] | waɣaman [bo] | |||
leave (3 sg.) | *um-u-w | um-u-v | um-u-v | um-u-v [+hg] | um-u-h | um-u-h [+bo] |
lotus sp. | *mamat | mamat [hg] | mamat [bo] | |||
savanna | *mamui | mamui [hg] | mamuj [bo] | |||
termite mound | *bomi | bomi [hg] | bomi [bo] | |||
friend | *namek | namek | namek | |||
now/today | *nama | na'ma | nama ~ namha | nama | nama | nama |
animal | *namakud | namakud | namkud | |||
nipa palm | *temu | ta'mu [+hg] | ||||
nape | *temuk | te'muk | ||||
betel pepper | *dadami[h] | 'dad(ə)mi(h) [rl] | dadami [bo] | |||
orphan | *ndamom | da'mom | nda'mom | |||
scabies | *samani | 'samani | samani [+hg] | samani [bo] | ||
inside | *kVmaɣ | ke'maɣ | ku'mah | kumaɣ | ||
make | *kamin | ka'min | ka'min | |||
pick up (3 sg.) | *k-um-u-w | k-u'm-u-v | k-u'm-u-v [+hg] | |||
tusk of pig | *gom[a]n[a] | gomn ~ gomaɾ [hg] | gomna [bo] | |||
ashes | *gum[a]n[a] | gum | gum [+hg] | gu:mn ~ goᵘm [rl] | gumna [bo] | |
sago with fish | *ŋgaɾamo | gaɾamo ~ ŋgaɾamo [hg] | ŋgaɾamo [bo] | |||
sit down (pl.) | *haman | háman [hg] | haman [bo] | |||
remove clothes | *waman | vaman [hg] | hʷaman [bo] | |||
stand (one leg) | *waɣamin | vaɣmin [hg] | vahamin [hg] | |||
brain(s) | *ɣaum[o/u] | 'haumu [pd] haumó [hg] | ɣomu [bo] | |||
approach/meet | *ɣoman | hóman [hg] | ɣoman [bo] | |||
*-m | m | m | m | m | m | |
axe | *imbasom | imba'som [pd] basom ~ mbasom [hg] | 'imbasom [rl] | |||
tongue | *inum | i'nim | unum | unum ~ u'nom | unum | unum |
younger sib | *am | am | ||||
person/people | *anim | anim | anim [+hg] | a'nim [rl] | anim [bo] | |
man | *anem | anem | a'nem [md] | anem [+hg] | a'nem [rl] | anem [bo] |
woman | *anum | anum | a'num [md] | anum [+hg] | anum [rl] | anum [bo] |
cloud/sky | *omom | o'mom [pd] óm-om [hg] | omom [rl] | omom [bo] | ||
morning star | *owom | ovom [hg] | ohom [rl] | ohom [bo] | ||
sago bark | *mam | mam [hg] | mam [bo] | |||
fruit | *mokom | mo'kom | ||||
candlenut | *paium | pim [hg] | pajum [hg] | pajum [bo] | ||
pigeon sp. | *bewom | ve'vom [pd] bévom [hg] | behom [bo] | |||
cuscus sp. | *mbeam | be'am | bajam [hg] | mba'jam [rl] | mba'jam [rl] | |
come (pl.) | *naɣam | naham [+hg] | naɣam [bo] | |||
navel | *dekum | de'kum | da'kum | |||
orphan | *ndamom | da'mom | nda'mom | |||
wallaby | *saɣam | sa'ɣam | saham | sa'ham | saʔam | saɣam |
defecate | *keɾim | ke'lim | ka'ɾim | |||
husband | *jam | zam | zam | zam | ham | ham |
wife | *jum | zum | zum | zum | hʲum | hʲum |
belly | *ɣandam | handam | ha'ndam | andam | ɣandam |
Apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*n- | n | n | n | n | n | |
turtledove sp. | *nipu | nipu [hg] | nipu [bo] | |||
lie down (dist.) | *nin | nin [hg] | nin [bo] | |||
croton sp. | *nini | ni-ni [hg] | nini [bo] | |||
son's wife (add.) | *nikVn[e/a] | nikné [hg] | nikna [bo] | |||
mother | *ne | |||||
face | *neni₂h | ne'nah | na'nih | |||
excrement | *na | na | na | |||
friend | *namek | namek | namek | |||
now/today | *nama | na'ma | nama ~ namha | nama | nama | nama |
animal | *namakud | namakud | namkud | |||
banana | *napet | napet | napet | napet | napet | napet |
mosquito | *naŋgi₂t | niŋgit ~ niŋgat | naŋgit | na'ŋgit | naŋgit | naŋgit |
louse | *nahun | nhun | nahun [rl] | |||
neck/throat | *naɣ | naɣ | nah | |||
come (pl.) | *naɣam | naham [+hg] | naɣam [bo] | |||
1 sg. | *nok | nok | nok | nok | nok | nok |
young/new | *noɣ | noɣ | noh | |||
sleep | *nu | nu | nu | |||
*-n- | n | n | n | n | n | |
two | *inah | inah | inah | inah | inah | inah |
tongue | *inum | i'nim | unum | unum ~ u'nom | unum | unum |
sweat | *ena | e'na | e'na | |||
person/people | *anim | anim | anim [+hg] | a'nim [rl] | anim [bo] | |
3 pl. | *anip | anip | anip | anip | anip | anip |
man | *anem | anem | a'nem [md] | anem [+hg] | a'nem [rl] | anem [bo] |
3 sg. m. | *anep | anep | anep | anep | anep | anep |
woman | *anum | anum | a'num [md] | anum [+hg] | anum [rl] | anum [bo] |
3 sg. f. | *anup | a'nup | anup | a'nup | anup | anup |
cross cousin | *onos | onos [hg] | onos [bo] | |||
good | *uaniŋgap | wa'niŋgap | niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap |
body | *uahani | wah'ni | wahni | 'wahani [+hg] | wahani ~ wahni [pd] wohani [hg] | wahani |
shrub sp. | *bunaŋga | bunaŋga [hg] | bunaŋga [bo] | |||
croton sp. | *nini | ni-ni [hg] | nini [bo] | |||
son's wife (add.) | *nikVn[e/a] | nikné [hg] | nikna [bo] | |||
face | *neni₂h | ne'nah | na'nih | |||
shorebird sp. | *tena | téna [hg] | tena [bo] | |||
dark | *dino[h] | dinoh | dino | |||
ankle | *seniŋg | se'niŋg | sa'niŋg | |||
scabies | *samani | 'samani | samani [+hg] | samani [bo] | ||
bird sp. | *suɾin[ei/ai] | suɾinei [hg] | sulina [bo] | |||
areca nut | *kanis | kanis [hg] | ka'nis [rl] | kanis [bo] | ||
heavy | *k[e/a]niɾ | ka'niɾ [+hg] | ||||
egg/seed | *kana | ka'na | ||||
sun | *katane | katane | katane | katane | katane | katane |
urine/bile | *kon[o] | kon | ko'no | |||
bite | *hani₂ɣ | hnag | hani [pd] hanih [hg] | ha'nɛʔ ~ ha'neʔ [rl] | haniɣ [bo] | |
help | *ɣ[ei/ai]na | heina [hg] | ɣajna [bo] | |||
burn (intr.) | *ɣaunip | hónip ~ hunip [hg] | unip̚ [rl] | ɣunip [bo] χaunip̚ [rl] |
||
infant | *ɣ[o/u]naɣon | hon-a-hon [hg] | ɣunaɣon [bo] | |||
*-n | n | n | n | n | n | |
canoe | *iawun | ja'vun | javun | ja'vun | jahun | jahun |
expel from body | *in | in | in | |||
stand up (sg.) | *atin | atin | atin | a'tin [rl] | atin [bo] | |
flea | *as[a/o]bi₂n | asoban [hg] | asabin [hg] | asabin [bo] | ||
call | *aɾin | a'lin | a'ɾin | |||
tie up | *aɣun | ahun [hg] | ɛʔ'un ~ aʔun [rl] | aɣun [bo] | ||
liver | *on | on | on | |||
stand up (pl.) | *uaɣaman | wahaman [hg] | waɣaman [bo] | |||
speech/voice | *mean | me'an | mean ~ men | me'an [pd] méen [hg] | majan [pd] ma'jan ~ mɛjan [rl] | majan [+bo] |
earth/below | *mak[a/o]n | ma'kan | makon ~ makan | ma'kan | makan | makan |
thorn/needle | *ban | ban | ban [hg] | ban [rl] | ban [bo] | |
flatten/smooth | *mbin | bin ~ mbin [hg] | mbin [bo] | |||
lie down (dist.) | *nin | nin [hg] | nin [bo] | |||
grasshopper | *taŋgen | taŋgen [pd] taŋgèn [hg] | ||||
bandicoot sp. | *tuban | tu'ban | tu'ban [+hg] | tuban [bo] | ||
make | *kamin | ka'min | ka'min | |||
urinate | *kosun | ko'sun | ku'sun | |||
hear | *gan | gan | gan | gan | gan | gan |
take/receive | *han | han | han | han [+hg] | han | han [+bo] |
sit down (pl.) | *h[a/o]aman | hóman [hg] | haman [bo] | |||
watch closely | *weseun | véséwn [hg] | hʷesewn [bo] | |||
remove clothes | *waman | vaman [hg] | hʷaman [bo] | |||
dry in sun (3 sg.) | *wasak-e-un | vasak-é-wn [hg] | hask-e-un [rl] | hʷasak-e-wn [bo] | ||
open mouth | *wahin | vin [hg] | vahin [hg] | |||
stand (one leg) | *waɣamin | vaɣmin [hg] | vahamin [hg] | |||
plant shoot(s) | *ɾun | ɾun [hg] | lun [bo] | |||
shin | *jin | zin | zin [+hg] | hin [hg] | ||
be sated | *ɣadin | ɣadin | hadin [hg] | ɣadin [bo] | ||
leave behind | *ɣadeun | hadéwn [hg] | ɣadewn [bo] | |||
approach/meet | *ɣoman | hóman [hg] | ɣoman [bo] | |||
watch/guard | *ɣon | hon [hg] | ɣon [bo] | |||
infant | *ɣ[o/u]naɣon | hon-a-hon [hg] | ɣunaɣon [bo] |
It may be observed that a disproportionate number of roots with final /*n/ above are verbs, suggesting final /*-n/ to have been a suffix. In support of this hypothesis are several roots upon which final /n/ is found in either Mbian or the Central languages but is absent in the other subgroup, patterns which must otherwise be viewed as irregular:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*-[n] | n | ø | ø | ø | ø | |
say | *aɣi[n] | aɣin | ahi | ahi [+hg] | aʔi | ahi ~ aɣei [pd] aɣi [bo] |
*-[n] | ø | n | n | n | n | |
come (sg.) | *ma[n] | ma | man | man [+hg] | man | man [+bo] |
be hungry | *hu[n] | hu | hun |
Voiceless stops /*p *t *k/ are invariable across dialects and occur in all positions. Velar /*k/ is much more common than anteriors /*p *t/ (q.v. Geurtjens 1933: 169-227, 273-281, 312-326.)
Bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*p- | p | p | p | p | p | |
cheek | *pip | pip | pip [bo] | |||
greens sp. | *piɾu | piɾu [hg] | pilu [bo] | |||
intestines | *pe | pe [pd]; pé [hg] | pe [bo] | |||
vagina | *peɾa | pe'ɾa [pd] péra [hg] | pela [bo] | |||
head | *pa | pa | pa | pa [+hg] | pa | pa [+bo] |
candlenut | *paium | pim [hg] | pajum [hg] | pajum [bo] | ||
small | *papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs |
fin(s) of ray | *pandap[a]n[a] | pandabn [hg] | pandapna [bo] | |||
sago splints | *pandaɾ | pandaɾ [hg] | pandal [bo] | |||
leaf fan | *pandu | pandu [hg] | pandu [bo] | |||
frog sp. | *pakapak | pak-a-pak [hg] | pakapak [bo] | |||
liana sp. | *pageu | pagéw [hg] | pagew [bo] | |||
buttocks | *paŋga | pa'ŋga | pa'ŋga [+hg] | paŋga [bo] | ||
coconut spathe | *paɣa | paha [hg] | paɣa [bo] | |||
skin/bark | *paɾ | paɾ | paɾ [pd] páɾ [hg] | pal | pal [+bo] | |
bird sp. | *paɾi-paɾi | paɾi-paɾi [hg] | palpali [bo] | |||
ridge | *paɾe | paɾé [hg] | pale [bo] | |||
thin | *paɾapaɾ | pa'ɾapaɾ [pd] paɾ-a-paɾ [hg] | ||||
dry sand | *paɾup[a]ɾ[a] | paɾupɾ [hg] | palupla [bo] | |||
tuber sp. | *paɾu[ŋ/ŋg] | paɾuŋg [hg] | paɾuŋ [bo] | |||
new garden | *poia | poja ~ paja [hg] | po'ja ~ pojah [rl] | poja [bo] | ||
lizard sp. | *podapod | pod-a-pod [hg] | podapod [bo] | |||
feather(s) | *put | put [+hg] | put [+hg] | put [bo] | ||
*-p- | p | p | p | p | p | |
pinch/trap (3 sg.) | *matap-e-b | matap-e-b [hg] | matap-e-b [bo] | |||
small | *papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs |
frog sp. | *pakapak | pak-a-pak [hg] | pakapak [bo] | |||
thin | *paɾapaɾ | pa'ɾapaɾ [pd] paɾ-a-paɾ [hg] | ||||
lizard sp. | *podapod | pod-a-pod [hg] | podapod [bo] | |||
turtledove sp. | *nipu | nipu [hg] | nipu [bo] | |||
banana | *napet | napet | napet | napet | napet | napet |
heel | *tepod | te'pod | ||||
net | *kipa | ki'pa | ki'pa | |||
tie | *kipaɾud | kipɾud ~ kiplud | kipaɾud | kipalud | kipalud | |
cough/phlegm | *kepu₂ɾ | ke'pal | ka'puɾ [+hg] | kepul [rl] | kapul [bo] | |
heavy | *k[e/a]niɾ | ka'niɾ [+hg] | ||||
palm cockatoo | *kapiog | kapiog [hg] | kapiog [bo] | |||
dry | *kapaɾet | kapaɾét [hg] | 'kapalet [rl] | 'kapalet [rl] | ||
*-p | p | p | p | p | p | |
lip(s) | *itup | u'tup | ||||
3 pl. | *anip | anip | anip | anip | anip | anip |
3 sg. m. | *anep | anep | anep | anep | anep | anep |
3 sg. f. | *anup | a'nup | anup | a'nup | anup | anup |
nose | *aŋgi₂p | a'ŋgap | aŋgep ~ aŋgip | a'ŋgip | aŋgip | aŋgip |
sweet coconut | *uimap | wimap [hg] | wimap [bo] | |||
good | *uaniŋgap | wa'niŋgap | niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap |
cheek | *pip | pip | pip [bo] | |||
rattan | *tup | tup | tup | tup [+hg] | tup | tup [+bo] |
be thirsty | *dahip | dahip | ||||
cook in ground | *sep | sép [hg] | sep [bo] | |||
burn (intr.) | *ɣaunip | hónip ~ hunip [hg] | unip̚ [rl] | ɣunip [bo] χaunip̚ [rl] |
||
night | *ɣap | ɣap | hap | hap | ap | ɣap |
burst | *ɣadip | é-ɣaɾip [hg] | (a-)hadip [hg] |
Apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants.
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*t- | t | t | t | t | t | |
root | *te | te | te | |||
nipa palm | *temu | ta'mu [+hg] | ||||
nape | *temuk | te'muk | ||||
heel | *tepod | te'pod | ||||
hole | *teb | teb | ||||
belch | *tebak | tebak | ta'bak | |||
shorebird sp. | *tena | téna [hg] | tena [bo] | |||
nail/claw | *tek | tek | ték [hg] | tɛ(:)k̚ [rl] | ||
fire/firewood | *tekaw | tekav ~ te'kaf | takav | ta'kav | takah | takah |
foot | *tegu | tagu | ta'gu | tagu | ||
command | *teŋgiɣ | teŋgiɣ | taŋgi [pd] taŋgih [hg] | taŋgiɣ [bo] | ||
centipede | *tad[o/u] | ta'do | ta'du | |||
arrow | *taŋge | taŋge | taŋge | taŋge | taŋge | |
grasshopper | *taŋgen | taŋgen [pd] taŋgèn [hg] | ||||
wing | *tah | tah | ||||
full | *tahe[b] | taheb | ||||
lapwing sp. | *taɾe-taɾe | taɾé-taɾé [hg] | taltale [bo] | |||
tendon | *taɾagi | taɾagi | ||||
rattan | *tup | tup | tup | tup [+hg] | tup | tup [+bo] |
bandicoot sp. | *tuban | tu'ban | tu'ban [+hg] | tuban [bo] | ||
*-t- | t | t | t | t | t | |
root | *itit | ititi ~ i'tit [pd] it-it [hg] | ititi [pd] itit(ʰ) [rl] | ititi [pd] itit [bo] |
||
nail/claw | *itiɾ | i'tiɾ [+hg] | itil [bo] | |||
lip(s) | *itup | u'tup | ||||
chin | *ete | ete | ||||
salt/sea | *etob | |||||
stand up (sg.) | *atin | atin | atin | a'tin [rl] | atin [bo] | |
right (side) | *atow | |||||
many/all | *otiw | u'tiv | utiv | o'tiv | utih | otih |
kava | *uati | wati [hg] | wati [bo] | |||
plant sp. | *uati-uati | wati-wati [hg] | watiwati [bo] | |||
hibiscus sp. | *uakati | wakati ~ wokati [hg] | wakati [bo] | |||
long | *uagVtVk | wag_t_k ~ waga'tok | wag_t_k | wag_t_k | ||
fence | *uta | uta [hg] | u'taʔ ~ utah [rl] | uta [bo] | ||
pinch/trap (3 sg.) | *matap-e-b | matap-e-b [hg] | matap-e-b [bo] | |||
shade/shadow | *matuɾ | matuɾ [hg] | matul [bo] | |||
lean/be bent (3 sg.) | *maset-o-k | masét-o-k [hg] | maset-o-k [bo] | |||
mountain/hill | *baetoka | bato'ka | beto'ka | bɛtok- [rl] | betok [bo] | |
paradise sp. | *mbate[n/nd] | baténd [hg] | mbaten [bo] | |||
tree sp. | *mbot[a]ɾ[a] | bótr ~ mbótr [hg] | mbotla [bo] | |||
stone | *ketaɾ | ka'taɾ | katal | katal | ||
jungle fowl | *kata | ka'ta | ka'ta [+hg] | kata [bo] | ||
sun | *katane | katane | katane | katane | katane | katane |
miss shot | *haɾetok | haɾétok [hg] | haletok [bo] | |||
think (3sg.) | *wetok | vetok | ve'tok | hʷetok | hʷetok | |
Atih | *ɣatiw | hativ | atih | ɣatih | ||
*-t | t | t | t | t | t | |
root | *itit | ititi ~ i'tit [pd] it-it [hg] | ititi [pd] itit(ʰ) [rl] | ititi [pd] itit [bo] |
||
coconut | *oŋgat | o'ŋgat | oŋgat | o'ŋgat [+hg] | oŋgat | oŋgat [+bo] |
base/molar | *mit | mit | mit [+hg] | |||
lotus sp. | *mamat | mamat [hg] | mamat [bo] | |||
rat | *mambit | ma'mbit [+hg] | mambit [rl] | |||
tooth/teeth | *maŋgat | maŋgat | maŋgat [+hg] | maŋgat | maŋgat [+bo] | |
far | *mahut | ma'hut | ||||
feather(s) | *put | put [+hg] | put [+hg] | put [bo] | ||
orchid sp. | *bubahet | bub-ahet [hg] | bubahet [bo] | |||
sister's husband | *mbit | mbit [hg] | mbit [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *mbambit | bambit [hg] | mbambit [bo] | |||
banana | *napet | napet | napet | napet | napet | napet |
mosquito | *naŋgi₂t | niŋgit ~ niŋgat | naŋgit | na'ŋgit | naŋgit | naŋgit |
ear | *kembet | ke'mbet | kambet~kembet | kambet | kambet | kambet |
dry | *kapaɾet | kapaɾét [hg] | 'kapalet [rl] | 'kapalet [rl] | ||
nit(s) | *kajabit | kazabit [hg] | kahʲabit [bo] | |||
dog | *ŋgat | ŋgat | ŋgat | ŋgat [+hg] | ŋgat | ŋgat [+bo] |
Velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*k- | k | k | k | k | k | |
crocodile | *kiu | kiᵘ | kiᵘ | kiᵘ | kiᵘ | |
wind | *kiuaɾ | ki'waɾ | ||||
net | *kipa | ki'pa | ki'pa | |||
tie | *kipaɾud | kipɾud ~ kiplud | kipaɾud | kipalud | kipalud | |
eagle sp. | *kidub | kidub [hg] | kidub [bo] | |||
eye | *kind | kind | kind | kind | kind | kind |
winkle sp. | *kindin | kindin [hg] | kindin [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *kiwa | kiva [hg] | kihʷa [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *kiɾub | kiɾub [hg] | kilub [bo] | |||
cassowary | *k[ei/ai] | keⁱ | keⁱ | keⁱ | keⁱ | kaⁱ |
cough/phlegm | *kepu₂ɾ | ke'pal | ka'puɾ [+hg] | kepul [rl] | kapul [bo] | |
ear | *kembet | ke'mbet | kambet~kembet | kambet | kambet | kambet |
stone | *ketaɾ | ka'taɾ | katal | katal | ||
raw/unripe | *kendi | kend- | ka'ndi | |||
defecate | *keɾim | ke'lim | ka'ɾim | |||
heavy | *k[e/a]niɾ | ka'niɾ [+hg] | ||||
white cockatoo | *kai | kai ~ kaï [hg] | kʌj [bo] | |||
oriole sp. | *kaue-kaue | kawé-kawé [hg] | kaw(e)kawe [bo] | |||
make | *kamin | ka'min | ka'min | |||
palm cockatoo | *kapiog | kapiog [hg] | kapiog [bo] | |||
dry | *kapaɾet | kapaɾét [hg] | 'kapalet [rl] | 'kapalet [rl] | ||
fat/grease | *kabeɾ | kabel | kabeɾ | |||
raptor sp. | *kab[ei/ai] | kabai ~ kabei [hg] | kabaj [bo] | |||
tinea | *kambi | kambi [hg] | kambi [bo] | |||
watercress sp. | *kambaɾi | kambaɾi [hg] | kambali [bo] | |||
areca nut | *kanis | kanis [hg] | ka'nis [rl] | kanis [bo] | ||
egg/seed | *kana | ka'na | ||||
jungle fowl | *kata | ka'ta | ka'ta [+hg] | kata [bo] | ||
sun | *katane | katane | katane | katane | katane | katane |
goanna sp. | *kadewuk | kadivuk [hg] | kade'huk [rl] | kadihuk [bo] | ||
drum | *kandaɾa | ka'nda | kandra | kandara | kandala | kandala |
saliva/spittle | *kase | kase | kase | |||
break (wood) | *kagub | ka'gub | ka'gub | |||
die | *kahi[wV]d | kahivð | kahivd | kahid | kahid | |
go up | *kahek | khek | kahek [+hg] | kahek [bo] | ||
sweet potato | *kaw | kaf | kav [pd] káv [hg] | -kah [rl] | -kah [bo] | |
paddle (n.) | *ka-wai-a | kavea | kavea ~ kavia | kavi'a | kahe | kahʷaⁱa |
fish sp. | *kaɾambu | kaɾambu [hg] | kalambu [bo] | |||
sour | *kaj | kaz | kaz | |||
nit(s) | *kajabit | kazabit [hg] | kahʲabit [bo] | |||
sago beater | *ka-ɣawek | ka-havek [hg] | kaɣahʷek [bo] | |||
bittern sp. | *ko | kó [hg] | ko [bo] | |||
lime/white | *koi | koi | koi | koi | koi | |
throw away | *koag[i/e]n | koagen | koagin | |||
urine/bile | *kon[o] | kon | ko'no | |||
tree sp. | *kond | kónd [hg] | kond [bo] | |||
urinate | *kosun | ko'sun | ku'sun | |||
crayfish sp. | *kus | kus [hg] | kus [bo] | |||
snake sp. | *kuɾuam | kulwam [hg] | kuɾwan [hg] | kulwam [bo] | ||
waterfowl sp. | *kuɣu | kuhu [hg] | kuɣu [bo] | |||
*-k- | k | k | k | k | k | |
one | *ijako[d] | eska | iskad ~ iskod | izakod | sakod | heakod |
water | *adeka | adika ~ ada'ka | adka | adaka ~ adi'ka [pd] adaka [hg] | adaka | adaka [+bo] |
shrub sp. | *ake | aké [hg] | ake [bo] | |||
light (weight) | *akak | a'kak | a'kak | |||
snake | *ajaki | azaki | azaki | ahʲaki | ahʲaki | |
shorebird sp. | *uandako | wandakó [hg] | wandako [bo] | |||
hibiscus sp. | *uakati | wakati ~ wokati [hg] | wakati [bo] | |||
sharp | *uaɾoaka | 'waloaka | woɾo'waka | |||
be crooked (3 sg.) | *mik-e-w | mik-e-v [hg] | mik-e-ø [hg] | mik-e-h [bo] | ||
earth/below | *mak[a/o]n | ma'kan | makon ~ makan | ma'kan | makan | makan |
fruit | *mokom | mo'kom | ||||
frog sp. | *pakapak | pak-a-pak [hg] | pakapak [bo] | |||
heart/breath | *beakai | beake | be'kai [pd] békai [hg] | beke [rl] | bekaj [bo] | |
mountain/hill | *baetoka | bato'ka | beto'ka | bɛtok- [rl] | betok [bo] | |
Job's tears | *baba | ba-ba [hg] | baba [bo | |||
sea turtle sp. | *baba | ba-ba [hg] | baba [bo | |||
mouth | *babake | bake | babake | |||
old (person) | *bakau | ba'kaw | ||||
knob | *boka | bóka [hg] | boka [bo] | |||
nape/neck | *mbaku | mbaku [pd] baku [hg] | mbaku [bo] | |||
flying fox | *mboke | bokè [hg] | mboke [bo] | |||
son's wife (add.) | *nikVn[e/a] | nikné [hg] | nikna [bo] | |||
animal | *namakud | namakud | namkud | |||
fire/firewood | *tekaw | tekav ~ te'kaf | takav | ta'kav | takah | takah |
navel | *dekum | de'kum | da'kum | |||
short | *dohakVs | dokes | dokis | doha'k_s | dok_s ~ dahok_s | dohak_s ~ dahok_s |
luminescence | *ndaki-ndaki | daki-ndaki [hg] | ndakindaki [bo] | |||
paradise sp. | *sakiɾ | sa'kil | sa'kiɾ [+hg] | sakil [bo] | ||
sago vein (?) | *saɾaku | saɾaku [hg] | salaku [bo] | |||
star | *ndeku | ndaku | ||||
clearing | *hekai | hékai ~ heikai [hg] | hekaj | |||
smoke | *haku | ha'ku | ||||
dry in sun (3 sg.) | *wasak-e-un | vasak-é-wn [hg] | hask-e-un [rl] | hʷasak-e-wn [bo] | ||
river | *(a-)ɾik-i | li'k-i | rik-i | ri'k-i [hg] | a-lik-i | a-lik-i [+bo] |
*-k | k | k | k | k | k | |
break (stone) | *aehaɣok | aha'ɣok | eha'hok | |||
light (weight) | *akak | a'kak | a'kak | |||
accompany | *ahik | hi'kam | a'hik | |||
pull out | *ahok | ahók [hg] | ahok [bo] | |||
bundle | *aɣajak | ahazak [hg] | a:jak [hg] | |||
penis | *owi₂k | o'vak | u'vik | |||
tail | *uak | 'wak [md] | wak [hg] | wak [rl] | wak [bo] | |
long | *uagVtVk | wag_t_k ~ waga'tok | wag_t_k | wag_t_k | ||
run | *uaɾak | |||||
lean/be bent (3 sg.) | *maset-o-k | masét-o-k [hg] | maset-o-k [bo] | |||
bend (intr.) | *masuk | masuk [hg] | masuk [bo] | |||
frog sp. | *pakapak | pak-a-pak [hg] | pakapak [bo] | |||
grasp/hold | *bik | bik [hg] | bik [bo] | |||
pig | *basik | bihik ~ bhik | basik | ba'sik [+hg] | basik | basik [+bo] |
nape | *temuk | te'muk | ||||
nail/claw | *tek | tek | ték [hg] | tɛ(:)k̚ [rl] | ||
stork sp. | *ndik | ndik [hg] | ndik [bo] | |||
hit/beat | *sak | sak | sak | |||
bird sp. | *saɾuk | saɾuk [hg] | saluk [bo] | |||
go up | *kahek | khek | kahek [+hg] | kahek [bo] | ||
goura pigeon | *mahuk | mhuk | mahuk | mahuk [+hg] | mahuk | maɣuk [pd] mahuk [bo] |
elbow | *muk | muk [+hg] | muk [+hg] | muk̚ ~ mug̚ [rl] | muk [bo] | |
friend | *namek | namek | namek | |||
1 sg. | *nok | nok | nok | nok | nok | nok |
belch | *tebak | tebak | ta'bak | |||
bamboo knife | *sok | sok | sok | |||
goanna sp. | *kadewuk | kadivuk [hg] | kade'huk [rl] | kadihuk [bo] | ||
sago beater | *ka-ɣawek | ka-havek [hg] | kaɣahʷek [bo] | |||
miss shot | *haɾetok | haɾétok [hg] | haletok [bo] | |||
become loose | *haɾak | haɾak [hg] | halak [bo] | |||
lie down (pl.) | *hok | hók [hg] | hok [bo] | |||
think (3sg.) | *wetok | vetok | ve'tok | hʷetok | hʷetok | |
machete | *wak[a]ɾ[a] | va'kra [pd] vákɾ [hg] | ||||
flow/stream | *ɾik | rik [hg] | lik [bo] | |||
Rahuk | *ɾaɣuk | ɾahuk | laɣuk | |||
half-ripe | *jajak | zazak [hg] | hʲahʲak [bo] | |||
pound sago | *ɣawek | havek [hg] | ɣahʷek [bo] |
Plain voiced stops /*b *d *g/ are invariable across dialects and occur in all positions: Initial velar /*g/ is much less common than anteriors /*b *d/ (q.v. Geurtjens 80-97, 97-108, 121-128.)
Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*b- | b | b | b | b | b | |
anus | *bi | bi [hg] | bi [bo] | |||
grasp/hold | *bik | bik [hg] | bik [bo] | |||
petiole | *bi[ŋ/ŋg] | biŋg [hg] | biŋ [bo] | |||
heart/breath | *beakai | beake | be'kai [pd] békai [hg] | beke [rl] | bekaj [bo] | |
pigeon sp. | *bewom | ve'vom [pd] bévom [hg] | behom [bo] | |||
chest | *beɾ | bel | beɾ [+hg] | bel [bo] | ||
canoe pole | *beɣau | béhaw ~ béhéw[hg] | beɣaw [bo] | |||
greens sp. | *beɣob | béhob [hg] | beɣob [bo] | |||
mountain/hill | *baetoka | bato'ka | beto'ka | bɛtok- [rl] | betok [bo] | |
mouth | *babake | bake | babake | |||
thorn/needle | *ban | ban | ban [hg] | ban [rl] | ban [bo] | |
pig | *basik | bihik ~ bhik | basik | ba'sik [+hg] | basik | basik [+bo] |
old (person) | *bakau | ba'kaw | ||||
pufferfish | *baŋgaba[ŋ/ŋg] | baŋg-a-baŋg [hg] | baŋgabaŋ [bo] | |||
thigh | *baɣa | ba'ɣa | ba'ha | |||
breadfruit | *baɾau | ba'ɾaw [+hg] | balaw [bo] | |||
tail of crocodile | *bo | bó [hg] | bo [bo] | |||
termite mound | *bomi | bomi [hg] | bomi [bo] | |||
lake/swamp | *bob | bob [hg] | bob ~ mbobʰ [rl] | bob [bo] | ||
knob | *boka | bóka [hg] | boka [bo] | |||
plant sp. | *bu | bu [hg] | bu [bo] | |||
breast | *bub | bub | bub | bub [+hg] | bub | bub [+bo] |
orchid sp. | *bubahet | bub-ahet [hg] | bubahet [bo] | |||
shrub sp. | *bunaŋga | bunaŋga [hg] | bunaŋga [bo] | |||
tree sp. | *bud | bud [hg] | bud [bo] | |||
eucalyptus sp. | *bus | bus [hg] | bus [bo] | |||
cut animal | *bug | bug [hg] | bug [bo] | |||
boil (n.) | *buŋg[i] | buŋg | bu'ŋgi [+hg] | buŋgi [bo] | ||
*-b- | b | b | b | b | b | |
ibis sp. | *ebob | ebob [hg] | ebob [bo] | |||
flea | *as[a/o]bi₂n | asoban [hg] | asabin [hg] | asabin [bo] | ||
Job's tears | *baba | ba-ba [hg] | baba [bo | |||
sea turtle sp. | *baba | ba-ba [hg] | baba [bo | |||
pufferfish | *baŋgaba[ŋ/ŋg] | baŋg-a-baŋg [hg] | baŋgabaŋ [bo] | |||
orchid sp. | *bubahet | bub-ahet [hg] | bubahet [bo] | |||
belch | *tebak | tebak | ta'bak | |||
bandicoot sp. | *tuban | tu'ban | tu'ban [+hg] | tuban [bo] | ||
wet | *dubadub | daba'dub [pd] dab-a-dub ~ dub-a-dub [hg] | ||||
bamboo | *suba | suba | suba | |||
fat/grease | *kabeɾ | kabel | kabeɾ | |||
raptor sp. | *kab[ei/ai] | kabai ~ kabei [hg] | kabaj [bo] | |||
nit(s) | *kajabit | kazabit [hg] | kahʲabit [bo] | |||
pelican sp. | *jabug | zabug ~ -k [hg] | habug [hg] | hʲabug [bo] | ||
rat | *ɣabo | habó [hg] | ɣabo [bo] | |||
*-b | b | b | b | b | b | |
ibis sp. | *ebob | ebob [hg] | ebob [bo] | |||
salt/sea | *etob | |||||
armpit | *ab | ab | ab [+hg] | ab [bo] | ||
overtake | *aheb | aheb [hg] | aheb [bo] | |||
split open | *aɣab | ahab [hg] | aɣab [bo] | |||
plait (?) | *aɣajab | ahazab [bo] | a:jab [hg] | aɣahʲab [bo] | ||
bird | *ujub | uzub | uzub | uzub | uhʲub | uhʲub |
lean (3 sg.) | *me-ø-ab | mj-ab [hg] | me-ø-b [hg] | me-ø-b [bo] | ||
braid(s) | *maiub | majub [hg] | majub [bo] | |||
pinch/trap (3 sg.) | *matap-e-b | matap-e-b [hg] | matap-e-b [bo] | |||
greens sp. | *beɣob | béhob [hg] | beɣob [bo] | |||
lake/swamp | *bob | bob [hg] | bob ~ mbobʰ [rl] | bob [bo] | ||
rainbow | *maɾ[e/o]b | maleb [+hg] | maɾob [hg] | |||
plant sp. | *maɾ[o]b | maɾob [hg] | malob [bo] | |||
breast | *bub | bub | bub | bub [+hg] | bub | bub [+bo] |
hole | *teb | teb | ||||
wet | *dubadub | daba'dub [pd] dab-a-dub ~ dub-a-dub [hg] | ||||
eagle sp. | *kidub | kidub [hg] | kidub [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *kiɾub | kiɾub [hg] | kilub [bo] | |||
break (wood) | *kagub | ka'gub | ka'gub | |||
hush/appease | *hoɣeb | hóheb [hg] | hoɣeb [bo] | |||
take care of | *wagib | vagib [hg] | hʷagib [bo] | |||
hang | *waɣob | vahob [hg] | hʷaɣob [bo] | |||
douse | *wuseb | vuseb [hg] | huseb [hg] | huseb [bo] | ||
grandchild | *jeb | zeb | zeb |
Two of five examples of medial /*b/ above, /*tuban/ “bandicoot sp.” and /*kabeɾ/ “fat/grease”, are known to be loans from Yei of the Morehead River to the east.
Apical voiced stop /*d/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*d- | d | d | d | d | d | |
dark | *dino[h] | dinoh | dino | |||
forehead | *diŋg | diŋg | ||||
tree/wood | *de | de | de | de | de | de |
navel | *dekum | de'kum | da'kum | |||
sago | *da | da | da | da | da | da |
bird sp. | *dai | dai [hg] | daj [bo] | |||
spear | *da[m/mb] | damb | dam | dam [+hg] | dam | dam |
grandmother | *dada | da'da | ||||
betel pepper | *dadami[h] | 'dad(ə)mi(h) [rl] | dadami [bo] | |||
be thirsty | *dahip | dahip | ||||
mud | *daɾoh | daɾóh [hg] | dalo ~ daloh [rl] | dalo [bo] | ||
blood | *do | do | do | do | do | do |
short | *dohakVs | dokes | dokis | doha'k_s | dok_s ~ dahok_s | dohak_s ~ dahok_s |
wet | *dubadub | daba'dub [pd] dab-a-dub ~ dub-a-dub [hg] | ||||
butterfly | *dud | dud | ||||
coast/beach | *duw | duv | duh | duh | ||
shy | *duɾ | dul | duɾ | |||
*-d- | d | d | d | d | d | |
see | *idih | idih | idih | i'dih | idih | idih |
water | *adeka | adika ~ ada'ka | adka | adaka ~ adi'ka [pd] adaka [hg] | adaka | adaka [+bo] |
bathe | *[a]dug | udag | udug | |||
cheek | *aɣadiɾ | ahadir [hg] | a:dil [hg] | |||
lizard sp. | *podapod | pod-a-pod [hg] | podapod [bo] | |||
centipede | *tad[o/u] | ta'do | ta'du | |||
grandmother | *dada | da'da | ||||
betel pepper | *dadami[h] | 'dad(ə)mi(h) [rl] | dadami [bo] | |||
wet | *dubadub | daba'dub [pd] dab-a-dub ~ dub-a-dub [hg] | ||||
cold | *s[a/o]sode[h] | sosdeh | sasode | |||
eagle sp. | *kidub | kidub [hg] | kidub [bo] | |||
goanna sp. | *kadewuk | kadivuk [hg] | kade'huk [rl] | kadihuk [bo] | ||
straight | *ɣaedeha | 'ɣaedeha | he'da | |||
burst | *ɣadip | é-ɣaɾip [hg] | (a-)hadip [hg] | |||
be sated | *ɣadin | ɣadin | hadin [hg] | ɣadin [bo] | ||
leave behind | *ɣadeun | hadéwn [hg] | ɣadewn [bo] | |||
frog | *ɣadoɾo | adolo | ɣadolo | |||
*-d | d | d | d | d | d | |
be sleepy | *-ihid | -i'hid [+hg] | -ihid [bo] | |||
sit down (sg.) | *ambid | ambid | ambid | |||
father (add.) | *ad | ad [hg] | ad [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *ad | ad [hg] | ad [bo] | |||
laugh | *awed | aved | ||||
sugarcane | *od | od | od | od | od | od |
long | *ogid | u'gid | ugid | ogi [sic] | ||
be sleepy (3sg.) | *u-ihid | wi'hid [+hg] | uihid [bo] | |||
net bag | *uad | wad [hg] | wad [rl] | wad [bo] | ||
bend (tr.) | *masud | masud [hg] | masud [bo] | |||
get angry | *mahid | mahid [hg] | mahid [bo] | |||
lizard sp. | *podapod | pod-a-pod [hg] | podapod [bo] | |||
tree sp. | *bud | bud [hg] | bud [bo] | |||
animal | *namakud | namakud | namkud | |||
heel | *tepod | te'pod | ||||
butterfly | *dud | dud | ||||
tie | *kipaɾud | kipɾud ~ kiplud | kipaɾud | kipalud | kipalud | |
die | *kahi[wV]d | kahivð | kahivd | kahid | kahid | |
play | *hai[e/a]d | hajed [hg] | hajad [bo] | |||
miss/pass | *haɾad | aɾad ~ haɾad [hg] | halad [bo] | |||
light/bright | *ɣad | ɣa'da | -had | |||
become clear (?) | *ɣajad | hazad [hg] | ɣahʲad [bo] | |||
make fence | *ɾod | lo'd-a | ɾod-a [pd] ɾód [hg] | lod [bo] | ||
pour | *ɾuɣad | ɾuad ~ ɾuhad [hg] | luɣad [bo] | |||
vomit | *ɣod | ɣod | hod [hg] | ɣod [bo] |
Velar voiced stop /*g/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*g- | g | g | g | g | g | |
turtle sp. | *gau | gaw | gaw [hg] | gaw [bo] | ||
hear | *gan | gan | gan | gan | gan | gan |
shoulder | *gaɾg[e]ɾa | gaɾ'geɾa | ||||
tusk of pig | *gom[a]n[a] | gomn ~ gomaɾ [hg] | gomna [bo] | |||
ashes | *gum[a]n[a] | gum | gum [+hg] | gu:mn ~ goᵘm [rl] | gumna [bo] | |
creeper sp. | *guɾi | guɾi [hg] | guli [bo] | |||
*-g- | g | g | g | g | g | |
name | *igij | i'giz | i'giz | |||
long | *ogid | u'gid | ugid | ogi | ||
long | *uagVtVk | wag_t_k ~ waga'tok | wag_t_k | wag_t_k | ||
skin | *ugu | u'gu | ||||
egg | *magaw | ma'gaf | ||||
liana sp. | *pageu | pagéw [hg] | pagew [bo] | |||
foot | *tegu | tagu | ta'gu | tagu | ||
tendon | *taɾagi | taɾagi | ||||
break (inan.) | *kag-ub | ka'g-ub | ka'g-ub [+hg] | kag-ub [bo] | ||
throw away (3 sg.) | *ko-ag-e-n | ko-ag-e-n | ko-ag-e-n | |||
shoulder | *gaɾg[e]ɾa | gaɾ'geɾa | ||||
take care of | *wagib | vagib [hg] | hʷagib [bo] | |||
*-g | g | g | g | g | g | |
young woman | *iuag | -iwag | -iwag [pd] iwâg [hg] | iwag [rl] | iwag [bo] | |
dig | *eg | eg | eg | |||
bathe | *[a]dug | udag | udug | |||
do | *og | og | og | og | og | og |
beg | *uihig | wihig ~ wig [hg] | wig [bo] | |||
knee | *mig | mig | mig [+hg] | mig ~ mig̚ [rl] | mig [bo] | |
old woman | *mes iuag | 'mes-iwag | 'mes-iwag [pd] més-iwâg [hg] | mes-iwag [bo] | ||
cut animal | *bug | bug [hg] | bug [bo] | |||
palm cockatoo | *kapiog | kapiog [hg] | kapiog [bo] | |||
coucal sp. | *ɾaɾag | ɾaɾag [hg] | lalag [bo] | |||
almond tree | *ɾug | ɾug [hg] | lug [bo] | |||
pelican sp. | *jabug | zabug ~ -k [hg] | habug [hg] | hʲabug [bo] | ||
light fire | *ɣausig | hu'sig [pd] hausig ~ husig [hg] | ɣosig [bo] |
Prenasalized stops /*mb *nd *ŋg/ are generally invariable across dialects and occur in all positions. Initial prenasalized stops are relatively uncommon (q.v. Geurtjens 1933: 238-241, 253-254, 255-258) and are sometimes heard as plain voiced stops [b d g]. Final prenasalized stops are also uncommon. Prenasalized stops are much more common medially then they are initially or finally.
Bilabial prenasalized stop /*mb/ is retained as such in all descendants. One initial example is heard as plain voiced stop [b] in Mbian:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*mb- | mb [mb b] | mb | mb | mb | mb | |
flatten/smooth | *mbin | bin ~ mbin [hg] | mbin [bo] | |||
sister's husband | *mbit | mbit [hg] | mbit [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *mbisambis | mbis-a-mbis [hg] | mbisambis [bo] | |||
seagull sp. | *mbiɾu | biɾu [hg] | mbilu [bo] | |||
cuscus sp. | *mbeam | be'am | bajam [hg] | mba'jam [rl] | mba'jam [rl] | |
stone axe | *mbeɾi | mbeli | mbeli | mbe'ɾi | mbeli | mbeli ~ mbel |
fish sp. | *mbambit | bambit [hg] | mbambit [bo] | |||
paradise sp. | *mbate[n/nd] | baténd [hg] | mbaten [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *mbaɣoɾ | bahoɾ [hg] | mbaɣol [bo] | |||
flying fox | *mboke | bokè [hg] | mboke [bo] | |||
louse | *mba[m/mb] | mbamb [pd] bamb [hg] | mbam [bo] | |||
nape/neck | *mbaku | mbaku [pd] baku [hg] | mbaku [bo] | |||
armband sp. | *mbaɾaɾ | mbaɾaɾ [hg] | mbalal [bo] | |||
tree sp. | *mbot[a]ɾ[a] | bótr ~ mbótr [hg] | mbotla [bo] | |||
gills | *mbu[m/mb] | bumb ~ mbumb [hg] | mbum [bo] | |||
fly (n.) | *mbuɾambuɾ | mbaɾa'mbuɾ [pd] mbuɾ-a-mbuɾ [hg] | mbulambul [bo] | |||
*-mb- | mb | mb | mb | mb | mb | |
axe | *imbasom | imba'som [pd] basom ~ mbasom [hg] | 'imbasom [rl] | |||
rib(s)/side | *emba | e'mba | emba | |||
sit down (sg.) | *ambid | ambid | ambid | |||
leech | *ambai | a'mbai | ||||
scrotum | *ombo | ombo | o'mbo [pd] ombó [hg] | ombo [bo] | ||
rat | *mambit | ma'mbit [+hg] | mambit [rl] | |||
tree sp. | *mumb[a]ɾ[a] | mumbɾ [hg] | mumbala [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *mbisambis | mbis-a-mbis [hg] | mbisambis [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *mbambit | bambit [hg] | mbambit [bo] | |||
fly (n.) | *mbuɾambuɾ | mbaɾa'mbuɾ [pd] mbuɾ-a-mbuɾ [hg] | mbulambul [bo] | |||
ear | *kembet | ke'mbet | kambet~kembet | kambet | kambet | kambet |
tinea | *kambi | kambi [hg] | kambi [bo] | |||
watercress sp. | *kambaɾi | kambaɾi [hg] | kambali [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *kaɾambu | kaɾambu [hg] | kalambu [bo] | |||
headdress sp. | *jimbu | zimbu [hg] | himbu [hg] | himbu [bo] | ||
thick | *jumbVju[m/mb] | zumba'zum [pd] zumb-a-zumb [hg] | ||||
*-mb | mb | mb | mb | mb | mb | |
big | *samb | samb | samb | samb | samb | samb |
taro | *kemb | kemb ~ kemb | kemb | kemb | kemb | kemb |
(For initial /*mb/ in “cuscus” cf. Yaqay ['mboeam] id. (Drabbe 1954: 136.))
Apical prenasalized stop /*nd/ is retained as such in all descendants. One initial example is heard as plain voiced stop [d] in Mbian:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*nd- | nd [nd d] | nd | nd | nd | nd | |
stork sp. | *ndik | ndik [hg] | ndik [bo] | |||
star | *ndeku | ndaku | ||||
orphan | *ndamom | da'mom | nda'mom | |||
luminescence | *ndaki-ndaki | daki-ndaki [hg] | ndakindaki [bo] | |||
sarus crane | *ndaɾau | daɾaw [hg] | ndalaw [bo] | |||
foam | *ndaɾo[m/mb] | daɾómb [hg] | dalom [bo] | |||
rope | *ndo[n/nd] | ndónd [hg] | nɖɔ:nd ~ ndon [rl] | ndon [bo] nɖɔ:nd [rl] |
||
*-nd- | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | |
bird sp. | *ende[n/nd] | endénd [hg] | enden [bo] | |||
shorebird sp. | *uandako | wandakó [hg] | wandako [bo] | |||
perfective | *mend- | mend- | mend- [bo] | |||
wife's brother | *mandaɣ | manda [hg] | mandaɣ [bo] | |||
moon | *mandou | mandoᵘ ~ ma'ndow | mandaᵘ | mandaᵘ ~ ma'ndaw [pd] mandow [hg] | mandaᵘ | mandaᵘ [pd] mandaw [bo] |
fin(s) of ray | *pandap[a]n[a] | pandabn [hg] | pandapna [bo] | |||
sago splints | *pandaɾ | pandaɾ [hg] | pandal [bo] | |||
leaf fan | *pandu | pandu [hg] | pandu [bo] | |||
winkle sp. | *kindin | kindin [hg] | kindin [bo] | |||
raw/unripe | *kendi | kend- | ka'ndi | |||
drum | *kandaɾa | ka'nda | kandra | kandara | kandala | kandala |
belly | *ɣandam | handam | ha'ndam | andam | ɣandam | |
*-nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | |
eye | *kind | kind | kind | kind | kind | kind |
tree sp. | *kond | kónd [hg] | kond [bo] |
Velar prenasalized stop /*ŋg/ is generally retained as such in all descendants. One initial example is heard as plain voiced stop [g] in the East dialect:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*ŋg- | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg [ŋg g] | ŋg | ŋg | |
dog | *ŋgat | ŋgat | ŋgat | ŋgat [+hg] | ŋgat | ŋgat [+bo] |
unripe fruit | *ŋgaɾ | ŋgáɾ [hg] | ŋgal [bo] | |||
sago with fish | *ŋgaɾamo | gaɾamo ~ ŋgaɾamo [hg] | ŋgaɾamo [bo] | |||
tree sp. | *ŋgaɾasaɾ | ŋgaɾsaɾ [hg] | ŋgalasal [bo] | |||
nibung palm | *ŋgoŋgai | góŋgai ~ ŋgo-ŋgai [hg] | ŋgoŋgaj [bo] | |||
leaf | *ŋgoɾ | ŋgoɾ [pd] ŋgóɾ [hg] | ŋgol | ŋgol [+bo] | ||
tail | *ŋgui | ŋgu'i | gui [pd] ŋgui [hg] | ŋguj [bo] | ||
crab sp. | *ŋgus | gus [hg] | ŋgus [hg] | ŋgus [bo] | ||
*-ŋg- | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | |
nose | *aŋgi₂p | a'ŋgap | aŋgep ~ aŋgip | a'ŋgip | aŋgip | aŋgip |
coconut | *oŋgat | o'ŋgat | oŋgat | o'ŋgat [+hg] | oŋgat | oŋgat [+bo] |
good | *uaniŋgap | wa'niŋgap | niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap |
tooth/teeth | *maŋgat | maŋgat | maŋgat [+hg] | maŋgat | maŋgat [+bo] | |
buzz/hum | *muŋgew | muŋgev [hg] | muŋgeh [bo] | |||
buttocks | *paŋga | pa'ŋga | pa'ŋga [+hg] | paŋga [bo] | ||
pufferfish | *baŋgaba[ŋ/ŋg] | baŋg-a-baŋg [hg] | baŋgabaŋ [bo] | |||
shrub sp. | *bunaŋga | bunaŋga [hg] | bunaŋga [bo] | |||
mosquito | *naŋgi₂t | niŋgit ~ niŋgat | naŋgit | na'ŋgit | naŋgit | naŋgit |
command | *teŋgiɣ | teŋgiɣ | taŋgi [pd] taŋgih [hg] | taŋgiɣ [bo] | ||
arrow | *taŋge | taŋge | taŋge | taŋge | taŋge | |
grasshopper | *taŋgen | taŋgen [pd] taŋgèn [hg] | ||||
stone | *seŋga | se'ŋga | seŋga | |||
hand/palm | *seŋga | se'ŋga | saŋga | sa'ŋga | saŋga | saŋga |
Sanggase | *saŋgaje | saŋgaze | saŋgahe | |||
palm sp. | *saɾiŋga | saɾiŋga [hg] | saliŋga [bo] | |||
nibung palm | *ŋgoŋgai | góŋgai ~ ŋgo-ŋgai [hg] | ŋgoŋgaj [bo] | |||
*-ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | |
way | *meŋg | meŋg [hg] | -meŋ [rl] | meŋ [rl] | ||
tuber sp. | *paɾu[ŋ/ŋg] | paɾuŋg [hg] | paɾuŋ [bo] | |||
pufferfish | *baŋgaba[ŋ/ŋg] | baŋg-a-baŋg [hg] | baŋgabaŋ [bo] | |||
forehead | *diŋg | diŋg | ||||
ankle | *seniŋg | se'niŋg | sa'niŋg | |||
bamboo sp. | *so[ŋ/ŋg] | soŋg [hg] | soŋ [bo] |
The word /*ŋgat/ “dog”, while found in other branches of Fly River (with irregular correpondences,) is a loan from Morehead River, as is “star” (though it's also found in Lake Murray.)
In a number of roots, a final prenasalized stop /*mb *nd *ŋg/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*-[m/mb] | ||||||
mucus | *mo[m/mb] | mom | momb [pd] mómb [hg] | mom [bo] | ||
louse | *mba[m/mb] | mbamb [pd] bamb [hg] | mbam [bo] | |||
gills | *mbu[m/mb] | bumb ~ mbumb [hg] | mbum [bo] | |||
spear | *da[m/mb] | damb | dam | dam [+hg] | dam | dam |
foam | *ndaɾo[m/mb] | daɾómb [hg] | dalom [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *si[m/mb] | simb [hg] | sim [bo] | |||
fornication | *jo[m/mb] | zom [pd] zómb [hg] | hʲom͜b [bo] | |||
thick | *jumbVju[m/mb] | zumba'zum [pd] zumb-a-zumb [hg] | ||||
*-[n/nd] | ||||||
bird sp. | *ende[n/nd] | endénd [hg] | enden [bo] | |||
Marind | *maɾi[n/nd] | maɾind [hg] | malin- [bo] | |||
paradise sp. | *mbate[n/nd] | baténd [hg] | mbaten [bo] | |||
rope | *ndo[n/nd] | ndónd [hg] | nɖɔ:nd ~ ndon [rl] | ndon [bo] nɖɔ:nd [rl] |
||
*-[ŋ/ŋg] | ||||||
tuber sp. | *paɾu[ŋ/ŋg] | paɾuŋg [hg] | paɾuŋ [bo] | |||
petiole | *bi[ŋ/ŋg] | biŋg [hg] | biŋ [bo] | |||
pufferfish | *baŋgaba[ŋ/ŋg] | baŋg-a-baŋg [hg] | baŋgabaŋ [bo] | |||
bamboo sp. | *so[ŋ/ŋg] | soŋg [hg] | soŋ [bo] |
Fricatives /*s *h/ are invariable across dialects and occur in all positions.
Fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*s- | s | s | s | s | s | |
bird sp. | *si[m/mb] | simb [hg] | sim [bo] | |||
sago w/banana | *siw | siv [hg] | sihʷ [bo] | |||
cook in ground | *sep | sép [hg] | sep [bo] | |||
back | *sew | sef [pd] sév [hg] | sev'ta [pd] sévt ~ séwt [hg] | sews [bo] | ||
stone | *seŋga | se'ŋga | seŋga | |||
ankle | *seniŋg | se'niŋg | sa'niŋg | |||
hand/palm | *seŋga | se'ŋga | saŋga | sa'ŋga | saŋga | saŋga |
sand | *sa | sa | sa | sa | sa | |
work | *saesaɣi | sasa'hi | sesahi [pd] sa-sahi [hg] | sasaɣi [bo] | ||
scabies | *samani | 'samani | samani [+hg] | samani [bo] | ||
big | *samb | samb | samb | samb | samb | samb |
hit/beat | *sak | sak | sak | |||
paradise sp. | *sakiɾ | sa'kil | sa'kiɾ [+hg] | sakil [bo] | ||
Sanggase | *saŋgaje | saŋgaze | saŋgahe | |||
palm sp. | *saɾiŋga | saɾiŋga [hg] | saliŋga [bo] | |||
coconut flower | *saɾeɣ | saréh [hg] | saleɣ [bo] | |||
prawn sp. | *saɾeɣ | saréh [hg] | saleɣ [bo] | |||
sago vein (?) | *saɾaku | saɾaku [hg] | salaku [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *saɾuk | saɾuk [hg] | saluk [bo] | |||
wallaby | *saɣam | sa'ɣam | saham | sa'ham | saʔam | saɣam |
bamboo knife | *sok | sok | sok | |||
cold | *s[a/o]sode[h] | sosdeh | sasode | |||
mourning band | *soia | sója [hg] | ||||
bamboo sp. | *so[ŋ/ŋg] | soŋg [hg] | soŋ [bo] | |||
bamboo | *suba | suba | suba | |||
bird sp. | *suɾin[ei/ai] | suɾinei [hg] | sulina [bo] | |||
*-s- | s | s | s | s | s | |
axe | *imbasom | imba'som [pd] basom ~ mbasom [hg] | 'imbasom [rl] | |||
path | *isas | i'sas | i'sas | |||
nest | *ewesa | wefe'sa | evesa | |||
sneeze | *asi | asi | ||||
flea | *as[a/o]bi₂n | asoban [hg] | asabin [hg] | asabin [bo] | ||
tear(s) | *awasi | af'si | avasi | |||
kunai grass | *omasa | oma'sa [+hg] | om'sa [rl] | umasa [bo] | ||
old woman | *mes iuag | 'mes-iwag | 'mes-iwag [pd] més-iwâg [hg] | mes-iwag [bo] | ||
lean/be bent (3 sg.) | *maset-o-k | masét-o-k [hg] | maset-o-k [bo] | |||
bend (tr.) | *masud | masud [hg] | masud [bo] | |||
bend (intr.) | *masuk | masuk [hg] | masuk [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *mbisambis | mbis-a-mbis [hg] | mbisambis [bo] | |||
work | *saesaɣi | sasa'hi | sesahi [pd] sa-sahi [hg] | sasaɣi [bo] | ||
cold | *s[a/o]sode[h] | sosdeh | sasode | |||
saliva/spittle | *kase | kase | kase | |||
urinate | *kosun | ko'sun | ku'sun | |||
tree sp. | *ŋgaɾasaɾ | ŋgaɾsaɾ ~ gaɾsaɾ [hg] | ŋgalasal [bo] | |||
watch closely | *weseun | véséwn [hg] | hʷesewn [bo] | |||
dry in sun (3 sg.) | *wasak-e-un | vasak-é-wn [hg] | hask-e-un [rl] | hʷasak-e-wn [bo] | ||
douse | *wuseb | vuseb [hg] | huseb [hg] | huseb [bo] | ||
light fire | *ɣausig | hu'sig [pd] hausig ~ husig [hg] | ɣosig [bo] | |||
hop/jump | *ɣosew | hosév [hg] | ɣoseh [bo] | |||
*-s | s | s | s | s | s | |
path | *isas | i'sas | i'sas | |||
pull out | *awus | avus [hg] | ahus [bo] | |||
spread mat | *omos | omos [hg] | omos [bo] | |||
cross cousin | *onos | onos [hg] | onos [bo] | |||
old/ripe/dry | *mes | mes | mes [+hg] | mes [rl] | mes [bo] | |
small | *papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs |
eucalyptus sp. | *bus | bus [hg] | bus [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *mbisambis | mbis-a-mbis [hg] | mbisambis [bo] | |||
short | *dohakVs | dokes | dokis | doha'k_s | dok_s ~ dahok_s | dohak_s ~ dahok_s |
areca nut | *kanis | kanis [hg] | ka'nis [rl] | kanis [bo] | ||
crayfish sp. | *kus | kus [hg] | kus [bo] | |||
crab sp. | *ŋgus | gus [hg] | ŋgus [hg] | ŋgus [bo] | ||
go down | *wis | (a-)vis | vis [+hg] | hʷis [bo] | ||
ghost | *ɣeis | ɣeⁱs | his ~ heⁱs ~ haⁱs [pd] heis [hg] | heⁱs | eⁱs | ɣeⁱs [pd] ɣis- [bo] |
burn/cook | *ɣaus | ɣus | haᵘs | |||
beard | *ɣas | ɣas | has |
In one example, the Mbian reflex of /*s/ is unexpectedly /h/, with characteristic dropping of preceding unstressed /*a/ (below):
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*s | h | s | s | s | s | |
pig | *basik | bihik ~ bhik | basik | ba'sik [+hg] | basik | basik [+bo] |
Unoccluded fricative /*h/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*h- | h | h | h | h | h | |
fall | *hi | hij [hg] | hi [bo] | |||
like/similar | *-hei | -hi ~ -haⁱ | -hei ~ -heⁱ ~ -hi | -hi | -hi | |
clearing | *hekai | hékai ~ heikai [hg] | hekaj | |||
tree sp. | *heh | héh [hg] | heh [bo] | |||
fall/fall apart | *hai | hai [hg] | haj [bo] | |||
play | *hai[e/a]d | hajed [hg] | hajad [bo] | |||
bone | *haiau | haiaᵘ ~ hiau | haiaᵘ ~ hiaᵘ | hajaᵘ ~ hiaᵘ [pd] hajéw ~ héjaw [hg] | hajaᵘ ~ hiaᵘ | hajaᵘ ~ hehaᵘ [pd] hajaw [bo] |
take/receive | *han | han | han | han [+hg] | han | han [+bo] |
bite | *hani₂ɣ | hnag | hani [pd] hanih [hg] | ha'nɛʔ ~ ha'neʔ [rl] | haniɣ [bo] | |
smoke | *haku | ha'ku | ||||
spit | *haɾiɣ | haɾih [hg] | haliɣ [bo] | |||
miss shot | *haɾetok | haɾétok [hg] | haletok [bo] | |||
miss/pass | *haɾad | aɾad ~ haɾad [hg] | halad [bo] | |||
become loose | *haɾak | haɾak [hg] | halak [bo] | |||
sit down (pl.) | *h[a/o]aman | hóman [hg] | haman [bo] | |||
lie down (pl.) | *hok | hók [hg] | hok [bo] | |||
hush/appease | *hoɣeb | hóheb [hg] | hoɣeb [bo] | |||
be hungry | *hu[n] | hu | hun | |||
*-h- | h | h | h | h | h | |
revenge | *iaha | jah | ja'ha | |||
be sleepy | *-ihid | -i'hid [+hg] | -ihid [bo] | |||
this m. | *ehe | ehe | ||||
break (stone) | *aehaɣok | aha'ɣok | eha'hok | |||
accompany | *ahik | hi'kam | a'hik | |||
overtake | *aheb | aheb [hg] | aheb [bo] | |||
house | *aha | aha | aha | aha | aha | aha |
lung(s) | *ahah | a'hah | ||||
pull out | *ahok | ahók [hg] | ahok [bo] | |||
beg | *uihig | wihig ~ wig [hg] | wig [bo] | |||
body | *uahani | wah'ni | wahni | 'wahani [+hg] | wahani ~ wahni [pd] wohani [hg] | wahani |
get angry | *mahid | mahid [hg] | mahid [bo] | |||
dance | *mahai | mahai [hg] | mahaj [bo] | |||
far | *mahut | ma'hut | ||||
goura pigeon | *mahuk | mhuk | mahuk | mahuk [+hg] | mahuk | maɣuk [pd] mahuk [bo] |
orchid sp. | *bubahet | bub-ahet [hg] | bubahet [bo] | |||
louse | *nahun | nhun | nahun [rl] | |||
full | *tahe[b] | taheb | ||||
be thirsty | *dahip | dahip | ||||
red | *do-hei | do-hi ~ do-haⁱ | do-hi | do-hi | do-hi | |
short | *dohakVs | dokes | dokis | doha'k_s | dok_s ~ dahok_s | dohak_s ~ dahok_s |
die | *kahi[wV]d | kahivð | kahivd | kahid | kahid | |
go up | *kahek | khek | kahek [+hg] | kahek [bo] | ||
fish sp. | *johe | zohé [hg] | hʲohʲe [bo] | |||
straight | *ɣaedeha | 'ɣaedeha | he'da | |||
*-h | h | h | h | h | h | |
two | *inah | inah | inah | inah | inah | inah |
see | *idih | idih | idih | i'dih | idih | idih |
give birth | *ah | ah | ||||
face | *neni₂h | ne'nah | na'nih | |||
wing | *tah | tah | ||||
mud | *daɾoh | daɾóh [hg] | dalo ~ daloh [rl] | dalo [bo] | ||
tree sp. | *heh | héh [hg] | heh [bo] |
Unlike nasals and stops, the realization of which is mostly stable in all descendants (above,) the reflexes of non-stops /*w *ɾ *j *ɣ/ vary substantially between dialects. Bilabial and palatal non-stops /*w *j/ are aspirated to [hʷ hʲ] in the West and Atih dialects, while East, Kumb and Mbian affect the more common occlusions to [v z] (as discussed in Drabbe 1933: 14.) The developments in the western dialects are shared with Maklew of the unrelated Bulaka River family to the west; those in the east are shared with Lake Murray to the northeast. These non-stops contrast with high vowels /*i *u/ in the sequences /*ia *ui *ua/ and with high vowel offglides in diphthongs, which may be heard as semivowels but are neither aspirated nor occluded (below.) Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is realized as /l/ in Mbian and in the western dialects. Velar non-stop /*ɣ/ is aspirated and deoccluded to /h/ in the East and Kumb dialects.
Bilabial non-stop /*w/ is occluded to /v/ in Mbian, Kumb and East dialects and aspirated to /hʷ/ in the western dialects. The labiodental quality of Drabbe's <v> is confirmed by a more recent vocabulary of Matara village (q.v. Sohn, Lebold and Kriens 2009: 31-42.) Mbian often realizes /v/ as voiceless fricative [f] finally, or medially as the first member of a cluster such as those resulting from syncope (below.) In the East dialect, /v/ approaches voicelessness (Drabbe 1955: 16):
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*w- | v | v | v | hʷ [hʷ h] | hʷ [hʷ h] | |
parents | *wi | vi | ||||
go down | *wis | (a-)vis | vis [+hg] | hʷis [bo] | ||
go | *wiɾ | viɾ [hg] | hʷil [bo] | |||
think (3sg.) | *wetok | vetok | ve'tok | hʷetok | hʷetok | |
watch closely | *weseun | véséwn [hg] | hʷesewn [bo] | |||
assemble | *wewai | vé-vai [hg] | hʷehʷaj [bo] | |||
father | *wai | ve ~ vei | vai | vai ~ vaⁱ | hʷai | hʷai |
paddle (3 sg.) | *ø-wai | ø-vé ~ ø-vai [hg] | ø-vai [hg] | ø-he [hg] | ø–hʷaj [bo] | |
remove clothes | *waman | vaman [hg] | hʷaman [bo] | |||
dry in sun (3 sg.) | *wasak-e-un | vasak-é-wn [hg] | hask-e-un [rl] | hʷasak-e-wn [bo] | ||
machete | *wak[a]ɾ[a] | va'kra [pd] vákɾ [hg] | ||||
take care of | *wagib | vagib [hg] | hʷagib [bo] | |||
open mouth | *wahin | vin [hg] | vahin [hg] | |||
stand (one leg) | *waɣamin | vaɣmin [hg] | vahamin [hg] | |||
hang | *waɣob | vahob [hg] | hʷaɣob [bo] | |||
parrot sp. | *woi | voi [hg] | hoj [bo] | |||
fight | *wow | vóv [hg] | hoh [hg] | |||
mother | *wu | vu | vu | vu | hu | hu |
douse | *wuseb | vuseb [hg] | huseb [hg] | huseb [bo] | ||
banana leaf | *wuw | vuv [hg] | huh [hg] | huh [bo] | ||
*-w- | v [v f] | v | v | hʷ [h] | hʷ [h] | |
canoe | *iawun | ja'vun | javun | ja'vun | jahun | jahun |
nest | *ewesa | wefe'sa | evesa | |||
laugh | *awed | aved | ||||
swim | *aw[e/o]ɾ | avel | avóɾ [hg] | a'hol [rl] | ahol [bo] | |
red clay sp. | *awa | ava ~ hava [hg] | aha [hg] | ahʷa [bo] | ||
tear(s) | *awasi | af'si | avasi | |||
carry w/head | *awui | avui [hg] | ahuj [bo] | |||
pull out | *awus | avus [hg] | ahus [bo] | |||
penis | *owi₂k | o'vak | u'vik | |||
morning star | *owom | ovom [hg] | ohom [rl] | ohom [bo] | ||
pigeon sp. | *bewom | ve'vom [pd] bévom [hg] | behom [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *kiwa | kiva [hg] | kihʷa [bo] | |||
goanna sp. | *kadewuk | kadivuk [hg] | kade'huk [rl] | kadihuk [bo] | ||
die | *kahi[wV]d | kahivð | kahivd | kahid | kahid | |
paddle (n.) | *ka-wai-a | kavea | kavea ~ kavia | kavi'a | kahe | kahʷaⁱa |
sago beater | *ka-ɣawek | ka-havek [hg] | kaɣahʷek [bo] | |||
assemble | *wewai | vé-vai [hg] | hʷehʷaj [bo] | |||
hornbill | *ɣ[ei/ai]wui | heivui [hg] | ɣajhuj [bo] | |||
eat | *ɣawi[ɣ] | havik | havik ~ havi [pd] havi [hg] | ahi | ɣahʷiɣ [+bo] | |
pound sago | *ɣawek | havek [hg] | ɣahʷek [bo] | |||
*-w | v [v f] | v | v | hʷ [h] | hʷ [h] | |
weeping/crying | *iw | if | iv | |||
right (side) | *atow | |||||
many/all | *otiw | u'tiv | utiv | o'tiv | utih | otih |
leave (3 sg.) | *um-u-w | um-u-v | um-u-v | um-u-v [+hg] | um-u-h | um-u-h [+bo] |
be crooked (3 sg.) | *mik-e-w | mik-e-v [hg] | mik-e-ø [hg] | mik-e-h [bo] | ||
village | *miɾaw | mi'laf | mi'ɾav [pd] miɾáv [hg] | mi'lah [rl] | milah [bo] | |
egg | *magaw | ma'gaf | ||||
buzz/hum | *muŋgew | muŋgev [hg] | muŋgeh [bo] | |||
fire/firewood | *tekaw | tekav ~ te'kaf | takav | ta'kav | takah | takah |
sago w/banana | *siw | siv [hg] | sihʷ [bo] | |||
back | *sew | sef [pd] sév [hg] | sev'ta [pd] sévt ~ séwt [hg] | sews [bo] | ||
coast/beach | *duw | duv | duh | duh | ||
sweet potato | *kaw | kaf | kav [pd] káv [hg] | -kah [rl] | -kah [bo] | |
pick up (3 sg.) | *k-um-u-w | k-u'm-u-v | k-u'm-u-v [+hg] | |||
fight | *wow | vóv [hg] | hoh [hg] | |||
banana leaf | *wuw | vuv [hg] | huh [hg] | huh [bo] | ||
above | *ɾawaɾaw | lavlav | ravrav | ravarav | lahala | lahʷalah |
Atih | *ɣatiw | hativ | atih | ɣatih | ||
hop/jump | *ɣosew | hosév [hg] | ɣoseh [bo] | |||
tremble | *ɣuiew | hujév [hg] | ɣujeh [bo] |
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is reflected as /l/ the West and Atih dialects and in Mbian. In the East dialect it is given as <r> and in Kumb variably as <r l>. While Drabbe made no effort to distinguish between rhotics [r ɾ] etc., a more recent vocabulary from Matara village gives reflexes of /ɾ/ as retroflexed flap [ɽ] initially and medially and as a trill [r] only finally (q.v. Sohn, Lebold and Kriens 2009: 31-42.) It is more common finally than medially and uncommon initially (q.v. Geurtjens 1933: 281-293.):
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*ɾ- | l | ɾ <r l> | ɾ <r> | l | l | |
flow/stream | *ɾik | rik [hg] | lik [bo] | |||
resultative | *-ɾa | -la [~ -a -ta] | -ɾa [~ -a -ta] | -la [~ -ta] [bo] | ||
above | *ɾawaɾaw | lavlav | ɾavɾav | ɾavaɾav | lahala | lahʷalah |
coucal sp. | *ɾaɾag | ɾaɾag [hg] | lalag [bo] | |||
speak | *ɾaɣ | laɣ | ɾah | |||
Rahuk | *ɾaɣuk | ɾahuk | laɣuk | |||
make fence | *ɾod | lo'd-a | ɾod-a [pd] ɾód [hg] | lod [bo] | ||
tree sp. | *ɾu | ɾu [hg] | lu [bo] | |||
plant shoot(s) | *ɾun | ɾun [hg] | lun [bo] | |||
almond tree | *ɾug | ɾug [hg] | lug [bo] | |||
call by name | *ɾu[ɣ] | ɾu ~ ɾuh [hg] | lu [bo] | |||
pour | *ɾuɣad | ɾuad ~ ɾuhad [hg] | luɣad [bo] | |||
body hair/fur | *ɾuɾ | lul | ɾuɾ [+hg] | lul [bo] | ||
*-ɾ- | l | ɾ <r l> | ɾ <r> | l | l | |
bird sp. | *iaɾo | jaɾó [hg] | jalo [bo] | |||
watercress sp. | *eɾeɾ | eɾ-éɾ [hg] | elel [bo] | |||
call | *aɾin | a'lin | a'ɾin | |||
slow | *aɾiɾ | a'lil | a'ɾiɾ | |||
worm | *aɾo | |||||
stingray sp. | *ueɾi | wéɾi [hg] | weli [bo] | |||
run | *uaɾak | |||||
sharp | *uaɾoaka | 'waloaka | woɾo'waka | |||
village | *miɾaw | mi'laf | mi'ɾav [pd] miɾáv [hg] | mi'lah [rl] | milah [bo] | |
garden | *mVɾu | mulu [hg] | maɾu [+hg] | ma'lu [rl] | malu [bo] | |
rainbow | *maɾ[e/o]b | maleb [+hg] | maɾob [hg] | |||
plant sp. | *maɾ[o]b | maɾob [hg] | malob [bo] | |||
greens sp. | *piɾu | piɾu [hg] | pilu [bo] | |||
vagina | *peɾa | pe'ɾa [pd] péra [hg] | pela [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *paɾi-paɾi | paɾi-paɾi [hg] | palpali [bo] | |||
ridge | *paɾe | paɾé [hg] | pale [bo] | |||
thin | *paɾapaɾ | pa'ɾapaɾ [pd] paɾ-a-paɾ [hg] | ||||
tuber sp. | *paɾu[ŋ/ŋg] | paɾuŋg [hg] | paɾuŋ [bo] | |||
breadfruit | *baɾau | ba'ɾaw [+hg] | balaw [bo] | |||
seagull sp. | *mbiɾu | biɾu [hg] | mbilu [bo] | |||
stone axe | *mbeɾi | mbeli | mbeli | mbe'ɾi | mbeli | mbeli ~ mbel |
armband sp. | *mbaɾaɾ | mbaɾaɾ [hg] | mbalal [bo] | |||
fly (n.) | *mbuɾambuɾ | mbaɾa'mbuɾ [pd] mbuɾ-a-mbuɾ [hg] | mbulambul [bo] | |||
lapwing sp. | *taɾe-taɾe | taɾé-taɾé [hg] | taltale [bo] | |||
tendon | *taɾagi | taɾagi | ||||
mud | *daɾoh | daɾóh [hg] | dalo ~ daloh [rl] | dalo [bo] | ||
sarus crane | *ndaɾau | daɾaw [hg] | ndalaw [bo] | |||
foam | *ndaɾo[m/mb] | daɾómb [hg] | dalom [bo] | |||
palm sp. | *saɾiŋga | saɾiŋga [hg] | saliŋga [bo] | |||
coconut flower | *saɾeɣ | saréh [hg] | saleɣ [bo] | |||
prawn sp. | *saɾeɣ | saréh [hg] | saleɣ [bo] | |||
sago vein (?) | *saɾaku | saɾaku [hg] | salaku [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *saɾuk | saɾuk [hg] | saluk [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *suɾin[ei/ai] | suɾinei [hg] | sulina [bo] | |||
tie | *kipaɾud | kipɾud ~ kiplud | kipaɾud | kipalud | kipalud | |
fish sp. | *kiɾub | kiɾub [hg] | kilub [bo] | |||
defecate | *keɾim | ke'lim | ka'ɾim | |||
dry | *kapaɾet | kapaɾét [hg] | 'kapalet [rl] | 'kapalet [rl] | ||
watercress sp. | *kambaɾi | kambaɾi [hg] | kambali [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *kaɾambu | kaɾambu [hg] | kalambu [bo] | |||
snake sp. | *kuɾuam | kulwam [hg] | kuɾwan [hg] | kulwam [bo] | ||
shoulder | *gaɾg[e]ɾa | gaɾ'geɾa | ||||
creeper sp. | *guɾi | guɾi [hg] | guli [bo] | |||
sago with fish | *ŋgaɾamo | gaɾamo ~ ŋgaɾamo [hg] | ŋgaɾamo [bo] | |||
tree sp. | *ŋgaɾasaɾ | ŋgaɾsaɾ ~ gaɾsaɾ [hg] | ŋgalasal [bo] | |||
spit | *haɾiɣ | haɾih [hg] | haliɣ [bo] | |||
miss shot | *haɾetok | haɾétok [hg] | haletok [bo] | |||
miss/pass | *haɾad | aɾad ~ haɾad [hg] | halad [bo] | |||
become loose | *haɾak | haɾak [hg] | halak [bo] | |||
coucal sp. | *ɾaɾag | ɾaɾag [hg] | lalag [bo] | |||
frog | *ɣadoɾo | adolo | ɣadolo | |||
lie down (sg.) | *ɣaɾ[i] | ɣa:l | haɾi [hg] | ɣali [bo] | ||
*-ɾ | l | ɾ <r l> | ɾ [r] | l | l | |
nail/claw | *itiɾ | i'tiɾ [+hg] | itil [bo] | |||
hunger | *emeɾ | emeɾ [pd] eméɾ [hg] | emel [bo] | |||
watercress sp. | *eɾeɾ | eɾ-éɾ [hg] | elel [bo] | |||
swim | *aw[e/o]ɾ | avel | avóɾ [hg] | a'hol [rl] | ahol [bo] | |
slow | *aɾiɾ | a'lil | a'ɾiɾ | |||
cheek | *aɣadiɾ | ahadir [hg] | a:dil [hg] | |||
star | *uaiaɾ | wa'jal | waɾai | wa'jaɾ | wajal | wajal |
be sitting (sg.) | *miɾ | miɾ [hg] | mil [bo] | |||
tree sp. | *mijaɾ | mizaɾ [hg] | mihal [bo] | |||
shade/shadow | *matuɾ | matuɾ [hg] | matul [bo] | |||
sago splints | *pandaɾ | pandaɾ [hg] | pandal [bo] | |||
skin/bark | *paɾ | paɾ | paɾ [pd] páɾ [hg] | pal | pal [+bo] | |
thin | *paɾapaɾ | pa'ɾapaɾ [pd] paɾ-a-paɾ [hg] | ||||
chest | *beɾ | bel | beɾ [+hg] | bel [bo] | ||
armband sp. | *mbaɾaɾ | mbaɾaɾ [hg] | mbalal [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *mbaɣoɾ | bahoɾ [hg] | mbaɣol [bo] | |||
fly (n.) | *mbuɾambuɾ | mbaɾa'mbuɾ [pd] mbuɾ-a-mbuɾ [hg] | mbulambul [bo] | |||
shy | *duɾ | dul | duɾ | |||
paradise sp. | *sakiɾ | sa'kil | sa'kiɾ [+hg] | sakil [bo] | ||
wind | *kiuaɾ | ki'waɾ | ||||
cough/phlegm | *kepu₂ɾ | ke'pal | ka'puɾ [+hg] | kepul [rl] | kapul [bo] | |
stone | *ketaɾ | ka'taɾ | katal | katal | ||
heavy | *k[e/a]niɾ | ka'niɾ [+hg] | ||||
fat/grease | *kabeɾ | kabel | kabeɾ | |||
unripe fruit | *ŋgaɾ | ŋgáɾ [hg] | ŋgal [bo] | |||
tree sp. | *ŋgaɾasaɾ | ŋgaɾsaɾ ~ gaɾsaɾ [hg] | ŋgalasal [bo] | |||
leaf | *ŋgoɾ | ŋgoɾ [pd] ŋgóɾ [hg] | ŋgol | ŋgol [+bo] | ||
go | *wiɾ | viɾ [hg] | hʷil [bo] | |||
body hair/fur | *ɾuɾ | lul | ɾuɾ [+hg] | lul [bo] | ||
endurance | *jiuaɾ | ziwaɾ [hg] | hiwal [hg] | |||
sweet | *ɣaeɾ | ɣael- | heɾ |
Palatal non-stop /*j/ is occluded to /z/ in Mbian, Kumb and East dialects and aspirated to /hʲ/ in the western dialects. As with the occluded reflex of /*w/ Mbian can realizes /v/ as voiceless fricative [s] medially as the first member of a cluster such as those resulting from syncope (below.) In the East dialect, /z/ approaches voicelessness and can be heard as [s] word-finally (Drabbe 1955: 16):
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*j- | z | z | z | hʲ [h hʲ] | hʲ [h hʲ] | |
sing/song | *ji | zi | hi | hi | ||
be | *jiua | ziwa [hg] | hiwa [hg] | |||
endurance | *jiuaɾ | ziwaɾ [hg] | hiwal [hg] | |||
headdress sp. | *jimbu | zimbu [hg] | himbu [hg] | himbu [bo] | ||
shin | *jin | zin | zin [+hg] | hin [hg] | ||
grandfather | *je | ze | he | he | ||
grandchild | *jeb | zeb | zeb | |||
husband | *jam | zam | zam | zam | ham | ham |
pelican sp. | *jabug | zabug ~ -k [hg] | habug [hg] | hʲabug [bo] | ||
half-ripe | *jajak | zazak [hg] | hʲahʲak [bo] | |||
tired | *jaju | za'zu | za'zu | |||
fornication | *jo[m/mb] | zom [pd] zómb [hg] | hʲom͜b [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *johe | zohé [hg] | hʲohʲe [bo] | |||
grandmother | *ju | zu | ||||
wife | *jum | zum | zum | zum | hʲum | hʲum |
*-j- | z [z s] | z | z | hʲ [hʲ s] | hʲ [hʲ h] | |
sago petiole | *ij[e]mi | iz'mi [pd] izmi [hg] | izimi [hg] | ihémi [hg] | ihimi [bo] | |
one | *ijako[d] | eska | iskad ~ iskod | izakod | sakod | heakod |
snake | *ajaki | azaki | azaki | ahʲaki | ahʲaki | |
plait (?) | *aɣajab | ahazab [bo] | a:jab [hg] | aɣahʲab [bo] | ||
bundle | *aɣajak | ahazak [hg] | a:jak [hg] | |||
bird | *ujub | uzub | uzub | uzub | uhʲub | uhʲub |
tree sp. | *mijaɾ | mizaɾ [hg] | mihal [bo] | |||
Sanggase | *saŋgaje | saŋgaze | saŋgahe | |||
nit(s) | *kajabit | kazabit [hg] | kahʲabit [bo] | |||
half-ripe | *jajak | zazak [hg] | hʲahʲak [bo] | |||
tired | *jaju | za'zu | za'zu | |||
thick | *jumbVju[m/mb] | zumba'zum [pd] zumb-a-zumb [hg] | ||||
become clear (?) | *ɣajad | hazad [hg] | ɣahʲad [bo] | |||
*-j | z | z | z | hʲ [h] | hʲ [h] | |
Imah | *imaj | imaz | imah | |||
name | *igij | i'giz | i'giz | |||
tree sp. | *oj | oz [hg] | ohʲ [bo] | |||
bow | *mij | miz | miz | miz [+hg] | mih | mih [+bo] |
sour | *kaj | kaz | kaz |
Velar non-stop /*ɣ/ is aspirated and deoccluded in the central dialects of Marind, the distinction between /*ɣ *h/ being lost completely in the Eastern and Kumb dialects (q.v. Drabbe 1933: 14.) Atih reflects /*ɣ/ as glottal stop [ʔ] (zero initially and finally) or, less commonly, as [h]:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*ɣ- | ɣ | h | h | ʕ [ø h] | ɣ | |
drink/eat | *ɣei | ɣeⁱ ~ ɣi | heⁱ | heⁱ [pd] hi ~ héi [hg] | heⁱ [pd} i: ~ ej [rl] | ɣeⁱ [pd] ɣi [bo] |
ghost | *ɣeis | ɣeⁱs | his ~ heⁱs ~ haⁱs [pd] heis [hg] | heⁱs | eⁱs | ɣeⁱs [pd] ɣis- [bo] |
help | *ɣ[ei/ai]na | heina [hg] | ɣajna [bo] | |||
hornbill | *ɣ[ei/ai]wui | heivui [hg] | ɣajhuj [bo] | |||
laugh | *ɣ[ai] | ɣae | ||||
rain | *ɣae | ɣa | hei ~ haⁱ | he [pd] hei [hg] | e | ɣe |
fetch | *ɣae[t] | -ɣaet | -he | |||
straight | *ɣaedeha | 'ɣaedeha | he'da | |||
sweet | *ɣaeɾ | ɣael- | heɾ | |||
brain(s) | *ɣaum[o/u] | 'haumu [pd] haumó [hg] | ɣomu [bo] | |||
burn (intr.) | *ɣaunip | hónip ~ hunip [hg] | unip̚ [rl] | ɣunip [bo] χaunip̚ [rl] |
||
burn/cook | *ɣaus | ɣus | haᵘs | |||
light fire | *ɣausig | hu'sig [pd] hausig ~ husig [hg] | ɣosig [bo] | |||
night | *ɣap | ɣap | hap | hap | ap | ɣap |
rat | *ɣabo | habó [hg] | ɣabo [bo] | |||
Atih | *ɣatiw | hativ | atih | ɣatih | ||
light/bright | *ɣad | ɣa'da | -had | |||
burst | *ɣadip | é-ɣaɾip [hg] | (a-)hadip [hg] | |||
be sated | *ɣadin | ɣadin | hadin [hg] | ɣadin [bo] | ||
leave behind | *ɣadeun | hadéwn [hg] | ɣadewn [bo] | |||
frog | *ɣadoɾo | adolo | ɣadolo | |||
belly | *ɣandam | handam | ha'ndam | andam | ɣandam | |
beard | *ɣas | ɣas | has | |||
climbing belt | *ɣaɣeu[n] | ɣaɣón [hg] | hahéw [hg] | aeu [hg] | ||
eat | *ɣawi[ɣ] | havik | havik ~ havi [pd] havi [hg] | ahi | ɣahʷiɣ [+bo] | |
pound sago | *ɣawek | havek [hg] | ɣahʷek [bo] | |||
lie down (sg.) | *ɣaɾ[i] | ɣa:l | haɾi [hg] | ɣali [bo] | ||
become clear (?) | *ɣajad | hazad [hg] | ɣahʲad [bo] | |||
approach/meet | *ɣoman | hóman [hg] | ɣoman [bo] | |||
watch/guard | *ɣon | hon [hg] | ɣon [bo] | |||
vomit | *ɣod | ɣod | hod [hg] | ɣod [bo] | ||
hop/jump | *ɣosew | hosév [hg] | ɣoseh [bo] | |||
infant | *ɣ[o/u]naɣon | hon-a-hon [hg] | ɣunaɣon [bo] | |||
tremble | *ɣuiew | hujév [hg] | ɣujeh [bo] | |||
*-ɣ- | ɣ | h | h | ʕ [ʔ] | ɣ [ɣ h] | |
afterbirth | *iaɣau | ja'ɣaw | ||||
break (stone) | *aehaɣok | aha'ɣok | eha'hok | |||
say | *aɣi[n] | aɣin | ahi | ahi [+hg] | aʔi | ahi ~ aɣei [pd] aɣi [bo] |
split open | *aɣab | ahab [hg] | aɣab [bo] | |||
cheek | *aɣadiɾ | ahadir [hg] | a:dil [hg] | |||
plait (?) | *aɣajab | ahazab [hg] | a:jab [hg] | aɣahʲab [bo] | ||
bundle | *aɣajak | ahazak [hg] | a:jak [hg] | |||
tie up | *aɣun | ahun [hg] | ɛʔ'un ~ aʔun [rl] | aɣun [bo] | ||
stand up (pl.) | *uaɣaman | wahaman [hg] | waɣaman [bo] | |||
body decor. | *maɣi | mahi [hg] | maɣi [bo] | |||
first | *maɣai | maɣai ~ majĕ [hg] | mahai [hg] | maé [hg] | ||
widow/widower | *moɣa | 'moɣa | 'moha | |||
coconut spathe | *paɣa | paha [hg] | paɣa [bo] | |||
canoe pole | *beɣau | béhaw ~ béhéw[hg] | beɣaw [bo] | |||
greens sp. | *beɣob | béhob [hg] | beɣob [bo] | |||
thigh | *baɣa | ba'ɣa | ba'ha | |||
bird sp. | *mbaɣoɾ | bahoɾ [hg] | mbaɣol [bo] | |||
come (pl.) | *naɣam | naham [+hg] | naɣam [bo] | |||
work | *saesaɣi | sasa'hi | sesahi [pd] sa-sahi [hg] | sasaɣi [bo] | ||
wallaby | *saɣam | sa'ɣam | saham | sa'ham | saʔam | saɣam |
sago beater | *ka-ɣawek | ka-havek [hg] | kaɣahʷek [bo] | |||
waterfowl sp. | *kuɣu | kuhu [hg] | kuɣu [bo] | |||
hush/appease | *hoɣeb | hóheb [hg] | hoɣeb [bo] | |||
stand (one leg) | *waɣamin | vaɣmin [hg] | vahamin [hg] | |||
hang | *waɣob | vahob [hg] | hʷaɣob [bo] | |||
Rahuk | *ɾaɣuk | ɾahuk | laɣuk | |||
pour | *ɾuɣad | ɾuad ~ ɾuhad [hg] | luɣad [bo] | |||
climbing belt | *ɣaɣeu[n] | ɣaɣón [hg] | hahéw [hg] | aeu [hg] | ||
infant | *ɣ[o/u]naɣon | hon-a-hon [hg] | ɣunaɣon [bo] | |||
*-ɣ | ɣ | h | h | ʕ [ø] | ɣ | |
2 pl. | *eoɣ | eoɣ | eoh | eoh ~ ᵉoh | eo | eoɣ |
left | *auaɣ | |||||
2 sg. | *oɣ | oɣ | oh | oh | o | oɣ |
wife's brother | *mandaɣ | manda [hg] | mandaɣ [bo] | |||
neck/throat | *naɣ | naɣ | nah | |||
young/new | *noɣ | noɣ | noh | |||
command | *teŋgiɣ | teŋgiɣ | taŋgi [pd] taŋgih [hg] | taŋgiɣ [bo] | ||
coconut flower | *saɾeɣ | saréh [hg] | saleɣ [bo] | |||
prawn sp. | *saɾeɣ | saréh [hg] | saleɣ [bo] | |||
inside | *kVmaɣ | ke'maɣ | ku'mah | kumaɣ | ||
bite | *hani₂ɣ | hnag | hani [pd] hanih [hg] | ha'nɛʔ ~ ha'neʔ [rl] | haniɣ [bo] | |
spit | *haɾiɣ | haɾih [hg] | haliɣ [bo] | |||
speak | *ɾaɣ | laɣ | ɾah |
The conflation of /*ɣ/ with /*h/ [h] (above) in the East dialect has the unfortunate consequence that neither van der Kolk and Vertenten' (1922) or Geurtjens' (1933) dictionaries nor Drabbe's (1955) grammar distinguish the two.
Marind roots, as opposed to compounds and inflected forms, invariably take final stress (Drabbe 1955: 16.) This motivates two patterns of syncope in Mbian and Kumb, and sometimes in Atih.
In disyllables where unstressed /*a/ is followed by unoccluded fricative /*h/, it is droppped in (at least) Mbian. Only /*a/ is known to be thusly affected:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*haCV(C) | hCVC | hVCVC | ||||
bite | *hani₂ɣ | hnag | hani [pd] hanih [hg] | ha'nɛʔ ~ ha'neʔ [rl] | haniɣ [bo] | |
*(C)ahV(C) | (C)hV(C) | (C)ahV(C) | ||||
accompany | *ahik | hi'kam | a'hik | |||
goura pigeon | *mahuk | mhuk | mahuk | mahuk [+hg] | mahuk | maɣuk [pd] mahuk [bo] |
louse | *nahun | nhun | ||||
go up | *kahek | khek | kahek [+hg] | kahek [bo] | ||
open mouth | *wahin | vin [hg] | vahin [hg] |
One example in which fricative /*s/ and velar non-stop /*ɣ/ has been irregularly deoccluded to /h/ undergoes the same change:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*a/_s | ø/_h | a | a | a | a | |
pig | *basik | bihik ~ bhik | basik | ba'sik [+hg] | basik | basik [+bo] |
Trisyllables received secondary stress on the first syllable, while the second syllable was destressed. This led to syncope and the formation of medial consonant clusters, which otherwise don't occur in roots, in both Mbian and Kumb and sometimes in Atih:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCCV(C) | (C)VCCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VC(V)CV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | |
sago petiole | *ij[e]mi | iz'mi [pd] izmi [hg] | izimi [hg] | ihémi [hg] | ihimi [bo] | |
one | *ijako[d] | eska | iskad ~ iskod | izakod | sakod | heakod |
tear(s) | *awasi | af'si | avasi | |||
body | *uahani | wah'ni | wahni | 'wahani [+hg] | wahani ~ wahni [pd] wohani [hg] | wahani |
cold | *s[a/o]sode[h] | sosdeh | sasode | |||
tie | *kipaɾud | kipɾud ~ kiplud | kipaɾud | kipalud | kipalud | |
stand (one leg) | *waɣamin | vaɣmin [hg] | vahamin [hg] | |||
above | *ɾawaɾaw | lavlav | ɾavɾav | ɾavaɾav | lahala | lahʷalah |
In some instances, this is followed by the loss of one or the other consonant in the resulting cluster:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*C₁VC₂ | C₁ | C₁C₂ | C₁VC₂ | C₁VC₂ | C₁VC₂ | |
drum | *kandaɾa | ka'nda | kandra | kandara | kandala | kandala |
*C₁VC₂ | C₂ | C₂ | C₁VC₂ | C₁(V)C₂ | C₁VC₂ | |
mouth | *babake | bake | babake | |||
short | *dohakVs | dokes | dokis | doha'k_s | dok_s ~ dahok_s | dohak_s ~ dahok_s |
One reduplicated compound is likewise affected:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*C₁C₂ | C₁ | C₁VC₂ | ||||
tomorrow | *ɣap-ɣap | ɣa'pap | hap-'hap |
One example undergoes syncope in Kumb, but (apparently) not in Mbian:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | |
water | *adeka | adika ~ ada'ka | adka | adaka ~ adi'ka [pd] adaka [hg] | adaka | adaka [+bo] |
The Mbian medial vowel in one example is suspect because medial /v/ is realized as [f], suggesting a cluster (above):
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | ||||
nest | *ewesa | wefe'sa | evesa |
Failure to undergo syncope may indicate compounding or a loan, or that syncope isn't invariable for some other reason:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | (C)VCVCV(C) | |
break (stone) | *aehaɣok | aha'ɣok | eha'hok | |||
good | *uaniŋgap | wa'niŋgap | niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap |
mountain/hill | *baetoka | bato'ka | beto'ka | bɛtok- [rl] | betok [bo] | |
animal | *namakud | namakud | namkud | |||
work | *saesaɣi | sasa'hi | sesahi [pd] sa-sahi [hg] | sasaɣi [bo] | ||
scabies | *samani | 'samani | samani [+hg] | samani [bo] | ||
straight | *ɣaedeha | 'ɣaedeha | he'da |
A small number of roots …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*-[a]n[a] | -Cn | -Cna | ||||
tusk of pig | *gom[a]n[a] | gomn ~ gomaɾ [hg] | gomna [bo] | |||
ashes | *gum[a]n[a] | gum | gum [+hg] | gu:mn ~ goᵘm [rl] | gumna [bo] | |
fin(s) of ray | *pandap[a]n[a] | pandabn [hg] | pandapna [bo] | |||
*-[a]ɾ[a] | -Cɾ | -Cala ~ -Cla | ||||
tree sp. | *mumb[a]ɾ[a] | mumbɾ [hg] | mumbala [bo] | |||
dry sand | *paɾup[a]ɾ[a] | paɾupɾ [hg] | palupla [bo] | |||
tree sp. | *mbot[a]ɾ[a] | bótr ~ mbótr [hg] | mbotla [bo] | |||
machete | *wak[a]ɾ[a] | va'kra [pd] vákɾ [hg] |
… reduplications…:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*… | ||||||
root | *itit | ititi ~ i'tit [pd] it-it [hg] | ititi [pd] itit(ʰ) [rl] | ititi [pd] itit [bo] |
||
bird sp. | *ende[n/nd] | endénd [hg] | enden [bo] | |||
watercress sp. | *eɾeɾ | eɾ-éɾ [hg] | elel [bo] | |||
light (weight) | *akak | a'kak | a'kak | |||
lung(s) | *ahah | a'hah | ||||
cloud/sky | *omom | o'mom [pd] óm-om [hg] | omom [rl] | omom [bo] | ||
mango | *uiui | wiwi [hg] | wiwi [bo] | |||
Job's tears | *baba | ba-ba [hg] | baba [bo | |||
sea turtle sp. | *baba | ba-ba [hg] | baba [bo | |||
croton sp. | *nini | ni-ni [hg] | nini [bo] |
…:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*… | ||||||
bird sp. | *paɾi-paɾi | paɾi-paɾi [hg] | palpali [bo] | |||
plant sp. | *uati-uati | wati-wati [hg] | watiwati [bo] | |||
luminescence | *ndaki-ndaki | daki-ndaki [hg] | ndakindaki [bo] | |||
lapwing sp. | *taɾe-taɾe | taɾé-taɾé [hg] | taltale [bo] | |||
oriole sp. | *kaue-kaue | kawé-kawé [hg] | kaw(e)kawe [bo] |
…:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*… | ||||||
frog sp. | *pakapak | pak-a-pak [hg] | pakapak [bo] | |||
thin | *paɾapaɾ | pa'ɾapaɾ [pd] paɾ-a-paɾ [hg] | ||||
lizard sp. | *podapod | pod-a-pod [hg] | podapod [bo] | |||
pufferfish | *baŋgaba[ŋ/ŋg] | baŋg-a-baŋg [hg] | baŋgabaŋ [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *mbisambis | mbis-a-mbis [hg] | mbisambis [bo] | |||
fly (n.) | *mbuɾambuɾ | mbaɾa'mbuɾ [pd] mbuɾ-a-mbuɾ [hg] | mbulambul [bo] | |||
wet | *dubadub | daba'dub [pd] dab-a-dub ~ dub-a-dub [hg] | ||||
above | *ɾawaɾaw | lavlav | ravrav | ravarav | lahala | lahʷalah |
thick | *jumbVju[m/mb] | zumba'zum [pd] zumb-a-zumb [hg] | ||||
infant | *ɣ[o/u]naɣon | hon-a-hon [hg] | ɣunaɣon [bo] |
…:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*… | ||||||
fin(s) of ray | *pandap[a]n[a] | pandabn [hg] | pandapna [bo] | |||
dry sand | *paɾup[a]ɾ[a] | paɾupɾ [hg] | palupla [bo] |
Vowels /*i *u *e *o *a/ occur in all positions. In monosyllables, all five vowels are invariably retained as such in all descendants, as are vowels of identical quality in disyllables.
High front vowel /*i/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*i | i | i | i | i | i | |
anus | *bi | bi [hg] | bi [bo] | |||
parents | *wi | vi | ||||
sing/song | *ji | zi | hi | hi | ||
expel from body | *in | in | in | |||
weeping/crying | *iw | if | iv | |||
base/molar | *mit | mit | mit [+hg] | |||
knee | *mig | mig | mig [+hg] | mig ~ mig̚ [rl] | mig [bo] | |
be sitting (sg.) | *miɾ | miɾ [hg] | mil [bo] | |||
bow | *mij | miz | miz | miz [+hg] | mih | mih [+bo] |
cheek | *pip | pip | pip [bo] | |||
grasp/hold | *bik | bik [hg] | bik [bo] | |||
petiole | *bi[ŋ/ŋg] | biŋg [hg] | biŋ [bo] | |||
flatten/smooth | *mbin | bin ~ mbin [hg] | mbin [bo] | |||
sister's husband | *mbit | mbit [hg] | mbit [bo] | |||
lie down (dist.) | *nin | nin [hg] | nin [bo] | |||
forehead | *diŋg | diŋg | ||||
stork sp. | *ndik | ndik [hg] | ndik [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *si[m/mb] | simb [hg] | sim [bo] | |||
sago w/banana | *siw | siv [hg] | sihʷ [bo] | |||
eye | *kind | kind | kind | kind | kind | kind |
go | *wiɾ | viɾ [hg] | hʷil [bo] | |||
shin | *jin | zin | zin [+hg] | hin [hg] | ||
*iCi | iCi | iCi | iCi | iCi | iCi | |
croton sp. | *nini | ni-ni [hg] | nini [bo] | |||
root | *itit | ititi ~ i'tit [pd] it-it [hg] | ititi [pd] itit(ʰ) [rl] | ititi [pd] itit [bo] |
||
nail/claw | *itiɾ | i'tiɾ [+hg] | itil [bo] | |||
see | *idih | idih | idih | i'dih | idih | idih |
name | *igij | i'giz | i'giz | |||
winkle sp. | *kindin | kindin [hg] | kindin [bo] |
High back vowel /*u/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*u | u | u | u | u | u | |
plant sp. | *bu | bu [hg] | bu [bo] | |||
sleep | *nu | nu | nu | |||
mother | *wu | vu | vu | vu | hu | hu |
tree sp. | *ɾu | ɾu [hg] | lu [bo] | |||
be hungry | *hu[n] | hu | hun | |||
call by name | *ɾu[ɣ] | ɾu ~ ɾuh [hg] | lu [bo] | |||
elbow | *muk | muk [+hg] | muk [+hg] | muk̚ ~ mug̚ [rl] | muk [bo] | |
feather(s) | *put | put [+hg] | put [+hg] | put [bo] | ||
breast | *bub | bub | bub | bub [+hg] | bub | bub [+bo] |
tree sp. | *bud | bud [hg] | bud [bo] | |||
eucalyptus sp. | *bus | bus [hg] | bus [bo] | |||
cut animal | *bug | bug [hg] | bug [bo] | |||
gills | *mbu[m/mb] | bumb ~ mbumb [hg] | mbum [bo] | |||
rattan | *tup | tup | tup | tup [+hg] | tup | tup [+bo] |
butterfly | *dud | dud | ||||
coast/beach | *duw | duv | duh | duh | ||
shy | *duɾ | dul | duɾ | |||
crayfish sp. | *kus | kus [hg] | kus [bo] | |||
crab sp. | *ŋgus | gus [hg] | ŋgus [hg] | ŋgus [bo] | ||
banana leaf | *wuw | vuv [hg] | huh [hg] | huh [bo] | ||
plant shoot(s) | *ɾun | ɾun [hg] | lun [bo] | |||
almond tree | *ɾug | ɾug [hg] | lug [bo] | |||
body hair/fur | *ɾuɾ | lul | ɾuɾ [+hg] | lul [bo] | ||
wife | *jum | zum | zum | zum | hʲum | hʲum |
*uCu | uCu | uCu | uCu | uCu | uCu | |
skin | *ugu | u'gu | ||||
leave (3 sg.) | *um-u-w | um-u-v | um-u-v | um-u-v [+hg] | um-u-h | um-u-h [+bo] |
bird | *ujub | uzub | uzub | uzub | uhʲub | uhʲub |
waterfowl sp. | *kuɣu | kuhu [hg] | kuɣu [bo] | |||
pick up (3 sg.) | *k-um-u-w | k-u'm-u-v | k-u'm-u-v [+hg] |
Mid front vowel /*e/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)e(C) | (C)e(C) | (C)e(C) | (C)e(C) | (C)e(C) | (C)e(C) | |
scar | *e | e | e [+hg] | e [bo] | ||
future | *-e | -e | -e | -e [bo] | ||
intestines | *pe | pe [pd]; pé [hg] | pe [bo] | |||
mother | *ne | |||||
root | *te | te | te | |||
tree/wood | *de | de | de | de | de | de |
grandfather | *je | ze | he | he | ||
dig | *eg | eg | eg | |||
perfective | *mend- | mend- | mend- [bo] | |||
old/ripe/dry | *mes | mes | mes [+hg] | mes [rl] | mes [bo] | |
way | *meŋg | meŋg [hg] | -meŋ [rl] | meŋ [rl] | ||
chest | *beɾ | bel | beɾ [+hg] | bel [bo] | ||
hole | *teb | teb | ||||
nail/claw | *tek | tek | ték [hg] | tɛ(:)k̚ [rl] | ||
cook in ground | *sep | sép [hg] | sep [bo] | |||
back | *sew | sef [pd] sév [hg] | sev'ta [pd] sévt ~ séwt [hg] | sews [bo] | ||
taro | *kemb | kemb ~ kemb | kemb | kemb | kemb | kemb |
tree sp. | *heh | héh [hg] | heh [bo] | |||
grandchild | *jeb | zeb | zeb | |||
*(C)eCe(C) | eCe | |||||
chin | *ete | ete | ||||
this m. | *ehe | ehe | ||||
hunger | *emeɾ | emeɾ [pd] eméɾ [hg] | emel [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *ende[n/nd] | endénd [hg] | enden [bo] | |||
watercress sp. | *eɾeɾ | eɾ-éɾ [hg] | elel [bo] |
Mid back vowel /*o/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*o | o | o | o | o | o | |
tail of crocodile | *bo | bó [hg] | bo [bo] | |||
blood | *do | do | do | do | do | do |
bittern sp. | *ko | kó [hg] | ko [bo] | |||
liver | *on | on | on | |||
sugarcane | *od | od | od | od | od | od |
tree sp. | *oj | oz [hg] | ohʲ [bo] | |||
2 sg. | *oɣ | oɣ | oh | oh | o | oɣ |
mucus | *mo[m/mb] | mom | momb [pd] mómb [hg] | mom [bo] | ||
lake/swamp | *bob | bob [hg] | bob ~ mbobʰ [rl] | bob [bo] | ||
1 sg. | *nok | nok | nok | nok | nok | nok |
young/new | *noɣ | noh | noɣ | |||
rope | *ndo[n/nd] | ndónd [hg] | nɖɔ:nd ~ ndon [rl] | ndon [bo] nɖɔ:nd [rl] |
||
bamboo knife | *sok | sok | sok | |||
bamboo sp. | *so[ŋ/ŋg] | soŋg [hg] | soŋ [bo] | |||
tree sp. | *kond | kónd [hg] | kond [bo] | |||
leaf | *ŋgoɾ | ŋgoɾ [pd] ŋgóɾ [hg] | ŋgol | ŋgol [+bo] | ||
lie down (pl.) | *hok | hók [hg] | hok [bo] | |||
fight | *wow | vóv [hg] | hoh [hg] | |||
make fence | *ɾod | lo'd-a | ɾod-a [pd] ɾód [hg] | lod [bo] | ||
fornication | *jo[m/mb] | zom [pd] zómb [hg] | hʲom͜b [bo] | |||
watch/guard | *ɣon | hon [hg] | ɣon [bo] | |||
vomit | *ɣod | ɣod | hod [hg] | ɣod [bo] | ||
*oCo | oCo | oCo | ||||
scrotum | *ombo | ombo | o'mbo [pd] ombó [hg] | ombo [bo] | ||
urine/bile | *kon[o] | kon | ko'no | |||
cloud/sky | *omom | o'mom [pd] óm-om [hg] | omom [rl] | omom [bo] | ||
spread mat | *omos | omos [hg] | omos [bo] | |||
cross cousin | *onos | onos [hg] | onos [bo] | |||
morning star | *owom | ovom [hg] | ohom [rl] | ohom [bo] | ||
fruit | *mokom | mo'kom |
Low central vowel /*a/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*a | a | a | a | a | a | |
future | *ma- | ma- | ma- [bo] | |||
younger sib | *am | am | ||||
armpit | *ab | ab | ab [+hg] | ab [bo] | ||
father (add.) | *ad | ad [hg] | ad [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *ad | ad [hg] | ad [bo] | |||
give birth | *ah | ah | ||||
head | *pa | pa | pa | pa [+hg] | pa | pa [+bo] |
excrement | *na | na | na | |||
sago | *da | da | da | da | da | da |
sand | *sa | sa | sa | sa | sa | |
resultative | *-ɾa | -la [~ -a -ta] | -ɾa [~ -a -ta] | -la [~ -ta] [bo] | ||
come (sg.) | *ma[n] | ma | man | man [+hg] | man | man [+bo] |
sago bark | *mam | mam [hg] | mam [bo] | |||
skin/bark | *paɾ | paɾ | paɾ [pd] páɾ [hg] | pal | pal [+bo] | |
thorn/needle | *ban | ban | ban [hg] | ban [rl] | ban [bo] | |
louse | *mba[m/mb] | mbamb [pd] bamb [hg] | mbam [bo] | |||
neck/throat | *naɣ | naɣ | nah | |||
wing | *tah | tah | ||||
spear | *da[m/mb] | damb | dam | dam [+hg] | dam | dam |
big | *samb | samb | samb | samb | samb | samb |
hit/beat | *sak | sak | sak | |||
sweet potato | *kaw | kaf | kav [pd] káv [hg] | -kah [rl] | -kah [bo] | |
sour | *kaj | kaz | kaz | |||
hear | *gan | gan | gan | gan | gan | gan |
dog | *ŋgat | ŋgat | ŋgat | ŋgat [+hg] | ŋgat | ŋgat [+bo] |
unripe fruit | *ŋgaɾ | ŋgáɾ [hg] | ŋgal [bo] | |||
take/receive | *han | han | han | han [+hg] | han | han [+bo] |
speak | *ɾaɣ | laɣ | ɾah | |||
husband | *jam | zam | zam | zam | ham | ham |
night | *ɣap | ɣap | hap | hap | ap | ɣap |
light/bright | *ɣad | ɣa'da | -had | |||
beard | *ɣas | ɣas | has | |||
*(C)aCa(C) | (C)aCa(C) | (C)aCa(C) | (C)aCa(C) | (C)aCa(C) | (C)aCa(C) | |
house | *aha | aha | aha | aha | aha | aha |
red clay sp. | *awa | ava ~ hava [hg] | aha [hg] | ahʷa [bo] | ||
Job's tears | *baba | ba-ba [hg] | baba [bo | |||
sea turtle sp. | *baba | ba-ba [hg] | baba [bo | |||
grandmother | *dada | da'da | ||||
buttocks | *paŋga | pa'ŋga | pa'ŋga [+hg] | paŋga [bo] | ||
coconut spathe | *paɣa | paha [hg] | paɣa [bo] | |||
thigh | *baɣa | ba'ɣa | ba'ha | |||
now/today | *nama | na'ma | nama ~ namha | nama | nama | nama |
egg/seed | *kana | ka'na | ||||
jungle fowl | *kata | ka'ta | ka'ta [+hg] | kata [bo] | ||
light (weight) | *akak | a'kak | a'kak | |||
lung(s) | *ahah | a'hah | ||||
split open | *aɣab | ahab [hg] | aɣab [bo] | |||
lotus sp. | *mamat | mamat [hg] | mamat [bo] | |||
wife's brother | *mandaɣ | manda [hg] | mandaɣ [bo] | |||
egg | *magaw | ma'gaf | ||||
tooth/teeth | *maŋgat | maŋgat | maŋgat [+hg] | maŋgat | maŋgat [+bo] | |
sago splints | *pandaɾ | pandaɾ [hg] | pandal [bo] | |||
armband sp. | *mbaɾaɾ | mbaɾaɾ [hg] | mbalal [bo] | |||
wallaby | *saɣam | sa'ɣam | saham | sa'ham | saʔam | saɣam |
miss/pass | *haɾad | aɾad ~ haɾad [hg] | halad [bo] | |||
become loose | *haɾak | haɾak [hg] | halak [bo] | |||
remove clothes | *waman | vaman [hg] | hʷaman [bo] | |||
coucal sp. | *ɾaɾag | ɾaɾag [hg] | lalag [bo] | |||
half-ripe | *jajak | zazak [hg] | hʲahʲak [bo] | |||
belly | *ɣandam | handam | ha'ndam | andam | ɣandam | |
become clear (?) | *ɣajad | hazad [hg] | ɣahʲad [bo] | |||
*CaCaCa | CaCCa | CaCCa | CaCaCa | CaCaCa | CaCaCa | |
drum | *kandaɾa | ka'nda | kandra | kandara | kandala | kandala |
*CaCaCaC | CaCCaC | CaCCaC | CaCaCaC | CaCaCaC | CaCaCaC | |
plait (?) | *aɣajab | ahazab [bo] | a:jab [hg] | aɣahʲab [bo] | ||
bundle | *aɣajak | ahazak [hg] | a:jak [hg] | |||
stand up (pl.) | *uaɣaman | wahaman [hg] | waɣaman [bo] | |||
frog sp. | *pakapak | pak-a-pak [hg] | pakapak [bo] | |||
thin | *paɾapaɾ | pa'ɾapaɾ [pd] paɾ-a-paɾ [hg] | ||||
pufferfish | *baŋgaba[ŋ/ŋg] | baŋg-a-baŋg [hg] | baŋgabaŋ [bo] | |||
tree sp. | *ŋgaɾasaɾ | ŋgaɾsaɾ ~ gaɾsaɾ [hg] | ŋgalasal [bo] | |||
above | *ɾawaɾaw | lavlav | ɾavɾav | ɾavaɾav | lahala | lahʷalah |
Any vowel /*i *u *e *o/ may follow low central /*a/ in preceding syllables.
Words of the form /*(C)aCi(C)/ as well as /*(C)aCaCi(C)/ are retained as such in all descendants, except where syncope has led to the loss of a medial vowel (above):
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)aCi(C) | (C)aCi(C) | (C)aCi(C) | (C)aCi(C) | (C)aCi(C) | (C)aCi(C) | |
sneeze | *asi | asi | ||||
body decor. | *maɣi | mahi [hg] | maɣi [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *paɾi-paɾi | paɾi-paɾi [hg] | palpali [bo] | |||
luminescence | *ndaki-ndaki | daki-ndaki [hg] | ndakindaki [bo] | |||
tinea | *kambi | kambi [hg] | kambi [bo] | |||
say | *aɣi[n] | aɣin | ahi | ahi [+hg] | aʔi | ahi ~ aɣei [pd] aɣi [bo] |
sit down (sg.) | *ambid | ambid | ambid | |||
person/people | *anim | anim | anim [+hg] | a'nim [rl] | anim [bo] | |
3 pl. | *anip | anip | anip | anip | anip | anip |
stand up (sg.) | *atin | atin | atin | a'tin [rl] | atin [bo] | |
accompany | *ahik | hi'kam | a'hik | |||
call | *aɾin | a'lin | a'ɾin | |||
slow | *aɾiɾ | a'lil | a'ɾiɾ | |||
rat | *mambit | ma'mbit [+hg] | mambit [rl] | |||
get angry | *mahid | mahid [hg] | mahid [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *mbambit | bambit [hg] | mbambit [bo] | |||
paradise sp. | *sakiɾ | sa'kil | sa'kiɾ [+hg] | sakil [bo] | ||
make | *kamin | ka'min | ka'min | |||
areca nut | *kanis | kanis [hg] | ka'nis [rl] | kanis [bo] | ||
die | *kahi[wV]d | kahivð | kahivd | kahid | kahid | |
bite | *hani₂ɣ | hnag | hani [pd] hanih [hg] | ha'nɛʔ ~ ha'neʔ [rl] | haniɣ [bo] | |
spit | *haɾiɣ | haɾih [hg] | haliɣ [bo] | |||
take care of | *wagib | vagib [hg] | hʷagib [bo] | |||
Atih | *ɣatiw | hativ | atih | ɣatih | ||
be sated | *ɣadin | ɣadin | hadin [hg] | ɣadin [bo] | ||
eat | *ɣawi[ɣ] | havik | havik ~ havi [pd] havi [hg] | ahi | ɣahʷiɣ [+bo] | |
*(C)aCaCi | (C)aC(a)Ci(C) | (C)aCCi(C) | (C)aCaCi(C) | (C)aC(a)Ci(C) | (C)aCaCi(C) | |
tear(s) | *awasi | af'si | avasi | |||
snake | *ajaki | azaki | azaki | ahʲaki | ahʲaki | |
scabies | *samani | 'samani | samani [+hg] | samani [bo] | ||
betel pepper | *dadami[h] | 'dad(ə)mi(h) [rl] | dadami [bo] | |||
cheek | *aɣadiɾ | ahadir [hg] | a:dil [hg] | |||
nit(s) | *kajabit | kazabit [hg] | kahʲabit [bo] | |||
stand (one leg) | *waɣamin | vaɣmin [hg] | vahamin [hg] |
…:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*aCiCi | CiCi | CiCi | CiCi | aCiCi | aCiCi | |
river | *(a-)ɾik-i | li'k-i | rik-i | ri'k-i [hg] | a-lik-i | a-lik-i [+bo] |
…:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*CasiC | C(i)hiC | CasiC | CasiC | CasiC | CasiC | |
pig | *basik | bihik ~ bhik | basik | ba'sik [+hg] | basik | basik [+bo] |
Words of the form /*(C)aCu(C)/ as well as /*(C)aCaCuC)/ are retained as such in all descendants, except where syncope has led to the loss of a medial vowel (above):
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)aCu(C) | (C)aCu(C) | (C)aCu(C) | (C)aCu(C) | (C)aCu(C) | (C)aCu(C) | |
leaf fan | *pandu | pandu [hg] | pandu [bo] | |||
nape/neck | *mbaku | mbaku [pd] baku [hg] | mbaku [bo] | |||
smoke | *haku | ha'ku | ||||
tired | *jaju | za'zu | za'zu | |||
woman | *anum | anum | a'num [md] | anum [+hg] | anum [rl] | anum [bo] |
3 sg. f. | *anup | a'nup | anup | a'nup | anup | anup |
tie up | *aɣun | ahun [hg] | ɛʔ'un ~ aʔun [rl] | aɣun [bo] | ||
pull out | *awus | avus [hg] | ahus [bo] | |||
shade/shadow | *matuɾ | matuɾ [hg] | matul [bo] | |||
bend (tr.) | *masud | masud [hg] | masud [bo] | |||
bend (intr.) | *masuk | masuk [hg] | masuk [bo] | |||
far | *mahut | ma'hut | ||||
goura pigeon | *mahuk | mhuk | mahuk | mahuk [+hg] | mahuk | maɣuk [pd] mahuk [bo] |
tuber sp. | *paɾu[ŋ/ŋg] | paɾuŋg [hg] | paɾuŋ [bo] | |||
louse | *nahun | nhun | nahun [rl] | |||
bird sp. | *saɾuk | saɾuk [hg] | saluk [bo] | |||
break (wood) | *kagub | ka'gub | ka'gub | |||
Rahuk | *ɾaɣuk | ɾahuk | laɣuk | |||
pelican sp. | *jabug | zabug ~ -k [hg] | habug [hg] | hʲabug [bo] | ||
*(C)aCaCu(C) | (C)aCaCu(C) | (C)aCaCu(C) | ||||
sago vein (?) | *saɾaku | saɾaku [hg] | salaku [bo] | |||
fish sp. | *kaɾambu | kaɾambu [hg] | kalambu [bo] | |||
animal | *namakud | namakud | namkud |
Words of the form /*(C)aCe(C)/ as well as /*(C)aCaCe(C)/ are retained as such in all descendants, except where syncope has led to the loss of a medial vowel (above):
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)aCe(C) | (C)aCe(C) | (C)aCe(C) | (C)aCe(C) | (C)aCe(C) | (C)aCe(C) | |
shrub sp. | *ake | aké [hg] | ake [bo] | |||
ridge | *paɾe | paɾé [hg] | pale [bo] | |||
arrow | *taŋge | taŋge | taŋge | taŋge | taŋge | |
lapwing sp. | *taɾe-taɾe | taɾé-taɾé [hg] | taltale [bo] | |||
saliva/spittle | *kase | kase | kase | |||
man | *anem | anem | a'nem [md] | anem [+hg] | a'nem [rl] | anem [bo] |
3 sg. m. | *anep | anep | anep | anep | anep | anep |
overtake | *aheb | aheb [hg] | aheb [bo] | |||
laugh | *awed | aved | ||||
paradise sp. | *mbate[n/nd] | baténd [hg] | mbaten [bo] | |||
friend | *namek | namek | namek | |||
banana | *napet | napet | napet | napet | napet | napet |
grasshopper | *taŋgen | taŋgen [pd] taŋgèn [hg] | ||||
full | *tahe[b] | taheb | ||||
coconut flower | *saɾeɣ | saréh [hg] | saleɣ [bo] | |||
prawn sp. | *saɾeɣ | saréh [hg] | saleɣ [bo] | |||
fat/grease | *kabeɾ | kabel | kabeɾ | |||
go up | *kahek | khek | kahek [+hg] | kahek [bo] | ||
pound sago | *ɣawek | havek [hg] | ɣahʷek [bo] | |||
*(C)aCaCe | (C)aCCe(C) | (C)aCaCe(C) | (C)aCaCe(C) | (C)aCaCe(C) | (C)aCaCe(C) | |
mouth | *babake | bake | babake | |||
Sanggase | *saŋgaje | saŋgaze | saŋgahe | |||
sun | *katane | katane | katane | katane | katane | katane |
pinch/trap (3 sg.) | *matap-e-b | matap-e-b [hg] | matap-e-b [bo] | |||
dry | *kapaɾet | kapaɾét [hg] | 'kapalet [rl] | 'kapalet [rl] | ||
sago beater | *ka-ɣawek | ka-havek [hg] | kaɣahʷek [bo] |
Words of the form /*(C)aCo(C)/ as well as /*(C)aCoCo(C)/ are retained as such in all descendants, except where syncope has led to the loss of a medial vowel (above):
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)aCo(C) | (C)aCo(C) | (C)aCo(C) | ||||
worm | *aɾo | |||||
rat | *ɣabo | habó [hg] | ɣabo [bo] | |||
right (side) | *atow | |||||
pull out | *ahok | ahók [hg] | ahok [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *mbaɣoɾ | bahoɾ [hg] | mbaɣol [bo] | |||
mud | *daɾoh | daɾóh [hg] | dalo ~ daloh [rl] | dalo [bo] | ||
orphan | *ndamom | da'mom | nda'mom | |||
foam | *ndaɾo[m/mb] | daɾómb [hg] | dalom [bo] | |||
hang | *waɣob | vahob [hg] | hʷaɣob [bo] | |||
*(C)aCoCo(C) | (C)aCoCo(C) | (C)aCoCo(C) | ||||
frog | *ɣadoɾo | adolo | ɣadolo |
Any vowel /*i *u *e *o/ may by followed by low central /*a/ in subsequent syllables.
Words of the form /*(C)iCa(C)/ are retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)iCa(C) | (C)iCa(C) | (C)iCa(C) | (C)iCa(C) | (C)iCa(C) | (C)iCa(C) | |
net | *kipa | ki'pa | ki'pa | |||
fish sp. | *kiwa | kiva [hg] | kihʷa [bo] | |||
Imah | *imaj | imaz | imah | |||
two | *inah | inah | inah | inah | inah | inah |
path | *isas | i'sas | i'sas | |||
village | *miɾaw | mi'laf | mi'ɾav [pd] miɾáv [hg] | mi'lah [rl] | milah [bo] | |
tree sp. | *mijaɾ | mizaɾ [hg] | mihal [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *mbisambis | mbis-a-mbis [hg] | mbisambis [bo] |
Words of the form /*(C)uCa(C)/ as well as /*(C)aCoCo(C)/ are retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)uCa(C) | (C)uCa(C) | (C)uCa(C) | ||||
fence | *uta | uta [hg] | u'taʔ ~ utah [rl] | uta [bo] | ||
bamboo | *suba | suba | suba | |||
bandicoot sp. | *tuban | tu'ban | tu'ban [+hg] | tuban [bo] | ||
pour | *ɾuɣad | ɾuad ~ ɾuhad [hg] | luɣad [bo] |
Words of the form /*eCa/ as well as /*eCeCa/ are retained as such in at least Mbian and Southeast Marind:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*eCa | eCa | eCa | ||||
rib(s)/side | *emba | e'mba | e:mba | |||
sweat | *ena | e'na | e'na | |||
*eCeCa | eCeCa | eCeCa | ||||
nest | *ewesa | wefe'sa | evesa |
Words of the form /*(C)oCa(C)/ as well as /*(C)oCaCa(C)/ are retained as such in all descendants, except where syncope has led to the loss of a medial vowel (above):
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*(C)oCa(C) | (C)oCa(C) | (C)oCa(C) | (C)oCa(C) | (C)oCa(C) | (C)oCa(C) | |
coconut | *oŋgat | o'ŋgat | oŋgat | o'ŋgat [+hg] | oŋgat | oŋgat [+bo] |
widow/widower | *moɣa | 'moɣa | 'moha | |||
knob | *boka | bóka [hg] | boka [bo] |
[under construction]
… /*i/ …
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*i/(C)_Co(C) | i | i | i | i | i | |
dark | *dino[h] | dinoh | dino: | |||
*i/(C)_CaCuC | i | i | i | i | i | |
tie | *kipaɾud | kipɾud ~ kiplud | kipaɾud | kipalud | kipalud | |
*i/… | i | i | ||||
work | *saesaɣi | sasa'hi | sesahi [pd] sa-sahi [hg] | sasaɣi [bo] |
One word with an unusual pattern is mandatorily a compound due to stress rules:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*i/uaC_CaC | i | i | i | i | i | |
good | *uaniŋgap | wa'niŋgap | niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap |
Words of the form /*iCuC/ are reflected as /iCiC/ in Mbian and as /uCuC/ elsewhere:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*iCuC | iCiC | uCuC | uCuC | uCuC | uCuC | |
tongue | *inum | i'nim | unum | unum ~ u'nom | unum | unum |
lip(s) | *itup | u'tup |
…:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*i₂ | a | i e | i | i | i | |
flea | *as[a/o]bi₂n | asoban [hg] | asabin [hg] | asabin [bo] | ||
nose | *aŋgi₂p | a'ŋgap | aŋgep ~ aŋgip | a'ŋgip | aŋgip | aŋgip |
penis | *owi₂k | o'vak | u'vik | |||
face | *neni₂h | ne'nah | na'nih | |||
mosquito | *naŋgi₂t | niŋgit ~ niŋgat | naŋgit | na'ŋgit | naŋgit | naŋgit |
bite | *hani₂ɣ | hnag | hani [pd] hanih [hg] | ha'nɛʔ ~ ha'neʔ [rl] | haniɣ [bo] |
… /*u/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*u/… | u | u | u | u | u | |
canoe | *iawun | ja'vun | javun | ja'vun | jahun | jahun |
*u/iC_C | u | u | u | u | u | |
tongue | *inum | i'nim | unum | unum ~ u'nom | unum | unum |
lip(s) | *itup | u'tup | ||||
*u/(C)_Ci | i | |||||
boil (n.) | *buŋg[i] | buŋg | bu'ŋgi [+hg] | buŋgi [bo] | ||
*u/CeC_C | u | u | ||||
nape | *temuk | te'muk | ||||
navel | *dekum | de'kum | da'kum | |||
*u/CVCVC_C | u | u | u | u | u | |
wet | *dubadub | daba'dub | ||||
tie | *kipaɾud | kipɾud ~ kiplud | kipaɾud | kipalud | kipalud | |
goanna sp. | *kadewuk | kadivuk [hg] | kade'huk [rl] | kadihuk [bo] |
… /*u₂/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*u₂ | a | u | ||||
cough/phlegm | *kepu₂ɾ | ke'pal | ka'puɾ [+hg] | kepul [rl] | kapul [bo] |
… /*e/ …
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*e/(C)_CoC | e | e | e | e | e | |
salt/sea | *etob | |||||
think (3sg.) | *wetok | vetok | ve'tok | hʷetok | hʷetok | |
*e/CeC_C | e | e | e | e | e | |
ear | *kembet | ke'mbet | kambet~kembet | kambet | kambet | kambet |
… /e/ in Mbian and /a/ elsewhere:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*e/_CiC | e | a | a | a | a | |
face | *neni₂h | ne'nah | na'nih | |||
command | *teŋgiɣ | teŋgiɣ | taŋgi [pd] taŋgih [hg] | taŋgiɣ [bo] | ||
ankle | *seniŋg | se'niŋg | sa:'niŋg | |||
raw/unripe | *kendi | kend- | ka:'ndi | |||
defecate | *keɾim | ke'lim | ka'ɾim | |||
*e/_CuC | e | a | a | a | a | |
garden | *mVɾu | mulu [hg] | maɾu [+hg] | ma'lu [rl] | malu [bo] | |
foot | *tegu | tagu | ta'gu | tagu | ||
star | *ndeku | ndaku | ||||
nipa palm | *temu | ta'mu [+hg] | ||||
nape | *temuk | te'muk | ||||
navel | *dekum | de'kum | da'kum | |||
cough/phlegm | *kepu₂ɾ | ke'pal | ka'puɾ [+hg] | kepul [rl] | kapul [bo] |
One counterexample, together with rare initial /*mb/, suggests a recent loan:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*e/_Ci | e | e | e | e | e | |
stone axe | *mbeɾi | mbeli | mbeli | mbe'ɾi | mbeli | mbeli ~ mbel |
Words of the form /*CeCa(C)/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*e/C_Ca(C) | e | a | a | a | a | |
hand/palm | *seŋga | se'ŋga | saŋga | sa'ŋga | saŋga | saŋga |
belch | *tebak | tebak | ta'bak | |||
fire/firewood | *tekaw | tekav ~ te'kaf | takav | ta'kav | takah | takah |
stone | *ketaɾ | ka'taɾ | katal | katal |
One counterexample, in direct contrast to /*seŋga/ “hand” above, is most likely a loan from Mbian into Kumb (cf. /*kataɾ/ in all other descendants):
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*e | e | e | ||||
stone | *seŋga | se'ŋga | seŋga |
… /*o/ …
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*o/C_CaCVC | o | o | o | o | o | |
short | *dohakVs | dokes | dokis | doha'k_s | dok_s ~ dahok_s | dohak_s ~ dahok_s |
*o/CiC_C | o | o | o | o | o | |
dark | *dino[h] | dinoh | dino | |||
*o/CeC_C | o | o | o | o | o | |
think (3sg.) | *wetok | vetok | ve'tok | hʷetok | hʷetok | |
*o/(C)VCaC_C | o | o | o | o | o | |
break (stone) | *aehaɣok | aha'ɣok | eha'hok | |||
*… | o | o | o | o | o | |
mountain/hill | *baetoka | bato'ka | beto'ka | bɛtok- [rl] | betok [bo] | |
cold | *s[a/o]sode[h] | sosdeh | sasode |
In words of the form /*oCiC/, unstressed /*o/ is raised to /u/ in …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*o/_CiC | o [o u] | u | o [o u] | o [o u] | o | |
many/all | *otiw | u'tiv | utiv | o'tiv | utih | otih |
long | *ogid | u'gid | ugid | ogi | ||
penis | *owi₂k | o'vak | u'vik |
In words of the form /*oCuC/, unstressed /*o/ is raised to /u/ in …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*o/_CuC | ||||||
urinate | *kosun | ko'sun | ku'sun |
… /*a/ …
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*a | a | a | a | a | a | |
afterbirth | *iaɣau | ja'ɣaw | ||||
break (stone) | *aehaɣok | aha'ɣok | eha'hok | |||
grandfather | *amai | |||||
leech | *ambai | a'mbai | ||||
water | *adeka | adika ~ ada'ka | adka | adaka ~ adi'ka [pd] adaka [hg] | adaka | adaka [+bo] |
nose | *aŋgi₂p | a'ŋgap | aŋgep ~ aŋgip | a'ŋgip | aŋgip | aŋgip |
good | *uaniŋgap | wa'niŋgap | niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap |
body | *uahani | wah'ni | wahni | 'wahani [+hg] | wahani ~ wahni [pd] wohani [hg] | wahani |
sharp | *uaɾoaka | 'waloaka | woɾo'waka | |||
moon | *mandou | mandoᵘ ~ ma'ndow | mandaᵘ | mandaᵘ ~ ma'ndaw [pd] mandow [hg] | mandaᵘ | mandaᵘ [pd] mandaw [bo] |
earth/below | *mak[a/o]n | ma'kan | makon ~ makan | ma'kan | makan | makan |
small | *papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs | papVs |
mountain/hill | *baetoka | bato'ka | beto'ka | bɛtok- [rl] | betok [bo] | |
old (person) | *bakau | ba'kaw | ||||
belch | *tebak | tebak | ta'bak | |||
fire/firewood | *tekaw | tekav ~ te'kaf | takav | ta'kav | takah | takah |
centipede | *tad[o/u] | ta'do | ta'du | |||
hand/palm | *seŋga | se'ŋga | saŋga | sa'ŋga | saŋga | saŋga |
work | *saesaɣi | sasa'hi | sesahi [pd] sa-sahi [hg] | sasaɣi [bo] | ||
tie | *kipaɾud | kipɾud ~ kiplud | kipaɾud | kipalud | kipalud | |
inside | *kVmaɣ | ke'maɣ | ku'mah | kumaɣ | ||
goanna sp. | *kadewuk | kadivuk [hg] | kade'huk [rl] | kadihuk [bo] | ||
paddle (n.) | *ka-wai-a | kavea | kavea ~ kavia | kavi'a | kahe | kahʷaⁱa |
straight | *ɣaedeha | 'ɣaedeha | he'da |
Vowel sequences realized as diphthongs include /*iu *ei *ou *ai *au *ae/ [*iᵘ *eⁱ *oᵘ *aⁱ *aᵘ *aᵉ]. They are phonetically distinguished from other vowel sequences (below) by stress, as final sequential /*VV(C)/ is realized as [V'V(C)] but diphthongs as ['Vᵛ(C)].
… /*iu/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*iu | iᵘ | iᵘ | iᵘ | iᵘ | ||
crocodile | *kiu | kiᵘ | kiᵘ | kiᵘ | kiᵘ | |
pandanus sp. | *iuma | juma [hg] | juma [bo] | |||
be | *jiua | ziwa [hg] | hiwa [hg] |
… /*ei/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*ei | eⁱ [eⁱ i] | eⁱ [eⁱ aⁱ i] | eⁱ [eⁱ] | eⁱ [eⁱ i] | eⁱ [eⁱ aⁱ i] | |
like/similar | *-hei | -hi ~ -haⁱ | -hei ~ -heⁱ ~ -hi | -hi | -hi | |
drink/eat | *ɣei | ɣeⁱ ~ ɣi | heⁱ | heⁱ [pd] hi ~ héi [hg] | heⁱ [pd} i: ~ ej [rl] | ɣeⁱ [pd] ɣi [bo] |
ghost | *ɣeis | ɣeⁱs | his ~ heⁱs ~ haⁱs [pd] heis [hg] | heⁱs | eⁱs | ɣeⁱs [pd] ɣis- [bo] |
…:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*[ei/ai] | eⁱ [eⁱ i] | eⁱ [eⁱ aⁱ i] | eⁱ [eⁱ] | eⁱ [eⁱ] | eⁱ [eⁱ aⁱ] | |
cassowary | *k[ei/ai] | keⁱ | keⁱ | keⁱ | keⁱ | kaⁱ |
help | *ɣ[ei/ai]na | heina [hg] | ɣajna [bo] | |||
hornbill | *ɣ[ei/ai]wui | heivui [hg] | ɣajhuj [bo] | |||
raptor sp. | *kab[ei/ai] | kabai ~ kabei [hg] | kabaj [bo] | |||
bird sp. | *suɾin[ei/ai] | suɾinei [hg] | sulina [bo] |
…/*oi/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*oi | oi | oi | oi | oi | ||
lime/white | *koi | koi | koi | koi | koi | |
parrot sp. | *woi | voi [hg] | hoj [bo] | |||
new garden | *poia | poja ~ paja [hg] | po'ja ~ pojah [rl] | poja [bo] | ||
mourning band | *soia | sója [hg] |
… /*ou/ is retained as such in Mbian and merged with the reflexes of /*aᵘ/ (below) elsewhere:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*ou | oᵘ [oᵘ] | aᵘ | aᵘ [aᵘ oᵘ] | aᵘ | aᵘ | |
moon | *mandou | mandoᵘ ~ ma'ndow | mandaᵘ | mandaᵘ ~ ma'ndaw [pd] mandow [hg] | mandaᵘ | mandaᵘ [pd] mandaw [bo] |
… /*ai/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*ai | eⁱ [e ei] | aⁱ [ai] | aⁱ [aⁱ ai] | aⁱ [ai] | aⁱ [ai] | |
bird sp. | *dai | dai [hg] | daj [bo] | |||
white cockatoo | *kai | kai ~ kaï [hg] | kʌj [bo] | |||
fall/fall apart | *hai | hai [hg] | haj [bo] | |||
father | *wai | ve ~ vei | vai | vai ~ vaⁱ | hʷai | hʷai |
paddle (3 sg.) | *ø-wai | ø-vé ~ ø-vai [hg] | ø-vai [hg] | ø-he [hg] | ø–hʷaj [bo] | |
grandfather | *amai | |||||
leech | *ambaiⁱ | a:'mbai | ||||
dance | *mahai | mahai [hg] | mahaj [bo] | |||
first | *maɣai | maɣai ~ majĕ [hg] | mahai [hg] | maé [hg] | ||
heart/breath | *beakai | beake | be'kai [pd] békai [hg] | beke [rl] | bekaj [bo] | |
nibung palm | *ŋgoŋgai | góŋgai ~ ŋgo-ŋgai [hg] | ŋgoŋgaj [bo] | |||
clearing | *hekai | hékai ~ heikai [hg] | hekaj | |||
assemble | *wewai | vé-vai [hg] | hʷehʷaj [bo] |
… /*au/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*au | aᵘ [aᵘ au aw] | aᵘ [aᵘ] | aᵘ [aᵘ aw] | aᵘ [aᵘ] | aᵘ [aᵘ] | |
turtle sp. | *gau | gaw | gaw [hg] | gaw [bo] | ||
oriole sp. | *kaue-kaue | kawé-kawé [hg] | kaw(e)kawe [bo] | |||
brain(s) | *ɣaum[o/u] | 'haumu [pd] haumó [hg] | ɣomu [bo] | |||
burn (intr.) | *ɣaunip | hónip ~ hunip [hg] | unip̚ [rl] | ɣunip [bo] χaunip̚ [rl] |
||
light fire | *ɣausig | hu'sig [pd] hausig ~ husig [hg] | ɣosig [bo] | |||
afterbirth | *iaɣau | ja'ɣaw | ||||
canoe pole | *beɣau | béhaw ~ béhéw[hg] | beɣaw [bo] | |||
old (person) | *bakau | ba'kaw | ||||
breadfruit | *baɾau | ba'ɾaw [+hg] | balaw [bo] | |||
sarus crane | *ndaɾau | daɾaw [hg] | ndalaw [bo] |
Drabbe (1955: 16) states that East /aᵘ/ in the following root, given as “stoken” rather than as “verbranden” (1954: 41,) may be heard as either [aᵘ] or [u]. It differs from the examples above in being followed by a consonant:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*au | aᵘ [u] | aᵘ [u] | ||||
burn/cook | *ɣaus | ɣus | haᵘs |
… /*ae/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*ae | aᵉ [a ae] | aᵉ [ei ~ aⁱ] | e [e e] | e [e e] | e [e e] | |
break (stone) | *aehaɣok | aha:'ɣok | eha'hok | |||
mountain/hill | *baetoka | bato'ka | beto'ka | bɛtok- [rl] | betok [bo] | |
work | *saesaɣi | sasa'hi | sesahi [pd] sa-sahi [hg] | sasaɣi [bo] | ||
rain | *ɣae | ɣa | hei ~ haⁱ | he [pd] hei [hg] | e | ɣe |
fetch | *ɣae[t] | -ɣaet | -he | |||
straight | *ɣaedeha | 'ɣaedeha | he'da | |||
sweet | *ɣaeɾ | ɣael- | heɾ |
Vowel sequences ….
The sequence /*ia/ is found nearly only initially, where it retained as such in all descendants and is heard as semivowel-initial segment [ja]:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*ia | ia [ja] | ia [ja] | ia [ja] | ia [ja] | ia [ja] | |
revenge | *iaha | jah | ja'ha | |||
canoe | *iawun | ja'vun | javun | ja'vun | jahun | jahun |
bird sp. | *iaɾo | jaɾó [hg] | jalo [bo] | |||
afterbirth | *iaɣau | ja'ɣaw | ||||
mourning band | *soia | sója [hg] |
The sequence /*ui/ is retained as such in all descendants. When it occurs initially, it is realized as semivowel-initial segment [wi]:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*ui/#_ | ui [wi] | ui [wi] | ui [wi] | ui [wi] | ui [wi] | |
spirit/soul | *ui | wi | wi ~ wai | wi | wi | wi |
mango | *uiui | wiwi [hg] | wiwi [bo] | |||
beg | *uihig | wihig ~ wig [hg] | wig [bo] | |||
sweet coconut | *uimap | wimap [hg] | wimap [bo] | |||
*ui/C_ | ui [u'i] | ui [ui] | ui [u'i uⁱ] | ui [ui] | ui [ui] | |
flesh/meat | *mui | mui ~ muj [pd} mui [hg] | mui | mui [pd] muj [bo] |
||
tail | *ŋgui | ŋgu'i | gui [pd] ŋgui [hg] | ŋguj [bo] | ||
tremble | *ɣuiew | hujév [hg] | ɣujeh [bo] | |||
egret sp. | *ioui | jowi ~ juwi [hg] | jowi [bo] | |||
carry w/head | *awui | avui [hg] | ahuj [bo] | |||
savanna | *mamui | mamui [hg] | mamuj [bo] | |||
hornbill | *ɣ[ei/ai]wui | heivui [hg] | ɣajhuj [bo] |
The sequence /*ua/ is found nearly only initially, where it is retained as such in all descendants and is heard as semivowel-initial [wa]:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*ua | ua [wa] | ua [wa] | ua [wa] | ua [wa] | ua [wa] | |
net bag | *uad | wad [hg] | wad [rl] | wad [bo] | ||
tail | *uak | 'wak [md] | wak [hg] | wak [rl] | wak [bo] | |
run | *uaɾak | |||||
body | *uahani | wah'ni | wahni | 'wahani [+hg] | wahani ~ wahni [pd] wohani [hg] | wahani |
shorebird sp. | *uandako | wandakó [hg] | wandako [bo] | |||
kava | *uati | wati [hg] | wati [bo] | |||
plant sp. | *uati-uati | wati-wati [hg] | watiwati [bo] | |||
good | *uaniŋgap | wa'niŋgap | niŋgap (?) | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap | wa'niŋgap |
hibiscus sp. | *uakati | wakati ~ wokati [hg] | wakati [bo] | |||
long | *uagVtVk | wag_t_k ~ waga'tok | wag_t_k | wag_t_k | ||
sharp | *uaɾoaka | 'waloaka | woɾo'waka [sic] | |||
be | *jiua | ziwa [hg] | hiwa [hg] | |||
endurance | *jiuaɾ | ziwaɾ [hg] | hiwal [hg] | |||
snake sp. | *kuɾuam | kulwam [hg] | kuɾwan [hg] | kulwam [bo] |
The sequence /*eo/, known from only one example, is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*eo | eo [eo] | eo [eo] | eo [ᵉo eo] | eo [eo] | eo [eo] | |
2 pl. | *eoɣ | eoɣ | eoh | eoh ~ ᵉoh | eo | eoɣ |
The sequence /*ea/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*ea | ea | ea [ea e] | ea [ea e] | aⁱa [aja] | aⁱa [aja] | |
know | *mea[i/e] | me'ai | me'ae [pd] méai [hg] | ma'jaj ~ mɛjaj [rl] | majaj [bo] | |
speech/voice | *mean | me'an | mean ~ men | me'an [pd] méen [hg] | majan [pd] ma'jan ~ mɛjan [rl] | majan [+bo] |
cuscus sp. | *mbeam | be'am | bajam [hg] | mba'jam [rl] | mba'jam [rl] | |
heart/breath | *beakai | beake | be'kai [pd] békai [hg] | beke [rl] | bekaj [bo] |
The sequence /*oa/ is retained in (at least) the East and Mbian dialects:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*oa | oa | oa [oa o'wa] | ||||
throw away | *koag[i/e]n | koagen | koagin | |||
sharp | *uaɾoaka | 'waloaka | woɾo'waka |
Longer vowel sequences which include diphthongs also occur.
The sequence /*iua/ is retained as such in (at least) East and Mbian dialects:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*iua | iᵘa [iwa] | iᵘa [iwa] | ||||
young woman | *iuag | -iwag | -iwag [pd] iwâg [hg] | iwag [rl] | iwag [bo] | |
wind | *kiuaɾ | ki'waɾ | ||||
old woman | *mes iuag | 'mes-iwag | 'mes-iwag [pd] més-iwâg [hg] | mes-iwag [bo] |
The sequence /*aia/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*aia | ea [ea] | ea ia | ia | e | aⁱa | |
paddle (n.) | *ka-wai-a | kavea | kavea ~ kavia | kavi'a | kahe | kahʷaⁱa |
The sequence /*aue/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*aue | aᵘe [awe] | aᵘe [awe] | aᵘe [awe] | aᵘe [awe] | aᵘe [awe] | |
fish | *aue | awe | awe | awe | awe | awe |
The sequence /*aua/ is retained as such in (at least) …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*aua | aᵘa [awa] | aᵘa [awa] | aᵘa [awa] | |||
left | *auaɣ |
… /*aiau/ …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*aiau | aⁱaᵘ [aⁱaᵘ iaᵘ] | aⁱaᵘ [aⁱaᵘ iaᵘ] | aⁱaᵘ [aⁱaᵘ iaᵘ eaᵘ] | aⁱaᵘ [aⁱaᵘ iaᵘ] | aⁱaᵘ [aⁱaᵘ ehaᵘ] | |
bone | *haiau | haiaᵘ ~ hiau | hajaᵘ ~ hiaᵘ | hajaᵘ ~ hiaᵘ [pd] hajéw ~ héjaw [hg] | hajaᵘ ~ hiaᵘ | hajaᵘ ~ hehaᵘ [pd] hajaw [bo] |
… /*uaia/ and is preserved as such in all descendants:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*uaia | uaⁱa [waja] | uaⁱa [waja] | uaⁱa [waja] | uaⁱa [waja] | ||
star | *uaiaɾ | wa'jal | waɾai [sic] | wa'jaɾ | wajal | wajal |
Gender ablaut
[under construction]
… (van der Kolk 1926, Drabbe 1955: pages, Usher and Suter 2015: 111-119, Olsson 2015.)
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
*e/*u/*i | e/u/i | e/u/i | e/u/i | e/u/i | e/u/i | |
man | *anem | anem | a'nem [md] | anem [+hg] | a'nem [rl] | anem [bo] |
woman | *anum | anum | a'num [md] | anum [+hg] | anum [rl] | anum [bo] |
person/people | *anim | anim | anim [+hg] | a'nim [rl] | anim [bo] | |
3 sg. m. | *anep | anep | anep | anep | anep | anep |
3 sg. f. | *anup | a'nup | anup | a'nup | anup | anup |
3 pl. | *anip | anip | anip | anip | anip | anip |
grandfather | *je | ze | he | he | ||
grandmother | *ju | zu | ||||
*ai/*u/*i | e/u | aⁱ/u | aⁱ/u/i | aⁱ/u | aⁱ/u | |
father | *wai | ve ~ vei | vai | vai ~ vaⁱ | hʷai | hʷai |
mother | *wu | vu | vu | vu | hu | hu |
parents | *wi | vi | ||||
*a/*u/*? | a/u | a/u | a/u | a/u | a/u | |
husband | *jam | zam | zam | zam | ham | ham |
wife | *jum | zum | zum | zum | hʲum | hʲum |
Adjective agreement (Drabbe 1955: 23-24) …
…
Pronouns
[under construction]
Drabbe (1954: 142, 1955: 28-31, 150-151) gives Marind nominative pronouns as follows, with third person forms distinguished from one another by gender ablaut:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
1 sg. | *nok | nok | nok | nok | nok | nok |
2 sg. | *oɣ | oɣ | oh | oh | o | oɣ |
3 sg. m. | *anep | anep | anep | anep | anep | anep |
3 sg. f. | *anup | a'nup | anup | a'nup | anup | anup |
1 pl. | *nok (ke) | nok (ke) | nok ke | nok (ke) | nok ke | nok ke |
2 pl. | *eoɣ | eoɣ | eoh | eoh ~ ᵉoh | eo | eoɣ |
3 pl. | *anip | anip | anip | anip | anip | anip |
Drabbe (1955: 28-31) gives the third persons as emphatic forms … demonstratives …:
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
that m. | *epe | epe | ||||
that f. | *upe | upe | ||||
that pl. | *ipe | ipe |
…
Marind | Mbian | Kumb | East | Atih | West | |
1 sg. | ||||||
2 sg. | ||||||
3 sg. m. | ||||||
3 sg. f. | ||||||
1 pl. | ||||||
2 pl. | ||||||
3 pl. |
Verbal morphology
[under construction]
There are three fundamental types of Marind verb stems, depending upon their cooccurence with personal object prefixes or infixes. Sycnhronically, these objects often function as subjects in what Olsson (2016) calls “middle marking.” The class designated here as type III does not inflect for person, so is not discussed here.
Type I verb stems follow the most usual Trans New Guinea pattern of a personal object marker followed by the root of the final verb. Only a limited number of verb stems fall into this class::
Marind | Mbian | East | Atih | West |
Significantly more common than type I stems are those of type II, in which the object marker is preceded by what is called here a complement, presumably derived from zero marked serial constructions if not also incorporated nominals, and followed by a usually monosyllabic auxilliary which was originally the final verb. The initial vowel of the auxilliary together with the presence or absence of a final vowel in the complement governs the form of the object markers.
…
…
In a few examples, all with a final vowel in the complement, it may be seen that an auxilliary which once must have been present has been completely elided:
…
A limited number of stems appear to be formed from successive type I stems, such that the object appears as both a prefix and an infix; these objects invariably agree in person:
…
…
…
…
Loans from and to neighboring languages
[under construction]
… Central Digul River … Although Marind along with the other Fly River families is distantly related to the Digul River-Ok families, with which they share a small number of legitimate cognates, the terms below are not found in other Fly River or Digul River-Ok subfamilies and must be considered loans in one direction or the other:
Marind | Awyu | Wambon | |
canoe | *iawun | *jaxʷuN | *ja[p]un |
scrotum | *ombo | *wɔbu-ɾɔ | *wambu(-ɾɒp) |
goura pigeon | *mahuk | *mɔxɔ[x] [S.] | — |
earth/below | *mak[a/o]n | *m[ɔ]kaN | — |
mosquito | *naŋgi₂t | *n[a]gi | — |
bamboo | *… | *sumb[ɛ/a] | — |
paddle (n.) | *ka-wai-a | *kaxʷe̞ | — |
smoke | *haku | *aku | — |
copulate | *jo[m/mb] | *jɔN | — |
Awyu rounded velar fricative /*xʷ/ has been found only in loans from Marind, where it reflects Marind /*w/, thus mandating that “canoe” and “paddle (n.)” are loans into rather than from Awyu. The term for “earth/below”, found in Yaqay as [mo'qon] (Drabbe,) is thought most likely a loan from Marind because velar voiceless stop /*k/ is regularly fricated to /*x/ in Awyu. Initial /*h/ in “smoke” reflects /*ɸ/ and has been dropped in Awyu, while again native medial /*k/ would be fricated to /*x/ (although the uncommon rounded velar /*kʷ/ does not undergo frication.) The term for “goura pigeon” is found only in South Awyu, where it replaces the native term /*…/.
These loans must postdate the breakup of proto-Central Digul River, but it is not clear that they postdate proto-Awyu. As proto-Marind is significantly more recent than and is not now particularly adjacent to either of these families, nor are there an appreciable number of recent loans, this presents somewhat of a puzzle. The terms for “canoe” and “earth/below” date back to at least proto Marind-Yaqay, while “mosquito” and the verbal root of “paddle (n.)” date to proto-Fly River (q.v. Usher and Suter 2015: 128-129, though merely /*-wai(a)/ not /*kawea/.) This stratum, then, should be seen as representing a stage prior to proto-Marind, most likely proto-Marind Yaqay as Awyu also shares terms which have been found only in Yaqay.
The vowels in the term for “scrotum” (cf. Drabbe's Yaqay ['wamba]) perhaps suggest this to be a loan into pre-proto-Marind from Central Digul River or one of its subfamilies rather than vice-versa. It is also conceivable, though somewhat unlikely, that it is a legitimate cognate dating from the common ancestor of Digul River-Ok and Fly River, as the medial consonant regularly corresponds.
Patterns of influence between Marind and the West Morehead River family to the east can be divided roughly into two stages. In the first, a small number of basic terms are borrowed from West Morehead into proto-Marind. … Jéi attestations are drawn from Drabbe (1954: 53-68) [pd], (Ngkntra) Ngkolmpu from Drabbe (1954: 53-68) [pd] and Carroll (2015) [mc] and Arammba from Mittag (2015) [em]:
Marind | Jéi | Ngkolmpu | Bensbach | Arammba | W. Morehead | |
canoe | *iawun | — | — | — | jʌwɜn [em] | — |
knowledge | *mea[i/e] | |||||
star | *ndeku | — | — | — | dəgø [em] | — |
bamboo sp. | *so[ŋ/ŋg] | — | soŋk [mc] | *θoŋg | sɔŋ [em] | *θoŋg |
fat/grease | *kabeɾ | kabɜl [pd] | ko'bɛl [pd] | *kVpVɽ | — | *kVbVɽ |
dog | *ŋgat | — | — | *ŋɐθɐ | — | *ŋɐθɒ |
All of these roots except /*iawun/ “canoe”, which is native to Marind and Marind-Yaqay and was loaned into Arammba (possibly from Lake Murray, cf. Drabbe's Boazi [za'vun],) violate proto-Fly River phonotactic rules, and as a set suggest that the influence of West Morehead River was the driving force behind Marind's innovative contrast betwen plain and prenasalized voiced stops. The term for “canoe” on the other hand is undoubtedly Marind-Yaqay in origin, and its presence in Arammba, along with the borrowed word for “star” (also found in Lake Murray, q.v. Voorhoeve 1970: 13) can only evidence a prior state in which the predecessors of these two subfamilies were geographically adjacent.
In more recent times … Jéi forms are drawn from Drabbe (1954: 53-68) [pd] and Geurtjens (398-433) [hg], Ngkntra from …, Bädi from Donohue (1996: 18-50) [md] … and South Kanum from Donohue (1996: 18-50) and from Sohn Lebold and Kriens (2009: 31-42) [ms]:
Marind | Jéi | Ngkntra | Bädi | S. Kanum | |
axe | *imbasom | jɜmba:'t͜ʃɜm [pd] | mpɛ'som [pd] mpæsʷəm [mc] | mpæsun [sic] | mpæsun [md] 'm̩pʌsõm [ms] |
water | *adeka | — | 'ataka [pd] 'atəka [mc] | atəka | — |
sneeze | *asi | asi [hg] | — | — | — |
cloud | *omom | — | ɒmɒm | — | |
star | *uaiaɾ | wa'jɜl [pd] | — | — | — |
tail | *uak | wak [pd] | — | — | — |
moon | *mandou | — | — | — | mandɛo [md] 'mɑnɖeu [rl] |
rainbow | *maɾ[e/o]b | — | ma:'rub [pd] | ||
skin/bark | *paɾ | par [pd] | — | — | — |
hair extension | *… | beisam [hg] | ? | ? | ? |
pig | *basik | bɜt͜ʃek [pd] | — | — | — |
breadfruit | *baɾau | baliaw [hg] | mpe'wɛ [pd] | ? | ? |
nipa palm | *temu | tɜ'mu [pd] ta:mu [hg] | tɛ'mu [pd] | ? | ? |
foot | *tegu | — | tɛ'gu [pd] | təgu | — |
rattan | *tup | tup [pd] | — | — | — |
rattan | *tuban | tu'ban [pd] | — | — | — |
navel | *dekum | — | dɛ'kum [pd] | ? | ? |
coast/beach | *duw | duv [hg] | — | — | — |
wallaby | *saɣam | segam [hg] | — | — | — |
paddle (n.) | *ka-wai-a | ka:be'ao [pd] | kəpiwɛ [mc] | — | 'kəpʲuwʌ [ms] kəpuwə ~ kɛpijɒ [md] |
stone | *ketaɾ | — | — | kɛtər ~ kətəl | — |
snake sp. | *kuɾuam | — | — | — | 'puɭʌm [ms] (m)pulɒm [md] |
river | *ɾik | — | li'ko [pd] | lɛkɒ | liku [md] |
Of the forms above, only “axe” (/*m͜bæsɵm/) has reflexes in other Bensbach River languages, and thus might be considered a loan into Marind rather than vice-versa. Several have Marind-Yaqay (/*tup/) or Fly River /*dekum/, /*kawaia/) etymologies and thus cannot be loans from Yei or Kanum into Marind .
The term for “moon” has been reloaned …
In several of these examples, the Kanum language forms provide supporting evidence (/*adeka/, /*dekum/) or the only known evidence (/*tegu/, /*ketaɾ/) for the proto-Marind vowel pattern /*CeCV(C)/ which has been neutralized to /*CaCV(C)/ in the Central Marind dialects.
It is curious that /*ka-wai-a/ “paddle (n.)” has been borrowed with medial /p/ in the Kanum languages. Unlike other West Morehead River languages, Kanum does not have a bilabial fricative /ɸ/, being the only descendant which preserves /*p/ as such. West Morehead /*b/ has merged with /*p/ in Bensbach River, leaving [p ɸ] as the only bilabial occlusives besides the [b p] which reflect rounded velars /*kʷ *gʷ/ (hence the South Kanum reflex of /*kuɾuam/,) the reflexes of semivowel /*w/ being unoccluded. This makes sense then if the loan came immediately from an eastern dialect of Marind in which /*w/ is reflected as /v/.
… Bulaka River … (Usher 2014: 43, 44, 46, 47.) While each Bulaka River language has borrowed from Marind, it is doubtful that any of these loans date to proto-Bulaka River, Due to its easterly location, Maklew has been substantially more influenced by Marind than has Yelmek or Yab. both lexically and phonologically, with non-stops /*w *j/ fricated to /h s/ in codevelopment with the western dialects while velar non-stop /*ɣ/ is reflected as /h/ as in Kumbe River and Southeast Marind. Yelmek and sometimes Yab merge fricative /*s/ with /t/. Jélmèk attestations are drawn from Drabbe (1950: 545-574,) Jab from Geurtjens (1933: 398-433) and Makléw from Drabbe (1950: 545-574) [pd] and from Lebold, Kriens and de Vries (2010: 46-52) [rl]:
Marind | Makléw | Jélmèk | Jab | |
young woman | *iuag | jua [pd] | — | — |
axe | *imbasom | 'mbasom [pd] | batom | ? |
two | *inah | i'na-ge [pd] | ina | inah |
sneeze | *asi | — | ati-ŋɛ | ati-ŋje: |
cloud | *omom | — | ? | omom |
star | *uaiaɾ | wa'jal [rl] | — | — |
bow | *mij | 'mijɛs [rl] | — | miz |
old woman | *mes iuag | mɛsiwag [rl] | met(w)ago | mɛsiwag |
moon | *mandou | 'mandow [pd] 'mandaw [rl] | — | — |
far | *mahut | ma'hut [rl] | — | — |
new garden | *poia | poja [pd] | — | — |
heart | *beakai | beke [pd] | — | — |
breadfruit | *baɾau | — | — | baraw |
cuscus sp. | *mbeam | — | bajam | ? |
nipa palm | *temu | tamu [pd] | — | — |
rattan | *tup | — | tup | tup |
mourning band | *soia | ? | ? | toja |
bamboo knife | *sok(-wak[a]ɾ[a]) | soka-'hakəl [pd] | tok-wakəl | sok |
heavy | *k[e/a]niɾ | kənil [pd] | — | ? |
fat/grease | *kabeɾ | kabel [pd] | — | ? |
paddle (n.) | *ka-wai-a | kahia [pd] | kawja | kavia |
dog | *ŋgat | ŋgat [pd] | — | — |
think | *wetok | hetok [pd] | — | — |
beard | *ɣas | has [pd] | — | — |
It's not clear why /*iuag/ “young woman” should be borrowed by Yelmek as [jua] /iua/, as final /*g/ is preserved in the loan /*mes iuag/ “old woman.”
There is no clear evidence that any Marind dialect has borrowed from either Bulaka River language; the direction of influence appears to be entirely one-way. Most likely this is also true of the sound changes shared by Maklew.
… Marianne Strait and Kolopom … Although Moraori (below) is a member of the Kolopom family, it is assumed that all these loans are quite recent, dating from Marind's arrival in the Marianne Strait region (/*imaj/) and greatly postdating the breakup of proto-Kolopom, thus are historically unrelated patterns. No Marind words have been found in Ndom. Mombum attestations are drawn from Drabbe (1950: 566-574) and from Geutjens (1933: 398-433) [hg], Riantana and Kimaghama from Drabbe (1949: 14-24):
Marind | Mombum | Riantana | Kimaghama | |
two | *inah | — | ɛ'naβa | — |
moon | *mandou | — | ma'nta | — |
rainbow | *maɾ[e/o]b | 'malab | — | — |
skin/bark | *paɾ | par | — | — |
nape/neck | *mbaku | mbaku | — | — |
cuscus sp. | *mbeam | — | — | 'bajamu |
bamboo knife | *sok | sok [hg] | — | — |
cassowary | *k[ei/ai] | kai | — | — |
jungle fowl | *kata | — | kar | — |
As with Bulaka River, there is no clear evidence that Marind has borrowed from any of these western languages.
By far the greatest amount of Marind lexical influence is found in Moraori, a member of the Kolopom family, from which it has evidently been geographically separated by the southward expansion of the Marind dialects to the coast… with Moraori attestations drawn from Drabbe (1954: 53-68) [pd], from Donohue (1996: 18-50) [md], from Sohn Lebold and Kriens (2009: 31-42) [ms] and from Arka (2015) [wa]
Marind | Moraori | |
egret sp. | *ioui | |
axe | *imbasom | |
two | *inah | |
root | *itit | |
one | *ijakod | |
fish | *aue | |
leech | *ambai | |
water | *adeka | |
light (weight) | *akak | |
worm | *aɾo | |
cloud | *omom | |
liver | *on | |
penis | *owi₂k | |
kunai grass | *omasa | |
kava | *uati | |
fence | *uta | |
bird | *ujub | |
sit | *miɾ | |
old woman | *mes iuag | |
garden | *mVɾu | |
goura pigeon | *mahuk | |
rainbow | *maɾ[e/o]b | |
widow/widower | *moɣa | |
buttocks | *paŋga | |
skin/bark | *paɾ | |
thin | *paɾapaɾ | |
feather(s) | *put | |
thorn/needle | *ban | |
pig | *basik | |
breadfruit | *baɾau | |
thigh | *baɣa | |
cuscus sp. | *mbeam | |
friend | *namek | |
banana | *napet | |
young man | *noɣ anem | |
nipa palm | *temu | |
nape | *temuk | |
heel | *tepod | |
foot | *tegu | |
arrow | *taŋge | |
grasshopper | *taŋgen | |
bandicoot sp. | *tuban | |
navel | *dekum | |
spear | *da[m/mb] | |
mud | *daɾoh | |
wet | *dubadub | |
coast/beach | *duw | |
sand | *sa | |
work | *saesaɣi | |
bamboo | *… | |
dry | *kapaɾet | |
jungle fowl | *kata | |
spit/spittle | *… | |
paddle (n.) | *ka-wai-a | |
sago beater | *ka-ɣawek | |
lime/white | *koi | |
tail | *ŋgui | |
machete | *wak[a]ɾ[a] | |
make fence | *ɾod | |
thick | *jumbVjumb | |
ghost | *ɣeis |
It is not clear why final /*t/ in /*put/ “feather(s)” should be lost in Moraori.
Moraori has also borrowed extensively from Yei and the Kanum languages, leaving it with much less native Kolopom vocabulary than would otherwise be expected.