Mount Brown
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute, developed with Malcolm Ross
Situation
[under construction]
Mount Brown, also known as Manubaran after the local pronunciation of Mount Brown, is comprised of perhaps three closely-related languages, Doromu-Koki, Gebi and Maria, spoken in the south central portion of Papua New Guinea's Central Province (Dutton 1970: CITE, 978.)
Subclassification
The internal classification of Mount Brown is as follows:
Mount Brown
Doromu-Koki
Gebi
Maria
Sources
Bastard (1917-1918: 92) 169 comparative terms for Orai-i-u (Maria) of Kanigaba village
Grist (1925-1926: 93) 122 comparative terms for Gebi of Kuru villages on slopes of Mount Brown and westward
Ray (1929) (unobtained)
Ray (1938: 183, 192-197) reprints excerpts drawn from Bastard's (1917-1918) Orai-i-u and Grist's (1925-1926: 93) Gebi
Dutton (1970: 951-976) … comparative terms for Doromu of Bareika, Lofaika and Aramaika villages and Maria of Maranomu no. 1, Maria, Maiagolo and Uderi
Weimer and Weimer (1977: 8-11) 140 comparative terms for Oiso (Maria)
Quigley and Quigley (1993) Doromu survey (unobtained)
Quigley (n.d.) survey vocabularies of Doromu of Amuraka, Kasunomu and Koriko, provided in comparative spreadsheet form by Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics in Ukarumpa
Kikkawa (1999) sketch phonology of Doromu (unobtained)
Lambrecht (2002) survey vocabulary of Doromu-Koki (unobtained)
Bradshaw (2002) sketch phonology of Doromu-Koki
Bradshaw (2007) Doromu-Koki dictionary (unobtained)
Bradshaw (2008) Doromu-Koki dialect survey
Kikkawa and Bradshaw (2009, 2010) sketch phonology of Doromu-Koki
Bradshaw (2012) grammar of Koki
Ross (2014) draft reconstruction of Manubaran with attestations drawn from Dutton (1970: 951-976)
Historical phonology
[under construction]
Proto-Mount Brown had 13 or 14 consonants and 5 vowels as follows:
| *m | *n | |||
| *p | *t | *s | *k | *ʔ |
| *b | *d | *g | ||
| [*h] | ||||
| *w | *ɾ | *j |
| *i | *u | |
| *e | *o | |
| *a |
Any consonant except /*ʔ *h/ may occur initially or medially. Glottal stop /*ʔ/ and unoccluded fricative /*h/ have not been heard initially. Neither final consonants nor consonant clusters occur.
Vowel length is not contrastive. There is no obvious distinction between diphthongs and sequential vowels. The following vowel sequences have been observed:
| *i | *u | *e | *o | *a | |
| *i | — | *ie | *ia | ||
| *u | *ui | — | *ue | ||
| *e | *ei | *eu | — | *eo | |
| *o | *oi | *oe | — | ||
| *a | *au | *ae | *ao | — |
Consonants correspond as follows:
| Mt. Brown | Doromu | Gebi | Maria |
| *m | *m | m | *m |
| *n | *n | n | *n |
| *p | *ɸ | p | *ɸ |
| *t | *t | t | *h |
| *s | *s | h | *h |
| *k | *k | k | *ʔ |
| *ʔ | *ʔ | ʔ | *ʔ |
| *b | *b | b | *b |
| *d | *d | d | *d |
| *g | *g | g | *g |
| *h | *ø | ø | *h |
| *w | *w | w | *w |
| *ɾ | *ɾ | ɾ | *ɾ |
| *j | *j | j | *j |
Vowels and vowel sequences correspond as follows:
…
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Gebi attestations drawn from Grist (1925-1926: 93) and presented in their original orthography save for the substitution of <j> for Grist's <y>. Loans from Oceanic are included here under the assumption that they were already established prior to the break up of Proto-Mount Brown.
Bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *m- | m | m | m | |
| child | *mida | *mida | mida | *mida |
| rain | *mi[j]a | *mi[j]a | mia | *mi[j]a |
| give | *ma- | *ma- | *ma- | |
| vine/rope | *maena | *maena | *mana | |
| sun | *me[i]daʔa | *me[i]daʔa | meda | *me[i]daʔa |
| fruit | *meko | *meko | *meʔo | |
| take | *m[oe]- | *moi- | *me- | |
| lake | *moka | *moka | *moʔa | |
| meat | *musa | *musa | *muha | |
| *-m- | m | m | m | |
| mat | *ekam[a/u] | *ekam[a] | ekamu | |
| man/husband | *ami[j]e | *ami[j]e | amie | *ami[j]e |
| ear | *anema | *anema | anema | *anema |
| snake | *aɾuma | *aɾuma | aruma | *aɾuma |
| back | *uboma | *uboma | *uboma | |
| egg | *unema | *unema | unema | *unema |
| nose | *uɾuma | *uɾuma | uruma | *uɾuma |
| mosquito | *nemoʔina | *nemoʔona | nemona | *nemoʔina |
| fly (n.) | *naguma | *naguma | naguma | |
| yam | *kiɾoma | *kiɾoma | iroma | *ʔiɾoma |
| woman/wife | *ɾema | *ɾema | lema | |
| right (side) | *ɾama | *ɾama | *ɾama | |
| two | *[ɾ/j]ema | *[ɾ]ema | lema | *jema |
Apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *n- | n | n | n | |
| speak/say | *ni- | *ni- | *ni- | |
| eye | *ne | *ne | ne-una | ne[ʔ]una |
| go down | *ne- | *ne- | *ne- | |
| hear | *neide- | *neide- | *neide- | |
| bone | *nena | *nena | nena | *nena |
| 1 sg. | *na | *na | na | *na |
| face/forehead | *nao | *nao | nau | *nao |
| mosquito | *nemoʔina | *nemoʔona | nemona | *nemoʔina |
| fly (n.) | *naguma | *naguma | naguma | |
| chop | *nu- | *nu- | *nu- | |
| *-n- | n | n | n | |
| 3 sg./pl. | *ina | *ina | *ina | |
| rotten | *ikoni | *ikoni | *iʔoni | |
| left | *enana | *enana | *enana | |
| beside | *egona | *egona- | *egona- | |
| bird | *eɾena | *eɾena | eerma [sic] | *eɾena |
| dog | *auna | *auna | auna | *auna |
| ear | *anema | *anema | anema | *anema |
| fish | *ojena | *ojena | oi-ena | *ojena |
| 1 pl. | *[o/u]na | *[o/u]na | *[o/u]na | |
| egg | *unema | *unema | unema | *unema |
| mouth | *u[w]ena | *[u]wena | vena | *u[w]ena |
| vine/rope | *maena | *maena | *mana | |
| yam/taro (?) | *bani | *bani | bani | *bani |
| straight | *bubuna | *bubuna | *bubuna | |
| fat/grease | *bun[ije]ka | *bun[ije]ka | *buniʔa | |
| eye | *ne[ʔ]una | *ne | ne-una | *ne[ʔ]una |
| mosquito | *nemoʔina | *nemoʔona | nemona | *nemoʔina |
| bone | *nena | *nena | nena | *nena |
| pig | *dona | *dona | dona | *dona |
| old/former | *sena(-gi) | *sena(-gi) | *hena-gi | |
| earth/ground | *kono | *kono | kono | *ʔono |
| hand/arm | *wana | *wana | wana | *wana |
| cassowary | *[n/j]adina | *[n/j]adina | iadida (?) | *jadina |
Bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is fricated to /*ɸ/ in Doromu-Koki and Maria. Grist's Gebi reflex [p] is assumed to be conservative rather than in error:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *p- | *ɸ | ? | *ɸ | |
| shoot | *pidi- | *ɸidi- | *ɸidi[ɾe]- | |
| sweat | *paɾe- | *ɸaɾe- | *ɸaɾe- | |
| blow | *puɾe- | *ɸuɾe- | *ɸuɾe- | |
| *-p- | *ɸ | p [p h] | *ɸ | |
| pandanus sp. | *[i/e]pa | *eɸa | *iɸa | |
| knee | *[i/e]po[ka] | *eɸ[o/u]ka | *[i/e]ɸo | |
| tongue | *api[j]e | *aɸi[j]e | api | *aɸi[j]e |
| sugarcane | *aɾepa | *aɾeɸa | areha | *aɾeɸa |
| shoulder | *opeʔa | *oɸeʔa | *oɸeʔa | |
| near | *wape[i]ka | *waɸe[i]ka | *waɸe[i]ʔa | |
| palm | *ɾapo | *ɾaɸo | lapu | *ɾaɸo |
Apical voiceless stop /*t/ is fricated and deoccluded to /*h/ in Maria, merging with the reflexes of /*s/ (below):
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *t- | *t | t | *h | |
| on top | *tebo | *tebo | *h[e]bo | |
| many/all | *tau | *tau | *ha[u] | |
| big | *toɾa | *toɾa | -tora | *hoɾa |
| heavy | *toʔeɾe- | *toʔeɾe- | *hoʔeɾe- | |
| *-t- | *t | t | *h | |
| fire | *ita | *ita | ita | *iha |
| cold | *itu | *itu | *ihu | |
| wing | *eta | *eta | *eha | |
| cough | *eto | *[e]to | *eho | |
| sore | *etu | *etu | *ehu | |
| hot | *ota | *oha | ||
| swallow | *utu- | *utu- | *uhu- | |
| fence | *kota | *kota | *ʔoha | |
| village | *ɾaut[a/u] | *ɾautu | lau-u (?) | *[ɾ/j]auta |
In one apparently irregular example, Doromu-Koku and Gebi /*t/ are unexpectedly answered by glottal stop /*ʔ/ in Maria, where it is most typically the reflex of velar /*k/ (below):
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *-[t/k]- | *t | t | *ʔ | |
| hair/feather(s) | *u[w]e[t/k]a | *u[w]eta | uweta | *u[w]eʔa |
Laminal voiceless /*s/ is deoccluded to /*h/ in Maria to merge with the reflexes of apical /*t/ (above):
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *s- | *s | ? | *h | |
| cloud | *seuja | *seuja | *h[e]uja | |
| old/former | *sena(-gi) | *sena(-gi) | *hena-gi | |
| yam (taitu) | *saisu | *saisu | *haihu | |
| smell/stink | *sau- | *sau- | *hau- | |
| *-s- | *s | h | *h | |
| weeping/crying | *isaka | *isaka | *ihaʔa | |
| be in pain | *esikaɾe- | *esikaɾe- | *ehiʔaɾe- | |
| night | *uɾusa | *uɾusa | u-ha | *uɾuha |
| meat | *musa | *musa | *muha | |
| yam (taitu) | *saisu | *saisu | *haihu |
…:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *s-/_i | *s | h [s] | *h [s] | |
| breast | *sisu | *sisu | sisu | *hihu |
| *-s-/i_ | *s | h [s] | *h [s] | |
| breast | *sisu | *sisu | sisu | *hihu |
Velar voiceless stop /*k/ is deoccluded to merge with the reflex of glottal stop /*ʔ/ (below) in Maria:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *k- | *k | k [k ø] | *ʔ | |
| yam | *kiɾoma | *kiɾoma | iroma | *ʔiɾoma |
| liver | *kewa | *kewa | *ʔewa | |
| who? | *kaeɾ[e/a] | *kaeɾe | *ʔaeɾ[e/a] | |
| red/ripe | *kaka | *kaka | *ʔaʔa | |
| sharp | *kaɾika | *kaɾika | *ʔaɾiʔa | |
| small | *koika | *keika | keka | *ʔoiʔa |
| earth/ground | *kono | *kono | kono | *ʔono |
| fence | *kota | *kota | *ʔoha | |
| old | *koɾi | *koɾi | *ʔoɾi | |
| water/river | *koɾu | *koɾu | oru ≈ koro- | *ʔoɾu |
| nape | *kuɾi | *kuɾi | *ʔuɾi | |
| *-k- | *k | k | *ʔ | |
| rotten | *ikoni | *ikoni | *iʔoni | |
| smoke | *iɾo[u]ka | *iɾo[u]ka | iroka | *iɾo[u]ʔa |
| be in pain | *esikaɾe- | *esikaɾe- | *ehiʔaɾe- | |
| mat | *ekam[a/u] | *ekam[a] | ekamu | |
| navel | *adika | *adika | adika | *adiʔa |
| bite | *akiɾe- | *akiɾe- | *aʔiɾe- | |
| fruit | *meko | *meko | *meʔo | |
| only/one | *-maka | *-maka | -maka | *-ma[ʔa] |
| lake | *moka | *moka | *moʔa | |
| what? | *beika | *beika | *beiʔa | |
| mountain | *bako | bako | *baʔo | |
| fat/grease | *bun[ije]ka | *bun[ije]ka | *buniʔa | |
| red/ripe | *kaka | *kaka | *ʔaʔa | |
| sharp | *kaɾika | *kaɾika | *ʔaɾiʔa | |
| small | *koika | *keika | keka | *ʔoiʔa |
| near | *wape[i]ka | *waɸe[i]ka | *waɸe[i]ʔa | |
| call | *ɾaka- | *ɾaka- | *ɾaʔa- | |
| name | *ɾoka | *ɾoka | *ɾoʔa | |
| new | *ɾuakai | *ɾuaka | *ɾuaʔai | |
| dream | *jaduka | *jaduka | *jaduʔa | |
| one | *jokohi | *jokoi | jokio | *joʔohi |
Glottal stop /*ʔ/ is usually lost in Doromu-Koki dialects. Its presence here is based upon its retention in several forms for “sun” (Dutton 1970: 956) and upon outcomparison to Maria in which it is usually preserved as such:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *-ʔ- | *ʔ [ʔ ø] | ʔ [ʔ ø] | *ʔ | |
| moon | *ejoʔa | *ejoʔo | e-io | *ejoʔa |
| shoulder | *opeʔa | *oɸeʔa | *oɸeʔa | |
| sun | *me[i]daʔa | *me[i]daʔa | meda | *me[i]daʔa |
| mosquito | *nemoʔina | *nemoʔona | nemona | *nemoʔina |
| heavy | *toʔeɾe- | *toʔeɾe- | *hoʔeɾe- | |
| blood | *daweʔa | *dawaʔa | dawa | *daweʔa |
| wet | *douʔa | *douʔu | *douʔa | |
| where? | *goʔi- | *goʔi- | *goʔi- | |
| dig | *goʔe- | *goʔe- | *goʔe- | |
| cook | *waʔi- | *wai- | *waʔi- | |
| stone | *waʔiga | waiga | *waʔiga | |
| skin/bark | *ɾoʔo | *ɾoʔo | lo-o | *ɾoʔo |
| three | *jeʔa | iea | *jeʔabu | |
| song | *jauʔa | *jauʔu | *jauʔa |
Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *b- | *b | b | *b | |
| what? | *beika | *beika | *beiʔa | |
| come | *bae- | *bae- | *bae- | |
| yam/taro (?) | *bani | *bani | bani | *bani |
| mountain | *bako | bako | *baʔo | |
| yellow | *boɾa | *boɾa | *boɾa | |
| straight | *bubuna | *bubuna | *bubuna | |
| fat/grease | *bun[ije]ka | *bun[ije]ka | *buniʔa | |
| *-b- | *b | b | *b | |
| other | *ebi | *ebi | *ebi | |
| back | *uboma | *uboma | *uboma | |
| straight | *bubuna | *bubuna | *bubuna | |
| on top | *tebo | *tebo | *h[e]bo | |
| knowledge | *diba | *diba | *diba | |
| banana | *wagabod[o] | waga-boda | *wagabod[o] | |
| tree | *jabo | *jabo | iabo | *jabo |
Apical voiced stop /*d/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *d- | *d | d | *d | |
| walk/go | *di- | *di- | *di- | |
| knowledge | *diba | *diba | *diba | |
| not | *de | *de | -di | *de |
| get up/stand up | *dadi- | *dadi- | *dadi- | |
| blood | *daweʔa | *dawaʔa | dawa | *daweʔa |
| root | *daɾu | *daɾu | *daɾu | |
| pig | *dona | *dona | dona | *dona |
| wet | *douʔa | *douʔu | *douʔa | |
| netbag | *duɾa | *duɾa | dura | *duɾa |
| *-d- | *d | d | *d | |
| no | *ide | *ide | edi | *ide |
| path | *ida | *ida | ida | |
| navel | *adika | *adika | adika | *adiʔa |
| head | *ada | *ada | ada | *ada |
| chin/jaw | *adu[ka] | *ad[o]ka | *adu | |
| ashes | *udo | *udo | udo | *udo |
| fall | *ode- | *ode- | *ode- | |
| child | *mida | *mida | mida | *mida |
| sun | *me[i]daʔa | *me[i]daʔa | meda | *me[i]daʔa |
| shoot | *pidi- | *ɸidi- | *ɸidi[ɾe]- | |
| hear | *neide- | *neide- | *neide- | |
| get up/stand up | *dadi- | *dadi- | *dadi- | |
| elbow | *gedu[na] | *geduna | *gedu[na] | |
| tooth | *gade | *gade | gadi | *gade |
| banana | *wagabod[o] | waga-boda | *wagabod[o] | |
| cassowary | *[n/j]adina | *[n/j]adina | iadida | *jadina |
| dream | *jaduka | *jaduka | *jaduʔa |
Velar voiced stop /*g/ is retained as such in all subgroups:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *g- | *g | g | *g | |
| elbow | *gedu[na] | *geduna | *gedu[na] | |
| illness | *gau | *gau | *gau | |
| tooth | *gade | *gade | gadi | *gade |
| where? | *goʔi- | *goʔi- | *goʔi- | |
| dig | *goʔe- | *goʔe- | *goʔe- | |
| louse | *gu[w]e | *gu[w]e | gu-e | *gu[w]e |
| sky | *guɾe | *guɾe | *guɾe | |
| *-g- | *g | g | *g | |
| beside | *egona | *egona- | *egona- | |
| yesterday | *agiha | *agia | *agiha | |
| speech | *ago | *ago | *ago | |
| fly (n.) | *naguma | *naguma | naguma | |
| green | *wegu | *wegu | *j[e]gu | |
| banana | *wagabod[o] | waga-boda | *wagabod[o] | |
| stone | *waʔiga | waiga | *waʔiga | |
| laughter | *joga | *joga | *joga |
… /*h/ …:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *-h- | *ø | *h | ||
| yesterday | *agiha | *agia | *agiha | |
| one | *jokohi | *jokoi | jokio | *joʔohi |
Bilabial non-stop /*w/ is generally retained as such in all subgroups when followed by low central and mid back vowels /*a *o/:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *w- | *w | w | *w | |
| near | *wape[i]ka | *waɸe[i]ka | *waɸe[i]ʔa | |
| hand/arm | *wana | *wana | wana | *wana |
| banana | *wagabod[o] | waga-boda | *wagabod[o] | |
| cook | *waʔi- | *wai- | *waʔi- | |
| stone | *waʔiga | waiga | *waʔiga | |
| lie down | *waɾe- | *waɾe- | *waɾe- | |
| *-w- | *w | w | *w | |
| blood | *daweʔa | *dawaʔa | dawa | *daweʔa |
| liver | *kewa | *kewa | *ʔewa | |
| belly | *ɾiwo | *ɾiwo | liwo | *ɾiwo |
| house | *jauwa | *jawa | iawa | *jauwa |
When /*w/ is followed by mid front vowel /*e/, it is merged with palatal non-stop /*j/ in Maria and in some varieties of Doromu-Koki:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *w-/_e | *w | *j | ||
| green | *wegu | *wegu | *j[e]gu |
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is generally retained as such in all subgroups:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *ɾ- | *ɾ | ɾ [l] | *ɾ | |
| belly | *ɾiwo | *ɾiwo | liwo | *ɾiwo |
| woman/wife | *ɾema | *ɾema | lema | |
| village | *ɾaut[a/u] | *ɾautu | lau-u | *[ɾ/j]auta (?) |
| right (side) | *ɾama | *ɾama | *ɾama | |
| palm | *ɾapo | *ɾaɸo | lapu | *ɾaɸo |
| call | *ɾaka- | *ɾaka- | *ɾaʔa- | |
| name | *ɾoka | *ɾoka | *ɾoʔa | |
| skin/bark | *ɾoʔo | *ɾoʔo | lo-o | *ɾoʔo |
| new | *ɾuakai | *ɾuaka | *ɾuaʔai | |
| *-ɾ- | *ɾ | ɾ [ɾ l] | *ɾ | |
| locative | *-ɾo | *-ɾo | *-ɾo | |
| eat/drink | *iɾi- | *iɾi- | *iɾi- | |
| smoke | *iɾo[u]ka | *iɾo[u]ka | iroka | *iɾo[u]ʔa |
| be in pain | *esikaɾe- | *esikaɾe- | *ehiʔaɾe- | |
| bird | *eɾena | *eɾena | eerma | *eɾena |
| wind | *auɾa | *auɾa | au-ra | *auɾa |
| bite | *akiɾe- | *akiɾe- | *aʔiɾe- | |
| sugarcane | *aɾepa | *aɾeɸa | areha | *aɾeɸa |
| stand | *aɾeɾe- | *aɾeɾe- | *aɾeɾe- | |
| snake | *aɾuma | *aɾuma | aruma | *aɾuma |
| be afraid | *oɾiɾe- | *oɾiɾe- | *oɾiɾe- | |
| burn (tr.) | *oɾ[e]- | *oɾ[i]- | *oɾe- | |
| spear | *oɾa | *oɾa | ola | *oɾa |
| nose | *uɾuma | *uɾuma | uruma | *uɾuma |
| night | *uɾusa | *uɾusa | u-ha | *uɾuha |
| sweat | *paɾe- | *ɸaɾe- | *ɸaɾe- | |
| blow | *puɾe- | *ɸuɾe- | *ɸuɾe- | |
| yellow | *boɾa | *boɾa | *boɾa | |
| heavy | *toʔeɾe- | *toʔeɾe- | *hoʔeɾe- | |
| big | *toɾa | *toɾa | -tora | *hoɾa |
| root | *daɾu | *daɾu | *daɾu | |
| netbag | *duɾa | *duɾa | dura | *duɾa |
| yam | *kiɾoma | *kiɾoma | iroma | *ʔiɾoma |
| who? | *kaeɾ[e/a] | *kaeɾe | *kaeɾ[e/a] | |
| sharp | *kaɾika | *kaɾika | *ʔaɾiʔa | |
| old | *koɾi | *koɾi | *ʔoɾi | |
| water/river | *koɾu | *koɾu | oru ≈ koro- | *ʔoɾu |
| nape | *kuɾi | *kuɾi | *ʔuɾi | |
| sky | *guɾe | *guɾe | *guɾe | |
| lie down | *waɾe- | *waɾe- | *waɾe- |
…:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *[ɾ/j]- | ||||
| two | *[ɾ/j]ema | *[ɾ]ema | lema | *jema |
Palatal non-stop /*j/ is generally retained as such in all subgroups:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *j- | *j | j | *j | |
| three | *jeʔa | iea | *jeʔabu | |
| 2 sg./pl. | *ja | *ja | i-aa | *ja |
| tree | *jabo | *jabo | iabo | *jabo |
| song | *jauʔa | *jauʔu | *jauʔa | |
| house | *jauwa | *jawa | iawa | *jauwa |
| dream | *jaduka | *jaduka | *jaduʔa | |
| seed | *jo | *jo | *jo | |
| yes | *jo | *jo | *jo | |
| one | *jokohi | *jokoi | jokio | *joʔohi |
| laughter | *joga | *joga | *joga- | |
| *-j- | *j | j | *j | |
| moon | *ejoʔa | *ejoʔo | e-io | *ejoʔa |
| fish | *ojena | *ojena | oi-ena | *ojena |
| cloud | *seuja | *seuja | *h[e]uja |
Vowels /*i *u *e *o *a/ ….
High front vowel /*i/ …:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *i | ||||
| speak/say | *ni- | *ni- | *ni- | |
| walk/go | *di- | *di- | *di- | |
| eat/drink | *iɾi- | *iɾi- | *iɾi- | |
| shoot | *pidi- | *ɸidi- | *ɸidi[ɾe]- | |
| cold | *itu | *itu | *ihu | |
| breast | *sisu | *sisu | sisu | *hihu |
| no | *ide | *ide | edi | *ide |
| belly | *ɾiwo | *ɾiwo | liwo | *ɾiwo |
| rotten | *ikoni | *ikoni | *iʔoni | |
| smoke | *iɾo[u]ka | *iɾo[u]ka | iroka | *iɾo[u]ʔa |
| yam | *kiɾoma | *kiɾoma | iroma | *ʔiɾoma |
| 3 sg./pl. | *ina | *ina | *ina | |
| fire | *ita | *ita | ita | *iha |
| path | *ida | *ida | ida | |
| child | *mida | *mida | mida | *mida |
| knowledge | *diba | *diba | *diba | |
| weeping/crying | *isaka | *isaka | *ihaʔa | |
| nape | *kuɾi | *kuɾi | *ʔuɾi | |
| other | *ebi | *ebi | *ebi | |
| be in pain | *esikaɾe- | *esikaɾe- | *ehiʔaɾe- | |
| old | *koɾi | *koɾi | *ʔoɾi | |
| where? | *goʔi- | *goʔi- | *goʔi- | |
| one | *jokohi | *jokoi | jokio | *joʔohi |
| be afraid | *oɾiɾe- | *oɾiɾe- | *oɾiɾe- | |
| mosquito | *nemoʔina | *nemoʔona | nemona | *nemoʔina |
| yam/taro (?) | *bani | *bani | bani | *bani |
| get up/stand up | *dadi- | *dadi- | *dadi- | |
| cook | *waʔi- | *wai- | *waʔi- | |
| yesterday | *agiha | *agia | *agiha | |
| navel | *adika | *adika | adika | *adiʔa |
| sharp | *kaɾika | *kaɾika | *ʔaɾiʔa | |
| stone | *waʔiga | waiga | *waʔiga | |
| cassowary | *[n/j]adina | *[n/j]adina | iadida | *jadina |
| bite | *akiɾe- | *akiɾe- | *aʔiɾe- |
High back vowel /*u/ …:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *u | ||||
| hit/kill | *u- | *u- | *u- | |
| chop | *nu- | *nu- | *nu- | |
| swallow | *utu- | *utu- | *uhu- | |
| nape | *kuɾi | *kuɾi | *ʔuɾi | |
| fat/grease | *bun[ije]ka | *bun[ije]ka | *buniʔa | |
| blow | *puɾe- | *ɸuɾe- | *ɸuɾe- | |
| sky | *guɾe | *guɾe | *guɾe | |
| egg | *unema | *unema | unema | *unema |
| ashes | *udo | *udo | udo | *udo |
| back | *uboma | *uboma | *uboma | |
| meat | *musa | *musa | *muha | |
| netbag | *duɾa | *duɾa | dura | *duɾa |
| nose | *uɾuma | *uɾuma | uruma | *uɾuma |
| night | *uɾusa | *uɾusa | u-ha | *uɾuha |
| straight | *bubuna | *bubuna | *bubuna | |
| cold | *itu | *itu | *ihu | |
| breast | *sisu | *sisu | sisu | *hihu |
| yam (taitu) | *saisu | *saisu | *haihu | |
| sore | *etu | *etu | *ehu | |
| green | *wegu | *wegu | *j[e]gu | |
| elbow | *gedu[na] | *geduna | *gedu[na] | |
| water/river | *koɾu | *koɾu | oru ≈ koro- | *ʔoɾu |
| root | *daɾu | *daɾu | *daɾu | |
| snake | *aɾuma | *aɾuma | aruma | *aɾuma |
| fly (n.) | *naguma | *naguma | naguma | |
| dream | *jaduka | *jaduka | *jaduʔa |
Mid front vowel /*e/ …:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *e | ||||
| go down | *ne- | *ne- | *ne- | |
| not | *de | *de | -di (?) | *de |
| other | *ebi | *ebi | *ebi | |
| be in pain | *esikaɾe- | *esikaɾe- | *ehiʔaɾe- | |
| sore | *etu | *etu | *ehu | |
| green | *wegu | *wegu | *j[e]gu | |
| elbow | *gedu[na] | *geduna | *gedu[na] | |
| cough | *eto | *[e]to | *eho | |
| fruit | *meko | *meko | *meʔo | |
| on top | *tebo | *tebo | *h[e]bo | |
| mosquito | *nemoʔina | *nemoʔona | nemona | *nemoʔina |
| beside | *egona | *egona- | *egona- | |
| moon | *ejoʔa | *ejoʔo | e-io | *ejoʔa |
| wing | *eta | *eta | *eha | |
| bone | *nena | *nena | nena | *nena |
| old/former | *sena(-gi) | *sena(-gi) | *hena-gi | |
| liver | *kewa | *kewa | *ʔewa | |
| woman/wife | *ɾema | *ɾema | lema | |
| two | *[ɾ/j]ema | *[ɾ]ema | lema | *jema |
| three | *jeʔa | iea | *jeʔabu | |
| bird | *eɾena | *eɾena | eerma [sic] | *eɾena |
| left | *enana | *enana | *enana | |
| mat | *ekam[a/u] | *ekam[a] | ekamu | |
| no | *ide | *ide | edi | *ide |
| hear | *neide- | *neide- | *neide- | |
| be afraid | *oɾiɾe- | *oɾiɾe- | *oɾiɾe- | |
| bite | *akiɾe- | *akiɾe- | *aʔiɾe- | |
| blow | *puɾe- | *ɸuɾe- | *ɸuɾe- | |
| sky | *guɾe | *guɾe | *guɾe | |
| egg | *unema | *unema | unema | *unema |
| fall | *ode- | *ode- | *ode- | |
| dig | *goʔe- | *goʔe- | *goʔe- | |
| heavy | *toʔeɾe- | *toʔeɾe- | *hoʔeɾe- | |
| shoulder | *opeʔa | *oɸeʔa | *oɸeʔa | |
| fish | *ojena | *ojena | oi-ena | *ojena |
| sweat | *paɾe- | *ɸaɾe- | *ɸaɾe- | |
| tooth | *gade | *gade | gadi | *gade |
| lie down | *waɾe- | *waɾe- | *waɾe- | |
| stand | *aɾeɾe- | *aɾeɾe- | *aɾeɾe- | |
| ear | *anema | *anema | anema | *anema |
| sugarcane | *aɾepa | *aɾeɸa | areha | *aɾeɸa |
| blood | *daweʔa | *dawaʔa | dawa | *daweʔa |
Mid-back vowel /*o/ …:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *o | ||||
| locative | *-ɾo | *-ɾo | *-ɾo | |
| seed | *jo | *jo | *jo | |
| yes | *jo | *jo | *jo | |
| earth/ground | *kono | *kono | kono | *ʔono |
| skin/bark | *ɾoʔo | *ɾoʔo | lo-o | *ɾoʔo |
| old | *koɾi | *koɾi | *ʔoɾi | |
| where? | *goʔi- | *goʔi- | *goʔi- | |
| one | *jokohi | *jokoi | jokio | *joʔohi |
| be afraid | *oɾiɾe- | *oɾiɾe- | *oɾiɾe- | |
| water/river | *koɾu | *koɾu | oru ≈ koro- | *ʔoɾu |
| fall | *ode- | *ode- | *ode- | |
| burn (tr.) | *oɾ[e]- | *oɾ[i]- | *oɾe- | |
| dig | *goʔe- | *goʔe- | *goʔe- | |
| heavy | *toʔeɾe- | *toʔeɾe- | *hoʔeɾe- | |
| shoulder | *opeʔa | *oɸeʔa | *oɸeʔa | |
| fish | *ojena | *ojena | oi-ena | *ojena |
| hot | *ota | *oha | ||
| spear | *oɾa | *oɾa | ola | *oɾa |
| lake | *moka | *moka | *moʔa | |
| yellow | *boɾa | *boɾa | *boɾa | |
| big | *toɾa | *toɾa | -tora | *hoɾa |
| pig | *dona | *dona | dona | *dona |
| fence | *kota | *kota | *ʔoha | |
| name | *ɾoka | *ɾoka | *ɾoʔa | |
| laughter | *joga | *joga | *joga- | |
| belly | *ɾiwo | *ɾiwo | liwo | *ɾiwo |
| rotten | *ikoni | *ikoni | *iʔoni | |
| yam | *kiɾoma | *kiɾoma | iroma | *ʔiɾoma |
| knee | *[i/e]po[ka] | *eɸ[o/u]ka | *[i/e]ɸo | |
| ashes | *udo | *udo | udo | *udo |
| back | *uboma | *uboma | *uboma | |
| cough | *eto | *[e]to | *eho | |
| fruit | *meko | *meko | *meʔo | |
| on top | *tebo | *tebo | *h[e]bo | |
| mosquito | *nemoʔina | *nemoʔona | nemona | *nemoʔina |
| beside | *egona | *egona- | *egona- | |
| moon | *ejoʔa | *ejoʔo | e-io | *ejoʔa |
| speech | *ago | *ago | *ago | |
| mountain | *bako | bako | *baʔo | |
| palm | *ɾapo | *ɾaɸo | lapu | *ɾaɸo |
| tree | *jabo | *jabo | iabo | *jabo |
| banana | *wagabod[o] | waga-boda | *wagabod[o] |
Low central vowel /*a/ …:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *a | ||||
| give | *ma- | *ma- | *ma- | |
| 1 sg. | *na | *na | na | *na |
| 2 sg./pl. | *ja | *ja | i-aa | *ja |
| head | *ada | *ada | ada | *ada |
| only/one | *-maka | *-maka | -maka | *-ma[ʔa] |
| red/ripe | *kaka | *kaka | *ʔaʔa | |
| hand/arm | *wana | *wana | wana | *wana |
| right (side) | *ɾama | *ɾama | *ɾama | |
| call | *ɾaka- | *ɾaka- | *ɾaʔa- | |
| yam/taro (?) | *bani | *bani | bani | *bani |
| get up/stand up | *dadi- | *dadi- | *dadi- | |
| cook | *waʔi- | *wai- | *waʔi- | |
| man/husband | *ami[j]e | *ami[j]e | amie | *ami[j]e |
| bite | *akiɾe- | *akiɾe- | *aʔiɾe- | |
| yesterday | *agiha | *agia | *agiha | |
| navel | *adika | *adika | adika | *adiʔa |
| sharp | *kaɾika | *kaɾika | *ʔaɾiʔa | |
| stone | *waʔiga | waiga | *waʔiga | |
| cassowary | *[n/j]adina | *[n/j]adina | iadida | *jadina |
| root | *daɾu | *daɾu | *daɾu | |
| chin/jaw | *adu[ka] | *ad[o]ka | *adu | |
| snake | *aɾuma | *aɾuma | aruma | *aɾuma |
| fly (n.) | *naguma | *naguma | naguma | |
| dream | *jaduka | *jaduka | *jaduʔa | |
| sweat | *paɾe- | *ɸaɾe- | *ɸaɾe- | |
| tooth | *gade | *gade | gadi | *gade |
| lie down | *waɾe- | *waɾe- | *waɾe- | |
| stand | *aɾeɾe- | *aɾeɾe- | *aɾeɾe- | |
| ear | *anema | *anema | anema | *anema |
| sugarcane | *aɾepa | *aɾeɸa | areha | *aɾeɸa |
| blood | *daweʔa | *dawaʔa | dawa | *daweʔa |
| near | *wape[i]ka | *waɸe[i]ka | *waɸe[i]ʔa | |
| speech | *ago | *ago | *ago | |
| mountain | *bako | bako | *baʔo | |
| palm | *ɾapo | *ɾaɸo | lapu | *ɾaɸo |
| tree | *jabo | *jabo | iabo | *jabo |
| banana | *wagabod[o] | waga-boda | *wagabod[o] | |
| 3 sg./pl. | *ina | *ina | *ina | |
| fire | *ita | *ita | ita | *iha |
| path | *ida | *ida | ida | |
| child | *mida | *mida | mida | *mida |
| knowledge | *diba | *diba | *diba | |
| weeping/crying | *isaka | *isaka | *ihaʔa | |
| what? | *beika | *beika | *beiʔa | |
| sun | *me[i]daʔa | *me[i]daʔa | meda | *me[i]daʔa |
| be in pain | *esikaɾe- | *esikaɾe- | *ehiʔaɾe- | |
| mosquito | *nemoʔina | *nemoʔona | nemona | *nemoʔina |
| small | *koika | *keika | keka | *ʔoiʔa |
| pandanus sp. | *[i/e]pa | *eɸa | *iɸa | |
| meat | *musa | *musa | *muha | |
| netbag | *duɾa | *duɾa | dura | *duɾa |
| nose | *uɾuma | *uɾuma | uruma | *uɾuma |
| night | *uɾusa | *uɾusa | u-ha | *uɾuha |
| straight | *bubuna | *bubuna | *bubuna | |
| cloud | *seuja | *seuja | *h[e]uja | |
| dog | *auna | *auna | auna | *auna |
| wind | *auɾa | *auɾa | au-ra | *auɾa |
| house | *jauwa | *jawa | iawa | *jauwa |
| wing | *eta | *eta | *eha | |
| bone | *nena | *nena | nena | *nena |
| old/former | *sena(-gi) | *sena(-gi) | *hena-gi | |
| liver | *kewa | *kewa | *ʔewa | |
| woman/wife | *ɾema | *ɾema | lema | |
| two | *[ɾ/j]ema | *[ɾ]ema | lema | *jema |
| three | *jeʔa | iea | *jeʔabu | |
| left | *enana | *enana | *enana | |
| mat | *ekam[a/u] | *ekam[a] | ekamu | |
| bird | *eɾena | *eɾena | eerma | *eɾena |
| fat/grease | *bun[ije]ka | *bun[ije]ka | *buniʔa | |
| egg | *unema | *unema | unema | *unema |
| shoulder | *opeʔa | *oɸeʔa | *oɸeʔa | |
| fish | *ojena | *ojena | oi-ena | *ojena |
| vine/rope | *maena | *maena | *mana | |
| hot | *ota | *oha | ||
| spear | *oɾa | *oɾa | ola | *oɾa |
| lake | *moka | *moka | *moʔa | |
| yellow | *boɾa | *boɾa | *boɾa | |
| big | *toɾa | *toɾa | -tora | *hoɾa |
| pig | *dona | *dona | dona | *dona |
| fence | *kota | *kota | *ʔoha | |
| name | *ɾoka | *ɾoka | *ɾoʔa | |
| laughter | *joga | *joga | *joga- | |
| smoke | *iɾo[u]ka | *iɾo[u]ka | iroka | *iɾo[u]ʔa |
| yam | *kiɾoma | *kiɾoma | iroma | *ʔiɾoma |
| back | *uboma | *uboma | *uboma | |
| beside | *egona | *egona- | *egona- |
… glottal stop …:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *… |
… vowel sequences …:
…:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *i[j]e | ||||
| leaf | *i[j]e | *i[j]e | *i[j]e | |
| man/husband | *ami[j]e | *ami[j]e | amie | *ami[j]e |
| tongue | *api[j]e | *aɸi[j]e | api | *aɸi[j]e |
| *i[j]a | ||||
| star | *i[j]a | *i[j]a | i-ia | *i[j]a[ma] |
| rain | *mi[j]a | *mi[j]a | mia | *mi[j]a |
…:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *u[w]i | ||||
| tail | *u[w]i | *wi | *u[w]i | |
| *u[w]e | ||||
| crocodile | *u[w]e | *u[w]e | uwe | |
| mouth | *u[w]ena | *[u]wena | vena | *u[w]ena |
| hair/feather(s) | *u[w]e[t/k]a | *u[w]eta | uweta | *u[w]eʔa |
| louse | *gu[w]e | *gu[w]e | gu-e | *gu[w]e |
…:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *… | ||||
| *… | ||||
| *… | ||||
| *… |
…:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *… | ||||
| *… | ||||
| *o[w]e | ||||
| see | *o[w]e- | *we- | *o[w]e- |
…:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *… |
…:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Gebi | Maria | |
| *… | ||||
| *… |
Pronouns
Mount Brown free pronouns are reconstructed as follows:
| Mount Brown | Doromu-Koki | Maria | |
| 1 sg. | *na | *na | *na |
| 2 sg./pl. | *ja | *ja | *ja |
| 3 sg./pl. | *ina | *ina | *ina |
| 1 pl. | *[o/u]na | *[o/u]na | *[o/u]na |
Number is distinguished neither in the third person nor in the second person, where Owen Stanley Range singular /*(ŋ)ga/ has been replaced by plural /*ja/.
Verbal morphology
[under construction]
….
Loans from Central Papuan Tip
Mount Brown has a number of roots which originated as loans from the Central Papuan Tip subgroup of Oceanic (q.v. Capell 1943: 11-19, 20-37, Dutton 1970: 926-950, Kassel and Potter 2009: 40-49.) We assume these loans to predate the breakup of Proto-Mount Brown, an assumption supported by the fact that /*susu/ is no longer the main term for “breast” in Motu, Sinaugoro or Keapara (cf. /*ɾata/) while the meaning of /*ɣade/ “chin” has changed to “tooth” in both Doromu-Koki and Maria:
| Central Papua | Mount Brown | |
| shoot | *pidi- | *pidi- |
| yellow | *boɾa | *boɾa |
| mosquito | *nemo | *nemoʔina |
| yam (taitu) | *taitu | *saisu |
| breast | *susu | *sisu |
| knowledge | *diba | *diba |
| red | *kaka | *kaka |
| chin/jaw | *ɣade | *gade |