Timor-Alor-Pantar

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

The Timor-Alor-Pantar family consists of perhaps twenty one languages spoken on the islands Timor, Alor and Pantar of the Lesser Sunda chain in Indonesia's East Nusa Tenggara province and in the independent state of East Timor (q.v. Schapper 2012: 194, 2014: 1, Holton, Klamer, Kratochvíl, Robinson and Schapper 2012: 87.)

Subclassification

The internal classification of Timor-Alor-Pantar is as follows:

Timor-Alor-Pantar

Bunaq

East Timor

Alor-Pantar

Contra Greenberg (1971: 810) and Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven (2012, 2014,) it is not obvious that Bunaq and East Timor form a subgroup against Alor-Pantar. Stokhof (1975: 23-24) presents lexicostatistical figures which show Makasae to be significantly more similar to Alor-Pantar than is Bunaq, with figures ranging from 30-42% between individual Alor-Pantar languages and Makasae against 16-30% with Bunaq.

Sources

[under construction]

History of classification

[under construction]

Historical phonology

[under construction]

Proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar had perhaps 17 consonants and … vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *ts *k *kʷ
*b *d *dz *g *gʷ
*s
*l
*w *r *j
*i *u
[*e] [*o]
*a

In addition to the simple vowels given above, … found as follows:

*aⁱ



Neither lateral non-stop /*l/ nor rhotic /*r/ occur initially in native words.



Initial consonants correspond as follows:

Timor-Alor Bunaq East Timor Alor-Pantar Schapper
*m- m *m *m *m
*n- n *n *n *n
*p- p *p *p *p
*t- t *t *t *t
*ts- s *ts ?
*b- b *b *b
*d- t *d *d *d
*dz- z *dz *d *d
*g- g *g *g *g
*s- s *s *s *s
*w-
*j- z *j *j *d

Medial consonants correspond as follows:

Timor-Alor Bunaq East Timor Alor-Pantar Schapper
*-m- m *m *m *m
*-n- n *n *n *n
*-p- w *p *p *p
*-t- z *t *t *t
*-ts- ø *ts *s *s
*-k- ø *k *k *Q
*-kʷ- ? ? ?
*-b- p *b *b *b
*-d- t *d *d *d
*-dz- *dz *d *d
*-g- g *g *g *g
*-gʷ-
*-s- ø *s *s *s
*-w-
*-l- l *l *r *R
*-r- l *r *r *r
*-j-

Subfinal consonants correspond as follows:

Timor-Alor Bunaq East Timor Alor-Pantar Schapper
*-m- n *m *m *m
*-n- n *n *n *n
*-p- w *p *p *p
*-t- t *t *t *t
*-ts- ø *ts *s *s
*-k- ? *k *k *Q
*-kʷ- ? ? ?
*-b- p *b *b *b
*-d- t *d *d *d
*-dz- s *dz *d *d
*-g- k *g *g *g
*-gʷ- k
*-s- ø *s *s *s
*-w-
*-l- l *l *r *R
*-r- l *r *r *r
*-j-

Final consonants correspond as follows:

Timor-Alor Bunaq East Timor Alor-Pantar Schapper
*…
*…
*…
*…
*…
*…
*…
*…

Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:

Timor-Alor Bunaq East Timor Alor-Pantar Schapper
*…
*…
*…
*…
*…
*…
*…

These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Bunaq attestations drawn from Bele (2009) and Schapper (2009, Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven's 2012: 234-239, 2014: 32-34, Schapper p.c.) with Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven's (2014) proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar or (2012) proto-Timor (given in brackets) forms presented for comparison.


Initial consonants …:

Initial biliabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 218-219, 2014: 12):

Timor-Alor Bunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*m- m *m *m *m
beside *min[i] *mini *min[i]
sit *mit mit *mit *mis *mit
go up *midza *midza *mida
come *ma[…] man/male*magu *ma
neck/throat *mani *mani *mani
snake *manu *manu
rosewood *matari mazoʔ *… *… *matar
flying fox *madel *mada *madel *madel
hear *ˈmag[i/e]nmak *magen *mag[i]n *ma[k/g]e(n)
voice *mag[a] *mag[a] *mag[a]
walk/go *ˈmara mal *mara *mar[a] [*mara]
smell *mu[n] *mu *mu[n]
nose *muni[k] *muni[k] *muni
earth/ground*ˈmuga muk *muga *muga [*muka]
banana *ˈmugʷol mok *mugu *mugol *mugul

Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 219-220, 2014: 12-13):

Timor-Alor BunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*n- n*n *n *n
1 pl. bound *ni- nV- *ni-
1 sg. bound *na- nV- *na- *na-
name *naⁱ -ni *naⁱ *naⁱ [*nei]
man/male *nami *nami
older sibling *naˈna nana *nana *nana
stand (sg.) *nat *nat *nat *nat(er)
stand (pl.) *ˈna[t/s]ernet *naser *nater *nat(er)
eat/drink *nawa *nawa *na: *nVa
younger sibling*n[o]k[o] *noko

One example of East Timor initial /*n/ is irregular and unexplained. Outcomparison to both Mbahaam-Iha and South Bird's Head show this root to have descended most immediately from /*kikin/, with initial /*k/ regularly lost in Timor-Alor-Pantar; perhaps the Eest Timor form has been influenced by (e.g.) Tetun /ninik/ (Morris 1984: 154):

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*ø- ?*n
mosquito*ikin *nikin *ikin

Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all three subgroups:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*p- p*p *p *p
delicious *pani *pani
female *paˈnar pana *panar *pan(a)
face *panu *panu *panu *panu
thigh *patu *patu *patu
sneeze *paˈsin pen *pasin *pasin
skin of fruit*pasu *pasu *pasu
spittle *pulum puluk*pulum *purum *puRV(n)

Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven (2012: 203-204, 2014: 3-4) give proto-Timor /*f/ rather than /*p/ due to confusion introduced by the acceptance of Austronesian loans (e.g. “mat”, “pig,” “price”) as native words, necessitating a third bilabial correspondence (below.)

Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is generally retained as such in three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 204-205, 2014: 4-5):

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*t- t *t *t *t
drum *tiˈtir titil *titir
heavy *ˈtVgir tuek ~ -utek*tigir *tigVr
mountain *t[e]b[e]r *teber
reciprocal *ta- t- *ta- *ta- [*ta]
hand/arm *ˈtana ton *tana *tan[a] *-tan(a)
pound *tapa tau *tapa *tapa *tapa(i)
true/correct *taˈbir tepel *tabir *tabi
count *ˈtaga tak *taga *taga
coconut shell*tawu *t[owo] *tawu
woman *tubur *tubur

When followed by high front vowel /*i/ in multisyllabic roots, initial /*t/ is patatalized and fricated to /tʃ/ [tʃ s] in Bunaq (Schapper 2009: 44, Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 204-205, 2014: 4-5):

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*t-/_itʃ [tʃ s]*t *t *t
run*tiˈpar tʃiwal *tipar *tipar

Initial laminal voiceless affricate /*ts/ is uncommon. It is merged with fricative /s/ in Bunaq; its reflex in Alor-Pantar is unknown:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*ts- s*ts ?
cut/carve *tsets[e] se *tsets[e]
withered/dry*tsatsak saʔ *tsatsak [*sasar]

Rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ is not found initially, West Bomberai initial /*kʷ/ having been merged with /*w/ (below.)

Initial bilabial voiced stops /*b *d *dz *g/, while common in both proto-East Timor and proto-Alor-Pantar, cannot in most instances be traced back to proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar. This is because original prenasalized stops /*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg/, from which Timor-Alor-Pantar's voiced stops derive, were merged with their voiceless counterparts in proto-West Bomberai in initial but not medial position.

Initial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ and its variants, East Timor /*b/ and Alor-Pantar /*b *ɓ/, have been found primarily in loans from Austronesian languages (q.v. Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 203-204, 2014: 3-4.) While absent from proto-West Bomberai, it is far and away the most common initial consonant in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (Blust n.d.) resulting in a relatively large number of borrowed terms with initial /*b./ (below.)

There is one example of initial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ which might not be a loan:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*b- b*b *b
wind*ˈbari bel *bari [*beri]

Initial apical voiced stop /*d/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*d- t*d *d *d
Eucalyptus sp.*da[ga]rantal *dara *dagar [*daraʔ]

Initial laminal voiced /*dz /is uncommon. It is realized as /z/ [z ʒ dʒ] in Bunaq and merged with apical voiced stop /*d/ in Alor-Pantar:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*dz- z [z ʒ dʒ]*dz *d *d
fry *ˈdzigar ziek *digar
rat/mouse*ˈdzur[a] zul *dzura *dur *dur(a)

Initial velar voiced stop /*g/ is found in native terms only in the base of the third person pronouns (Schapper, Huber and Engelenhoven 2012: 212-214, 2014: 7):

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*g- g*g *g *g
3 sg.*ga g- *ga *g(a,i)
3 pl.*gi g- *gi *gi *g(a,i)

The reason for this limited distribution is that initial velars /*k *ŋg/ were merged to /*k/ in proto-West Bomberai, which was then dropped in proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar. In this instance, a demonstrative form /*VŋgV/ dropped its initial vowel following the merger of initial velars and /*g/ is thus retained as such, remaining as /*g/ in proto-East Timor rather than being deoccluded to glottal stop [*ʔ] as is medial /*g/ (below.)

Rounded velar voiced stop /*gʷ/ is not found initially.

Initial laminal voiceless fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2014: 7-8):

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*s- s*s *s *s
shark *… *… *… *sibar
snake *sVbVl *saba *…
plait/weave*ˈsina sien *sina *sina *sine(N)

Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*w-/_i
carry/fetch*ˈwita wit *wita

When followed by low central vowel /*a/ or diphthong /*aⁱ/ (below,) initial /*w/ is dropped in Bunaq. Unlike Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven, we assume both Bunaq's change of /*a/ to /o/ and prosthesis of initial /h/ to be secondary rather than directly reflecting /*w/ (q.v. 2012: 215-216, 2014: 9):

Timor-Alor Bunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*w-/_aⁱø [h] *w *w *w
blood *waⁱ[s] ho *waⁱ[s] *waⁱ *waj
*w-/_a ø [h ø]*w *w *w
coconut *waˈta hoza *wata *wata *wata
sun *ˈwadu hot *wadu *wadu *wad(i,u)
child *waˈkal -ol *wakal *-uaQal
bean *wasa ho *wasa [*wa]
now/today*wag[a]dzi *wagadzi
ear *ˈwali[k] hol *wali[k] *wari *-waRi
stone *war hol *war *w[o]r *war
nest *ˈwari -el *wari *wari
paddle *waj[a]n *wajin *wajan

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*w-/… w*w *w *w
tooth*ˈwasin -we *wasin *wasin *-wasin

One example …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*w-/_o
*…

Initial lateral non-stop /*l/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*l-
*…

Rhotic non-stop /*r/ does not occur initially (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2014: 9-10.)

Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast Timor Alor-PantarSchapper et al.
*j- z *j *d
dog*ˈj[a]bar zap *[dz/j]ebar*jabar *dibar

… /*j/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*jV- hii *ja *je *ja
path *ˈ[ja]gal hik *iga[r] *jagal *jega
laugh*[ja]ˈgar higal *[i]gar *jagar *jagir

Any consonant can occur medially.

Medial biliabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 218-219, 2014: 12):

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-m- m*m *m *m
die *[i]m[u] -ume *umu *imu[n] *mV(n)
breast *ami -omoʔ*ami *ami *hami
louse *amin *amin *amin
wing *ami[r] *amir
body *amu *amu *amu
man/male*nami *nami

Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all three subgroups (Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 219-220, 2014: 12-13):

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-n- n*n *n *n
do/make *[i]ˈni -ini *-ini [*-inV]
eye *ina *ina *ina
give *[i/e]na -ini *ina *ena *-(e, i)na
see *ena *ena *ena
person *ˈanin en *anin
one *uˈkani uen *ukani
beside *min[i] *mini *min[i]
neck/throat *mani *mani *mani
snake *manu *manu
nose *muni[k] *muni[k] *muni
delicious *pani *pani
female *paˈnar pana *panar *pan(a)
face *panu *panu *panu *panu
older sibling*naˈna nana *nana *nana
hand/arm *ˈtana ton *tana *tan[a] *-tan(a)

Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is deoccluded to bilabial non-stop /w/ [w u] in Bunaq:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-p- w [w u]*p *p *p
worm/grub*ˈipi iu *ipi *ipi
go down *ipa *ipa *ipa
dream *[u]p[a]r *upar *VpVr *ipar
run *tiˈpar tʃiwal *tipar *tipar
pound *ˈtapa tau *tapa *tapa *tapa(i)

In one example … /*p/ has become zero in Bunaq:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-p- ø*p *p *p
1 pl. incl.*… *… *… *…

Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-t- z *t *t *t
three *itug *itu[g] *itug
tree *at[eⁱ] *ate *at[eⁱ] *hate
excrement*aˈtu ozoʔ ~ ozo*atu *atu *(h)at(V)
rosewood *matari mazoʔ *… *… *matar
thigh *patu *patu *patu
coconut *waˈta hoza *wata *wata *wata

… /*t/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-t- t*t *t *t
*…

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-t- t*t
drum*tiˈtir titil*titir

Medial laminal voiceless fricative /*s/ is lost in Bunaq, as it is in Oirata of the East Timor subgroup:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-s- ø*s *s *s
fruit/seed *is[u] *isu *isV
sneeze *paˈsin pen *pasin *pasin
skin of fruit*pasu *pasu *pasu
tooth *ˈwasin -we *wasin *wasin *-wasin
bean *wasa ho *wasa [*wa]

Medial laminal voiceless affricate /*ts/ is lost in Bunaq and merged with fricative /*s/ in Alor-Pantar:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-ts- ø*ts *s [*s]
bite *itsa[k] *itsa[k] *isa
go down *itsa[r] *itsa *isa[r]
prawn *atsi o *atsi *asi
leaf *atsa[p] *atsa[p] *asa [*asa]
withered/dry*tsatsak saʔ *tsatsak [*sasar]

Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is uncommon, but its quality is confirmed by outcomparison to Mbahaam-Iha. It is lost in Bunaq:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-k- ø*k *k *Q
mosquito *ikin *nikin *ikin
one *uˈkani uen *ukani
younger sibling*n[o]k[o] *noko
child *waˈkal -ol *wakal *-uaQal

Medial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-kʷ-
*…

Medial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is devoiced to /p/ in Bunaq. This fact, along with confusion introduced by Austronesian loans (below,) leads Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven to wrongly interpret Timor /*b/ as /*p/, although the problem is fixed at the proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar level (2012: 203-204, 2014: 3-4):

Timor-AlorBunaqEast Timor Alor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-b- p*b *b *b
star *ibi *ibi *ibi *jibV
fish *abuⁱ *abi *abuⁱ *abi
sugarcane *ˈuba up *uba *uba *ub(a)
fly (n.) *ubur *ubur *ubur
tongue *ˈ… -up *ibul *lebur *-lebuR
rock *ˈaba op *aba [*apa]
not *… *ube *…
mountain *t[e]b[e]r *teber
true/correct*taˈbir tepel*tabir *tabi
woman *tubur *tubur
new *… *subar *… *(t,s)iba®
shark *… *… *… *sibar
snake *sVbVl *saba *…
dog *ˈj[a]bar zap *[dz/j]ebar*jabar *dibar

Medial apical voiced stop /*d/ is devoiced to /t/ in Bunaq. Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven wrongly interpret Timor /*d/ as /*T/, although the problem is fixed at the proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar level (2012: 204-209, 2014: 4-6):

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-d- t*d *d *d
dust/ashes*adur *adur *adur
flying fox*madel *mada *madel *madel
fire *aˈda hoto *ada *ada *ada

In one example …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-d- r*d
foot/leg*iˈdi -iri *idi

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-d- t*d *d *d
egg*ˈudu -ut *udu [*uTa]
sun*ˈwadu hot *wadu *wadu *wad(i,u)

Medial laminal voiced affricate /*dz/ is devoiced to fricative /s/ in Bunaq and merged with the reflexes of voiced apical stop /*d/ in Alor-Pantar:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-dz- s*dz *d *d
chest/heart*idza[r] *idza *idar
wrap/cover *ˈedze es *edze
bird *ˈadz[o]l hos *adza *adol *(h)adul
wax *udzu *udzu *udu [*wiDu(n)]
go up *midza *midza *mida
now/today *wag[a]dzi *wagadzi

One example of Alor-Pantar /*d/ corresponds irregularly to East Timor voiceless /*ts/ (above) rather than to /*dz/. However these are distinguished in East Timor only by Fataluku /s/ where /c/ is expected, so this example might be explained as a loan immediately from neighboring Makasae or Makalero /isa/, perhaps replacing a native /ica/:

Timor-Alor BunaqEast Timor Alor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-[dz]-?*ts (?)*d
roast/grill*i[dz]a[r] *itsa (?) *ida[r]

Medial velar voiced stop /*g/ is realized as glottal stop [*ʔ] in East Timor. Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven at first interpreted Timor /*g/ as /*k/ but have since revised this value to /*g/ (2012: 211-212, 2014: 6-7):

Timor-AlorBunaqEast Timor Alor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-g- g*g [ʔ] *g *g *k
bite *aˈg[i/e]l-agil*-agel *(k)il
mouth *aˈga[r] -agar*[a/o]g[a/o]*ag[a] [*aka®]
raw/green*uˈg[a]r ugar *ugur [*ugar]
laugh *jVˈgar higal*[i]gar *jagar *jagir

… devoiced to yield final /k/ in Bunaq:

Timor-Alor Bunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-g- k *g [ʔ]*g *g
hear *ˈmag[i/e]nmak *magen *mag[i]n *ma[k/g]e(n)
voice *mag[a] *mag[a] *mag[a]
earth/ground*ˈmuga muk *muga *muga [*muka]
count *ˈtaga tak *taga *taga
heavy *ˈtVgir tuek ~ -utek*tigir *tigVr
fry *ˈdzigar ziek *digar
now/today *wag[a]dzi *wagadzi

Medial rounded velar voiced stop /*gʷ/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-gʷ- k*g *g *g
banana*ˈmugʷol mok *mugu *mugol *mugul

Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-w- *w
eat/drink*nawa *nawa *na: *nVa

Medial lateral non-stop/*l/ is merged with the reflex of rhotic /*r/ in Alor-Pantar:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-l- l*l *r *R
bitter *ˈmalar mal *malar
spittle*pulum puluk*pulum *purum *puRV(n)
ear *ˈwali[k] hol *wali[k] *wari *-waRi
tail *w[o]ˈla -uloʔ*ula *ora *oRa

Medial rhotic non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in East Timor and Alor-Pantar and merged with the reflexes of lateral /l/ in Bunaq:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-r- l*r *r *r
water *ˈira il *ira *ira *jira
vagina *aru *aru *aru *-ar(u)
walk/go*ˈmara mal *mara *mar[a] [*mara]
wind *ˈbari bel *bari [*beri]
nest *ˈwari -el *wari *wari
urine *[j]iri *iri *[j]iri

Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-j- *j *j
rain *aja *aja *aja
paddle*waj[a]n *wajin *wajan

Final consonants …

Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-m *m *m *(n)
spittle*pulum puluk*pulum *purum *puRV(n)

Final apical nasal /*n/ is lost in Bunaq along with the vowel that precedes it:

Timor-Alor BunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-n ø*n *n *n
mosquito*ikin *nikin *ikin
louse *amin *amin *amin
hear *ˈmag[i/e]nmak *magen *mag[i]n *ma[k/g]e(n)
sneeze *paˈsin pen *pasin *pasin
tooth *ˈwasin -we *wasin *wasin *-wasin
paddle *waj[a]n *wajin *wajan

Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-t
stand (sg.)*nat *nat *nat *nat(er)

One example of final /*t/ when preceded by high front vowel /*i/ is reflected as /*s/ in Alor-Pantar:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-t/i_t*t *s *t
sit*mit mit *mit *mis *mit

The same change is found in the following loan from local Austronesian languages, which has lost its final vowel in Alor-Pantar:

BunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-t-/i_?*t *s *(s,t)
mat[*biti] *b₂iti *bis *bi(s,t)

Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-k
*…

Final apical non-stop /*l/ …

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-l l*l *l
bite*aˈg[i/e]l-agil*-agel *(k)il

… /*l/ … dropped in East Timor:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-l ø *l *l
bird *ˈadz[o]l hos *adza *adol *(h)adul
flying fox*madel *mada *madel *madel
banana *ˈmugʷol mok *mugu *mugol *mugul
snake *sVbVl *saba *…
path *ˈ[ja]gal hik *iga[r] *jagal *jega

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-l l *l *l
child*waˈkal -ol *wakal *-uaQal

Final rhotic non-stop /*r/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-r l *r *r *r
fly (n.) *ubur *ubur *ubur
run *tiˈpar tʃiwal*tipar *tipar
mountain *t[e]b[e]r *teber
true/correct*taˈbir tepel *tabir *tabi
woman *tubur *tubur
shark *… *… *… *sibar
rat/mouse *ˈdzur[a] zul *dzura *dur *dur(a)
stone *war hol *war *w[o]r *war
laugh *[ja]ˈgar higal *[i]gar *jagar *jagir

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-r r*r *r
raw/green*uˈg[a]r ugar *ugur [*ugar]

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-r ø*r
female*paˈnar pana *panar *pan(a)

…:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*-r *r
drum *tiˈtir titil *titir
heavy*ˈtVgir tuek ~ -utek*tigir *tigVr
woman*tubur *tubur

Bunaq /h/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*V- hV*V *V
fire *aˈda hoto *ada *ada *ada
bird *ˈadz[o]l hos *adza *adol *(h)adul
blood *waⁱ[s] ho *waⁱ[s] *waⁱ *waj
coconut*waˈta hoza *wata *wata *wata
sun *ˈwadu hot *wadu *wadi *wad(i,u)
bean *wasa ho *wasa [*wa]
ear *ˈwali[k] hol *wali[k] *wari *-waRi
stone *war hol *war *w[o]r *war
path *ˈ[ja]gal hik *iga[r] *jagal *jega
laugh *[ja]ˈgar higal *[i]gar *jagar *jagir

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*V- V*V *V

Bunaq loses final vowels … (q.v. Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven 2012: 221) … stress …:

Timor-Alor Bunaq East Timor Alor-PantarSchapper et al.
*ˈVCV VC *VCV
worm/grub *ˈipi iu *ipi *ipi
water *ˈira il *ira *ira *jira
wrap/cover *ˈedze es *edze
rock *ˈaba op *aba [*apa]
person *ˈanin en *anin
sugarcane *ˈuba up *uba *uba *ub(a)
egg *ˈudu -ut *udu [*uTa]
walk/go *ˈmara mal *mara *mar[a] [*mara]
earth/ground*ˈmuga muk *muga *muga [*muka]
wind *ˈbari bel *bari [*beri]
pound *ˈtapa tau *tapa *tapa *tapa(i)
hand/arm *ˈtana ton *tana *tan[a] *-tan(a)
count *ˈtaga tak *taga *taga
plait/weave *ˈsina sien *sina *sina *sine(N)
rat/mouse *ˈdzur[a] zul *dzura *dur *dur(a)
carry/fetch *ˈwita wit *wita
sun *ˈwadu hot *wadu *wadi *wad(i,u)
one *uˈkani uen *ukani
*ˈVC₁VC₂VC₁
bird *ˈadz[o]l hos *adza *adol *(h)adul
hear *ˈmag[i/e]n mak *magen *mag[i]n *ma[k/g]e(n)
bitter *ˈmalar mal *malar
banana *ˈmugʷol mok *mugu *mugol *mugul
stand (pl.) *ˈna[t/s]er net *naser *nater *nat(er)
heavy *ˈtVgir tuek ~ -utek*tigir *tigVr
fry *ˈdzigar ziek *digar
ear *ˈwali[k] hol *wali[k] *wari *-waRi
tooth *ˈwasin -we *wasin *wasin *-wasin
dog *ˈj[a]bar zap *[dz/j]ebar*jabar *dibar
path *ˈ[ja]gal hik *iga[r] *jagal *jega

…:

Timor-Alor Bunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*VˈCV VCV *VCV
do/make *[i]ˈni -ini *-ini [*-inV]
foot/leg *iˈdi -iri *idi
excrement *aˈtu ozoʔ ~ ozo*atu *atu *(h)at(V)
fire *aˈda hoto *ada *ada *ada
older sibling*naˈna nana *nana *nana
coconut *waˈta hoza *wata *wata *wata
tail *w[o]ˈla -uloʔ *ula *ora *oRa
*VˈC₁VC₂VC₁VC₂*VCVC
bite *aˈg[i/e]l -agil *-agel *(k)il
raw/green *uˈg[a]r ugar *ugur [*ugar]
female *paˈnar pana *panar *pan(a)
sneeze *paˈsin pen *pasin *pasin
run *tiˈpar tʃiwal *tipar *tipar
drum *tiˈtir titil *titir
true/correct *taˈbir tepel *tabir *tabi
child *waˈkal -ol *wakal *-uaQal
laugh *[ja]ˈgar higal *[i]gar *jagar *jagir

Vowels and diphthongs ….

High front vowel /*i/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*i *i *i
1 pl. bound*ni- nV- *ni-
3 pl. *gi g- *gi *gi *g(a,i)
sit *mit mit *mit *mis *mit
worm/grub *ˈipi iu *ipi *ipi
star *ibi *ibi *ibi *jibV
do/make *[i]ˈni -ini *-ini [*-inV]
foot/leg *iˈdi -iri *idi
beside *min[i] *mini *min[i]
mosquito *ikin *nikin *ikin
drum *tiˈtir titil *titir
fruit/seed *is[u] *isu *isV
three *itug *itu[g] *itug
water *ˈira il *ira *ira *jira
go up *midza *midza *mida
plait/weave*ˈsina sien *sina *sina *sine(N)
carry/fetch*ˈwita wit *wita
run *tiˈpar tʃiwal*tipar *tipar
neck/throat*mani *mani *mani
man/male *nami *nami
louse *amin *amin *amin
wing *ami[r] *amir

High back rounded vowel /*u/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*u u*u *u *u
egg *ˈudu -ut *udu [*uTa]
wax *udzu *udzu *udu [*wiDu(n)]
fly (n.) *ubur *ubur *ubur
spittle *pulum puluk*pulum *purum *puRV(n)
woman *tubur *tubur
sugarcane *ˈuba up *uba *uba *ub(a)
earth/ground*ˈmuga muk *muga *muga [*muka]
raw/green *uˈg[a]r ugar *ugur [*ugar]
rat/mouse *ˈdzur[a] zul *dzura *dur *dur(a)
one *uˈkani uen *ukani
three *itug *itu[g] *itug
snake *manu *manu
face *panu *panu *panu *panu
thigh *patu *patu *patu
peel/skin *pasu *pasu *pasu

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*u/_Coo*u *u *u
banana*ˈmugʷol mok *mugu *mugol *mugul

…:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*u/aC_o *u *u
excrement*aˈtu ozoʔ ~ ozo*atu *atu *(h)at(V)

Mid front vowel /*e/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*e
wrap/cover*ˈedze es *edze
cut/carve *tsets[e] se *tsets[e]
mountain *t[e]b[e]r *teber

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*e/aC_ *e *e *e
*e/aC_e*a *e *e
flying fox*madel *mada *madel *madel

Mid back rouded vowel /*o/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*o
bird*ˈadz[o]l hos *adza *adol *(h)adul

…:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*o/gʷ_*u *o *u
banana*ˈmugʷol mok *mugu *mugol *mugul

Low central vowel /*a/ …:

Timor-Alor Bunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*a *a *a
1 sg. bound *na- nV- *na- *na-
3 sg. *ga g- *ga *g(a,i)
stand (sg.) *nat *nat *nat *nat(er)
rain *aja *aja *aja
walk/go *ˈmara mal *mara *mar[a] [*mara]
older sibling*naˈna nana *nana *nana
eat/drink *nawa *nawa *na: *nVa
pound *tapa tau *tapa *tapa *tapa(i)
count *ˈtaga tak *taga *taga
bitter *ˈmalar mal *malar
female *paˈnar pana *panar *pan(a)
snake *sVbVl *saba *…
paddle *waj[a]n *wajin *wajan
neck/throat *mani *mani *mani
man/male *nami *nami
louse *amin *amin *amin
wing *ami[r] *amir
snake *manu *manu
face *panu *panu *panu *panu
thigh *patu *patu *patu
peel/skin *pasu *pasu *pasu
hear *ˈmag[i/e]nmak *magen *mag[i]n *ma[k/g]e(n)
tree *at[eⁱ] *ate *at[eⁱ] *hate
flying fox *madel *mada *madel *madel
go up *midza *midza *mida
run *tiˈpar tʃiwal*tipar *tipar

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*a/_Cie*a *a *e
wind *ˈbari bel *bari [*beri]
nest *ˈwari -el *wari *wari
person *ˈanin en *anin
true/correct*taˈbir tepel*tabir *tabi
one *uˈkani uen *ukani

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*asi e*asi *asi *asi
tooth *ˈwasin -we *wasin *wasin *-wasin
sneeze*paˈsin pen *pasin *pasin

… loans from … likewise affected:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*atsi e*atsi *asi
salt*qatsiRa e *gatsir *asir

…:

Timor-Alor BunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*a/_Ce e*a *a *a
stand (pl.)*ˈna[t/s]ernet *naser *nater *nat(er)

…:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*ˈiCa ie*iCa *iCa *iCe
plait/weave*ˈsina sien *sina *sina *sine(N)
fry *ˈdzigar ziek *digar

… Low back rounded /*ɒ/ … /o/ in Bunaq …:

Timor-AlorBunaq East TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
o *a *a *a
stone *war hol *war *w[o]r *war
rock *ˈaba op *aba [*apa]
fire *aˈda hoto *ada *ada *ada
hand/arm *ˈtana ton *tana *tan[a] *-tan(a)
coconut *waˈta hoza *wata *wata *wata
bean *wasa ho *wasa [*wa]
child *waˈkal -ol *wakal *-uaQal
breast *ami -omoʔ *ami *ami *hami
prawn *atsi o *atsi *asi
excrement*aˈtu ozoʔ ~ ozo*atu *atu *(h)at(V)
sun *ˈwadu hot *wadu *wadi *wad(i,u)
bird *ˈadz[o]l hos *adza *adol *(h)adul

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*ɒtsi o*atsi *asi
prawn*atsi o *atsi *asi

… diphthong /*uⁱ/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*uⁱ *i *uⁱ *i
fish*abuⁱ *abi *abuⁱ *abi

… diphthong /*aⁱ/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*aⁱ *aⁱ *aⁱ *ei
name*naⁱ -ni *naⁱ *naⁱ [*nei]

… /*ɒⁱ/ …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*ɒⁱ o*aⁱ *aⁱ *aj
blood*waⁱ[s] ho *waⁱ[s] *waⁱ *waj

…:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
*…
*…

Pronouns

[under construction]

… free …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-Pantar
1 sg. *an *an *na
2 sg. *a *a *a
3 sg. *ga *ga
1 pl. excl.*in *in *ni
1 pl. incl.*ap *ap *pi
2 pl. *i *i *i
3 pl. *gi *gi *gi

… inalienable possessor and verbal undergoer …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-Pantar
1 sg. *na- n- *na-
2 sg. *a- ø- *a-
3 sg. *ga- g- *g- *ga-
reciprocal *ta- t- *ta-
1 pl. excl.*ni- *ni-
1 pl. incl.*… *pi-
2 pl. *i- *i-
3 pl. *gi- *gi-

… alienable possessor, locative and ergative …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-Pantar
1 sg. *na-i ne- *na-i
2 sg. *a-i e- *a-i
3 sg. *ga-i *ga-i
reciprocal *ta-i *ta-i
1 pl. excl.*ni-i *ni-i
1 pl. incl.*… *pi-i
2 pl. *i-i *i-i
3 pl. *gi-i *gi-i

… dative …:

Timor-AlorBunaqEast TimorAlor-Pantar
1 sg. *na-u no *na-u
2 sg. *a-u o *a-u
3 sg. *ga-u go *ga-u
reciprocal *ta-u to *ta-u
1 pl. excl.*ni-u *ni-u
1 pl. incl.*… *pi-u
2 pl. *i-u *i-u
3 pl. *gi-u *gi-u

Verbal morphology

[under construction]


Loans from Austronesian languages

[under construction]

… with proto-Malayo-Polynesian forms drawn from Blust (n.d.) excepting those given in brackets which are local terms not found in his dataset (q.v. Capell 1944: 330-337.) As all three subgroups have a copious number of such loans, only those which appear in several or which are found also in mainland West Bomberai languages are presented here. Because the time depth and immediate sources of these loans differs, their phonological correspondences to proto-Malayo-Polynesian forms aren't always regular; correlating these differences to distinct borrowing events is a worthy topic for future investigation:

PMP Bunaq East Timor Alor-Pantar Schapper et al.
father *aba *ba *ba
fat/oil *miɲak minaʔ *mina
tide *ma-qəti meti *meti
saltwater *ma-qasinmo *magat *tam(a)
loincloth *malaw *mal
betel pepper *… molo *malus
citrus sp. *muntaj mura *mudi
seven *pitu hitu *pitu
sandbank *pasiʁ *ɓasi[r]
boil (n.) *bisul pisul *wisil
hull(ed) rice*bəʁas pos
price *bəli bol *b₂ura *bol *boL
price *bəli *ɓeli
pig *babuj *b₂aji *baⁱ *baj
trunk/body *bataŋ *b₂ata *ɓataŋ
candle *… barut *b₂adu
enclosure *bala *bala *bala; *ɓa:
widow *balu paluk *b₂a[l/r]u
pigeon sp. *baluɡʲ *walur *walur
flower *buŋa buk *[b/ɓ]uŋga
mountain *bukigʲ *b₂ugu *[b/ɓ]uku *buku
joint *buku -uk *ɓuk[u]
crocodile *buqaja *bagajV
moon *bulan hul *uru *ura *hur(u)
goat *… pip *b₂ib₂i
mat *… pil *b₂iti *bis *bi(s,t)
bamboo sp. *bətuŋ betun *b₂etun *petun
areca nut *buaq pu *b₂u[e/a] *buⁱ
cat *… busa *b₂u[s]a
coconut *niuʁ nu
east wind *timuʁ *sim[o/u]r
drum sp. *… *tib₂al *tiba[:]
collapse *… topol *taɓ[e/a]l
year *taqun to *tun
[*tahun]
rope *talih *taru *tarV
palm wine *… *tua *tuak
wall *diŋdiŋ sirin *sidin
hearth *dapuʁ *lapur
*dap₂ur
*dapur
high caste *… rato ~ dato*ratu
nine *siwa siwe *tsiwa
seek *… sagal *sag₂a [*saga]
citrus sp. *… sabul *tsab₂uraka
spoon/ladle *sudu sulu *sulu *sudu *suRa
bird sp. *… koak *… *kaukoa
cuscus *kandoʁa zulo (?) *adur *(a)Dura
older sibling[*kaka] kaʔa *kaka *kaka
skin *kulit *kuli[t]
sugar *… *g₂ula *gula
lime *qapuʁ hau *a[g]ur *awur
salt *qasiʁa e *gatsir *asir
slave *qaʁta atan *a[t/k]an
heart *… huan *uan
mango *wai *…
river *wahiʁ *waⁱr *waⁱr
honeybee *wani *wani *wani
walk *lakaw lagor [AS] *laga *… *lak(Vr)
mortar *lusuŋ nis
thousand *ʁibu lihur *ri[h]un *ribu

… Portuguese given in standard orthography …:

PortugueseBunaqEast TimorAlor-PantarSchapper et al.
tobacco tabaco bako *tab₂aku *tabauk
raise/care forcriar *ria *ria-n