Awyu

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

[under construction]

The Awyu family consists of anywhere from five to eleven languages spoken along and around the watercourses of New Guinea's southwestern lowlands, from the Digul river to the east and south … Indonesia's Papua province.

Subclassification

The internal classification of Awyu is as follows:

Awyu

South Awyu

Bamgi River Awyu

Ia River Awyu

Southeast Awyu

Edera River Awyu

Lower Kia River Awyu

Upper Kia River Awyu

Central and West Awyu

North Awyu

Central Awyu

Mappi River Awyu

Pasue River Awyu

West Awyu

Wildeman River Awyu

Asue River Awyu

Miaro River Awyu

Kewet River Awyu

As no North Awyu data is currently available to us, its placement here is based upon the lexical similarity figures given in Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 29-30 after Susanto 2004.)

Voorhoeve (2000: 362) provides the following lexicostatistical figures for Awyu:

Siagha Pisa Aghu
Siagha 52 52
Pisa 52 68
Aghu 55 68

These are substantially lower than those given by Healey (1970: 1009):

Syiagha Yenimu Pisa Aghu
Syiagha 86 78 73
Yenimu 86 83 78
Pisa 78 83 91
Aghu 73 78 91

Sources

Stokhof ed. (1982: 133-140) comparative vocabulary of Digul Mappi (Mappi River) after van Doorn (collected 1931-1932)

Nevermann (1940) Oser (Bamgi River) (unobtained)

Drabbe (1947) grammar of Pisà (Wildeman River)

Boelaars (1950: 68-76) English language recension of Drabbe (1947)

Drabbe (1950) grammar and (pp. 131-142) 408 comparative terms for Sjìagha (Ia River,) Jénimu (Bamgi River) and Pisà

Drabbe (1954: 231-255) 100 comparative terms for Sjìagha, Jénimu and Pisà

Drabbe (1957) grammar and (pp. 47-51) 401 comparative terms for Aghu (Mappi River)

Drabbe (1959: 62-181) 431 comparative terms for Sjìagha, Jénimu, Pisà and Aghu

Shafer (1965: 340-348) reconstruction of Auyuan

Healey (1970) reconstruction of Proto Awyu-Dumut

Voorhoeve (1975: 374-379) brief general descriptions of Awyu-Dumut languages

Voorhoeve (2000) revision of Healey's (1970) Awyu-Dumut, including (pp. 372-381) 108 reconstructed terms

Voorhoeve (2005) comparison of Proto-Awyu-Dumut to Proto-Asmat and Proto-Ok

Lebold, Kriens and de Vries (2010: 46-52) 97 comparative terms for South Awyu of Salamepe village (Bamgi River)

Kriens and Lebold (2010: 40-53) 239 comparative terms for Awyu of Busiri village (Wildeman River) and Ketah, Nohon and Taim villages (Pasue River)

Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 54-66) 240 comparative terms for Asue Awyu of Juvo Besar/Kabu, Juvo Kecil, Keru and Khanami villages, 62 comparative terms for Asaren, Isage, Aboge, Kopi, Kiki, Eci, Homang, Amenda, Omuro, Khaibu and Kasima villages

Kriens, Lebold and Menanti (2011: 44-51) 239 comparative terms for Asue Awyu of Amagatsu village, 50 comparative terms for Sogope, Katage and Yagatsu villlages (Kewet River)

Lebold, Kriens and Susanto (2013: 36-47) 239 comparative terms for South Awyu of Yeloba and Konebi (Jas) villages (Bamgi River,) Edera Awyu of Meto, Ujung Kia, Yame and Bhakti villages and for Jair Awyu of Ujung Kia and (pp. 48-50) 60 comparative terms for South Awyu of Banamepe and Konebi (Homeme) (Bamgi River)

de Vries, Wester and van den Heuvel (2012) Greater Awyu (Digul River) comparative pronouns and verbal morphology

Wester (2014) Awyu-Dumut comparative morphology including (pp. 195-210) 430 comparative terms for Shiaxa, Yenimu, Pisa and Aghu after Drabbe (1959: 162-181)

Historical phonology

[under construction]

The presentation which follows is indebted to the reconstruction presented in Healey (1970.) It should also be highlighted that, five years prior to the publication of Healey's proto-Awyu-Dumut, Shafer (1965: 340-348) published perfectly servicable tables of correspondence for Awyuan, alongside a surprising number of other New Guinea families, which have been unjustly ignored. We present an independent reconstruction of Awyu and its subgroups, for which new data, including several previously unattested languages, has been made available in recent years in the form of survey vocabularies from researchers with the Summer Institute of Linguistics.

Proto-Awyu had 15 to 19 consonants and 8 vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *k *kʷ
*b *d *g
[*mb] [*nd] [*ŋg]
*s *x [*xʷ]
*w *j
*i *u
*e̝ *o̝
*a

In addition to the simple vowels given above, … diphthongs are found as follows:



The status of prenasalized stops /*mb *nd *ŋg/ depends upon whether they are to be analyzed as unit phonemes or as clusters, as they are in Healey (1970.) That of aspirated labial glide /*xʷ/, which is found only in loans from Marind-Yaqay, depends upon whether these loans are to be considered established by the time of Proto-Awyu.

Rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ is uncommon, but must be posited to account for an otherwise irregular correspondence between [*a *ɔ] in /*kʷatiN/ “sweat”; cf. Kombai /xʷari/ id (q.v. de Vries 1993: 6.) It was historically present in /*xɔxɔⁱ/ “ghost,” presumbly reflecting /*kɔp-kʷaⁱ/ (cf. Kombai /xʷaⁱ/, Mountain Ok /*kʷeⁱs/,) but here it's not clear that /*kʷ/ should be reconstructed at the proto-Awyu level. There is no voiced counterpart /*gʷ/ because Central Digul River initial voiced prenasalized /*ŋgʷ/ has been merged with /*w/; e.g. /*wati/ “snake” from /*ŋgʷati/.

This inventory may be compared with that of Healey (1970: 1000-1002,) who gives 14 consonants and 7 vowels for proto-Awyu in their original transcriptions as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *k
*b *d *g
*f *s *x
*w *r *y
*i *u
*e *o
*a

The most significant difference between the reconstruction presented here and its predecessors is the interpretation and systemic arrangement of vowel qualities. Both Healey and Voorhoeve posit a high central rounded vowel /*y/ <ü> which is backed to /*u/ in South Awyu, alongside an /*u/ which is lowered to /*o/ in Drabbe's Sjiàgha (Ia River.) The framework advanced here has these movements occuring in the opposite direction (Shafer 1965: 346,) with the fronting of /*u/ seen as a recent phenomenon, probably in codevelopment with the Asmat languages to the west which typically front Asmat-Kamoro /*u/ to /i/ as well as with the languages to the north as far as Kaure.

There are several reasons for this reinterpretation. First, the dispositions of our high mid vowels /*e̝ *o̝/ and low mid /*ɛ *ɔ/ are entirely parallel in all descendants, a symmetry which is broken if our /*ɔ *o̝ / are treated as /*o *u/, as they are in Healey's system. Even if Healeys <ü> is to be considered to be central rather than back, this would simply mean that Awyu had no /*u/; there doesn't seem to be much justification for raising the qualities of the mid back vowels other than to avoid what would otherwise seem a curious gap.

Second, the identification of our /*u *o̝/ as such, rather than as /* ʉ *u/, is supported by the disposition of loans from Yaqay and Marind, in which borrowed /*u/ is reflected as /*u/ [u ʉ] (e.g. “canoe”) and /*o/ as /*o̝ / [o u] (e.g. “moon”.)

One consequence of this rearrangement is that a very small number of forms that would otherwise have been assigned to /*u/, as opposed to /*o̝/ or /*ʉ/, are left stranded; these are those given as <u> both in Drabbe's Sjiàgha and in Drabbe's Aghu. The most conspicuous of these is “louse,” alongside “inside” and “bile.” These are far fewer examples than would be expected from a simple phoneme /*u/.

There was most likely a phonemic [ʉ]-like sound, but it's rare, having been identified only in the terms for “heart” and “young man,” where it yields /*i/ rather than /*u/ in South Awyu. It is tentatively given as /*ʉ/ below, but might easily have been a diphthong /*iᵘ/ or the like. The originality of this sound is supported by outcomparison to Ok, where the cognate term for “heart” likewise requires the reconstruction of a high central quality.

Shafer's (1965: 345-347) Awyuan and Healey's (1970: 1000-1002) Proto-Awyu vowels correlate to those given here as follows:

Usher Healey Shafer
*i *i *i
[*ʉ]
*u *u
*e̝ *e
*o̝ *u̇
*e
*o *o
*o *ọ
*a *a *a
*… *u *u̇

The most fundamental phonological division between Awyu subgroups is that between South Awyu and Southeast Awyu on the one hand, which maintain, more or less, the original vowel qualities, and Central Awyu and West Awyu on the other, which have generally fronted /*u/ to /*ʉ/, filled the resulting gap by raising /*o̝/ to /*u/, and, in parallel with the raising of /*o̝/, raised /*e̝/ to merge with /*i/. The distinction between mid height values having been lost, low mid vowels /*ɛ *ɔ/ are then generalized as /*e *o/. The end stage of this process is a 6 or 7 vowel system as follows:

*i *u
*e [*ɜ] *o
*a

Healey's (1970: 1000-1002) vowel system (above) is, in essence, a backdated modification of this historically secondary arrangement to account for the contrast between high and low mid front vowels /*e̝ *ɛ/.

The second widespread trend to be discussed is the palatalization, deocclusion and loss of apical non-stop /*ɾ/. This affects the dialects of Southeast Awyu and Central Awyu, although /*ɾ/ must nevertheless be reconstructed for both protolanguages. In Southeast Awyu, /*ɾ/ is typically palatalized to [j]; in Central Awyu it is just as often dropped altogether. This is very conspicuous in Drabbe (1959: 162-181) where /*ɾ/ is invariably dropped in Aghu.

Like the fronting of /*u/, the movement of /*ɾ/ precipitates changes in structurally adjacent sounds, in this instance beginning with apical voiced stop /*d/, which is then free to lenit to [r] in the dialects of Southeast Awyu and Pasue River. This is in Southeast Awyu followed by the general lenition of medial voiced stops /*b *d *g/, and even prenasalized /*mb *nd *ŋg/, to [β r ɣ] (q.v. Lebold, Kriens and Susanto (2013: 36-47,) an equivalence not found in other Awyu subfamilies.

The third significant change to be discussed is the palatization and frication of /*t/, when followed by high and high mid vowels /*i *u *e̝ *o̝/, to merge with /*s/. In Central Awyu and in the Wildeman River and Asue River varieties of West Awyu, this process is complete (Healey 1970: 1001;) in Kewet River /*t/ is still distinguished as affricate [tʃ]. In Southeast Awyu, the process is complete in Lower Kia River and mostly so in Edera of Bhakti village, with Upper Kia River like Kewet distinguishing palatalized /*t/ as [tʃ] and Edera of Yame apparently unaffected.

It may be observed that all three changes propagate in either direction along to a chain running counterclockwise from South Awyu to Southeast, Central, and finally West Awyu.

Initial consonants correspond as follows:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*m- *m *m *m *m *m
*n- *n *n *n *n *n
*p- *p *p *p *p *p
*t- *t *t *t *t *t
*t-/_i u e̝ o̝ *t *t *s *t *t
*k- *k *k *k *k *k
*kʷ- *k *k *k *k *k
*b- *b *b *b *b *b
*d- *d *d *d *d *d
*g- *g *g *g *g *g
*ɸ- *f
*s- *s *s *s *s *s
*x- *x *x *x *x *x
*w- *w *w *w *w *w
*ɾ- *ɾ [j ø] *r
*j- *j *j *j *j *y

Medial consonants correspond as follows:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-m- *m *m *m *m *m
*-n- *n *n *n *n *n
*-p- *p *p *p *p *p
*-t- *t *t *t *t *t
*-t-/_i u e̝ o̝ *t *t *s *t *t
*-k- *k *k *k *k *k
*-b- *b *b *b *b *b
*-d- *d *d *d *d *d
*-g- *g *g *g *g *g
*-mb- *mb *mb *mb *mb *mb
*-nd- *nd ? *nd ? *nd
*-ŋg- *ŋg *ŋg *ŋg *ŋg *ng
*-ɸ- *f
*-s- *s *s *s *s *s
*-x- *x *x *x *x *x
*-xʷ- *xʷ *xʷ *f
*-w- *w *w *w *w *w
*-ɾ- *ɾ [j ø] *r
*-j- *j *j *j *j *y

Final consonants of nominals and other non-bound word classes correspond as follows:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-N *… *… *N *N *n
*-t *t *t
*-x *x *x
*-ɾ *r

Final consonants of verb roots correspond as follows:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-N- *N *N *N *N *k
*-C- *C *k-

Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*i *i *i *i *i *i
[*ʉ] *i
*u *u *…
*u/k_ *u *u
*e̝ *e̝ *e̝ *i *i *e
*e̝/j_ *i *e̝ *i *i *u
*o̝ *o̝ *o̝ *u *u *u
*o̝/_x *o̝ *u *u *o *u
*e *e
*a *a *æ *a
*o *o *o
*a *a *a *a *a *a *aa
*a/_u *a *a *a *a *ɔ *o
*a/w_ *a *a *a
*ɛⁱ *i *i *i *ɛⁱ *i *e
*ɔⁱ *ɔⁱ *ɔⁱ *ɔⁱ *oi
*aⁱ *aⁱ *a *aⁱ *aⁱ *ai
*aᵉ *aᵉ *aᵉ *aᵉ *aᵉ
*ɔᵘ *o̝ *u *u

These correspondences are exemplified as follows.


[under construction]

Any consonant can occur initially., excepting possibly rounded velar fricative /*xʷ/ which is found only in loans from Marind (below.)

Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*m- *m *m *m *m *m
drink (realis) *mi[N/C]-*miN- *mi[N]- *miC- *mi- *mik-/*min-
star/firefly *miN *mi *mi[N] *miN *miN
morning *mimiN *mimi *mimiN *mimiN *mimin
tail *minu *minu
thigh *midiN *midi *midi[N]*midiN *midi(n)
forehead *mika *mika *mika
swallow *miko̝N- *miko̝N- *mikuN- *m[i]kuN-*mikun-
tendon *mɛ *mɛ *mɛ *mɛ
cooked *ma *ma *ma *ma
get up/stand up*mato̝C- *m[a]to̝- *mat[u]-
beard *matu *masʉ *mas[i] *masi/*mati
*masü/*matü
stomach *madu *mɔdu *m[a]du *madʉ *madʉ *modü
teeth *maga *maga *maga *maga *maga *maga
behind *mɔ *mɔ *mɔ *mɔ *mɔ
afraid *mɔke̝ *mɔke̝ *mɔke̝ *mɔki *mɔki
earth/below *mɔkaN *mɔkaN *makaN *makaN *mɔkaN *makan/*mokan
cheek *mɔxɔN *mɔxɔN *mɔxɔ[N]*mɔxɔN *moxo(n)
all *mo̝ *mo̝- *-mu
hair *mo̝x *mɔx *m[o̝] *mu *mox/*mux
elbow *mo̝[wɔ] *mo̝wɔ *mu
not want *mo̝N- *mo̝N- *muN- *mun-
neck *mu *mu *mʉ *m[ʉ] *mü
back *mu *mu *mʉ *mü
egg *mugɔ *mugɔ *mʉgɔ *mugɔ *mügo

Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups. It is much less common than initial bilabial /*m/ (above):

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*n- *n *n *n *n *n
mother *ni *ni *ni *ni
this/here *nɛ(-gɔ) *nɛ-(gɔ)*nɛ(-gɔ) *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ(-gɔ)
1 sg. poss. *na *na *na (?) *na *na *na
eat (imperative)*na *na *na[N] *na
knowledge *n[a]ɸaN *naɸa *n[a]ɸaN *naɸaN *naɸaN
crocodile *nagaɾo̝ *nagaɾu
go (imperative) *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ
1 sg. *no̝ *no̝ *no̝ *nu *nu *nu
1 pl. *n[o̝/u]go̝*no̝go̝ *no̝go̝ *nʉgu *nugu *nügu/*nugu

Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is uncommon. It is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*p- *p *p *p *p *p
long *pe̝ɾe̝ *pe̝ɾe̝ *pe̝ɾe̝ *piɾi *piɾi *pere
sore/wound *pɛsɔ *pɛsɔ *pɛsɔ *pɛso
coconut *pɜjɔ *pajɔ *p[ɜ]jɔ *pajɔ *pɜjɔ *pæyo
old (thing)*patu *patu *pasʉ *patʉ
be cooked *pax-ne̝C-*pax[a]-ne̝C- *pa[x]-niC- *paxnek-/*paxnik-
excrement *pax[a] *pax[a] *pax[a] *pax[a]*paxa

Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ when followed by low and low mid vowels /*ɛ *ɔ *ɜ *a/ or (at least) diphthing /*ɔᵘ/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*t-/_ɛ *t*t *t *t*t
chin *tɛɾɛ *tɛɾɛ *tɛɾɛ *tɛɾɛ
*t-/_ɔᵘ*t
sour *tɔᵘŋgi
*t-/_ɔ *t*t *t *t*t
hole *tɔ *tɔ *tɔ *tɔ *tɔ *to
armpit *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN *tɔgɔ *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN*tɔgɔN*togon/*toxon
*tongon
finger/toe *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔ *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔN*toron
*t-/_a *t*t *t *t*t
tired/crippled*taxaN *taxa *taxaN *taxaN*taxan
tooth *taɾe̝ *taɾe̝*taɾe̝
cold *taɾ[u] *tɔɾu *taɾ[u] *taɾʉ *taɾu *tɔrü

When initial /*t/ is followed by high and high mid vowels /*i *u *e̝ *o̝/, it is fricated and merged with /*s/ in Central Awyu:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*t-/_i *t *t *s *t *t
plait *ti- *ti- *si- *ti- *ti-
cough/sneeze*tiC- *ti- *ti- *siC- *ti- *tik-
*t-/_u *t *t *s *t *t
urinate *tu- *tu- *tʉ- *tü-
banana *tu *tu *tʉ *sʉ *tʉ *tü
*t-/_e̝ *t *t *s *t *t
areca nut *te̝ *te̝ *te̝(te̝)
leech *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N *t[ɛ]se̝ *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N*s[i]siN*tiɾiN *tese
penis *t[e̝/ɛ]ge̝ *te̝ge̝ *s[ɛ]gi *tigi *tege
*t-/_o̝ *t *t *s *t *t
corpse *to̝ - *tu
go up *(a-)to̝C- *ɔto̝- *asuC- *tu- *otuk-
hide *(a-)to̝ɾo̝-mɔ-*(a-)to̝ɾo̝mɔ- *atuɾumɔ-*aturumo-
ear *to̝ɾo̝N *to̝ɾo̝ *to̝ɾo̝N *suɾuN *tuɾuN *turun

Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*k- *k *k *k *k *k
bathe/swim *kiN- *kiN- *kiN- *kiN- *kiN- *kin-
wind *kiɸɛⁱ *kiɸi *k[i]ɸi *kiɸi *kɛɸi (?) *kifi
foot/leg *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kito
be *ke̝C- *ke̝- *kiC- *ki- *ke-
flower *ke̝t *ke̝t *ki *ki *ket
marsupial *ke̝sɔ *ke̝sɔ *… *kisɔ *kisɔ *kiso/*kuso
ankle *ke̝N *ke̝nɔ-bɔge̝ *kiN *kin
side *ke̝N-ke̝N *ke̝ŋge̝ *kikiN
tear(s) *ke̝n-(ɔxɔ) *ke̝n-ɔx *kin-ɔxɔ *kin-ɜjɜ *ken-ox
rope *ke̝ke̝N *kikiN *kikiN *keken/*kikin
eye *ke̝ɾɔ *ke̝ɾɔ *k[e̝]ɾɔ *kiɾɔ *kiɾɔ *kero
sharp *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N *k[e̝]te̝ *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N*k[i/ɛ]siN*k[i/ɛ]tiN *kesen/*keten
*kisin/*kitin
bad/evil *k[e̝/ɛ]jɔN *k[i]j[ɛ/a] *k[i]jɔN *k[i/ɛ]jɔN*k[i/ɛ]jɔN
carry *kɛko̝N- *kɛko̝N- *kɛkuN- *kɛkuN- *kɛkun-
dry *kɛɾa *kɛɾa *k[a]ɾa
face *kɜtɔ *katɔ *kɜtɔ
moon *kamo̝ *kamo̝ *kamo̝ *kamu
alive/awake *kadax[aᵉ] *kadax[aᵉ] *kadax[aᵉ] *kadaxae
belly *kaku *kɔku *kakʉ *kaku *kɔkü
red *kaŋgɔN *kaŋgɔ *kaŋg[o̝] *kaŋgɔN *kaŋgɔN *kango(n)
paddle (n.) *kaxʷe̝ *kaɸe̝ *kaɸe̝ *kaxʷi *kaxʷi *kafe/*kɛfe
and/also *-ko̝ *-ko̝ *-ku
wash *ko̝N- *ko̝N- *ko̝N- *kuN- *kuN- *kun-
plant (v.) *ko̝N- *ko̝N- *kuN- *kun-
gather *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N-*gigi-ko̝N- *gigi[jɔ] kuN-*gigio kun-
sleep (n.) *ko̝no̝N *ko̝no̝N *ko̝no̝N *kunuN *kunuN *kunun
dig *ku- *ku- *ku- *kʉ- *ku- *küox-
sugarcane *kuN *kuN *kʉN *kuN *kün
die (sg.) *kuN- *kuN- *kuN- *kʉN- *kuN- *kün-
goura pigeon *kutɛ *kʉtɛ *kutɛ *(ü)kütɛ
younger sibling*kudɜ *kuda *kudɜ *kʉda *kudɜ *küda

Initial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ …:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*kʷ-*k *k *k *k*k
sweat (n.)*kʷate̝N*ko̝te̝ *kasiN *kasiN*kɔten
flesh *kʷado̝ *kɔdɔ *ko̝do̝ *kadu *kadu *kɔdu

… /*kʷ/ …:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*kʷ-*k*k *k *k*k
theft*kʷuⁱ *kuⁱ *ki *ki *kui

Initial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*b- *b *b *b *b *b
shin *biN *biN *biN *biN *bin
moon *b[i/e̝]d[i/e̝]N *bidiN *bidiN *beden/*bidin
chest *be̝N *biN
hand/arm *b[e̝]d[ɔ] *be̝d[ɜ/ɔ] *b[ɛ]d[ɔ] *bɛdɔ *bidɜ **bedo
outside *bVt[a]xa *be̝taxa *be̝t[a]x[a]*bɛtaxa *butaxa **betaxa
sit *ba- *ba- *ba- *ba- *ba- *bæx-
male *baxtiN *baxti[N] *batiN *basiN *b[a]tiN *baxtin
short/blunt *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bago
bone *b[a/ɔ]ge̝ *bɔge̝ *b[a/ɔ]g[e̝]*b[ɛ]gi *bagi *bɔge
father *bɔ *bɔ *bɔ
shiver *bɔbVN- *bɔbɔN- *bɔbiN- *bobin-/*bobon-
spirit/soul *bɔna *bɔna *bɔna *b[a]na *bɔna
heavy *bɔd[ʉ/u] *bɔd[i/u] *bɔdʉ *bodü
knee/elbow *bɔkiN *bɔkiN *bɔki[N] *bɔkiN *bün/*bun
heel *bo̝ *bo̝ *bu *bu
black *bo̝xo̝N *b[o̝]x[o̝]
fly (v.) *bo̝ɾo̝N- *bo̝ɾo̝N- *bo̝ɾo̝N- *buɾuN- *buɾuN- *burun-
village *b[o̝/u]tu *b[o̝/u]tu *… *bʉsʉ *b[ʉ/u]sʉ
knee/elbow *buN *buN *bʉN *buN *bün/*bun
go out (of fire)*buniC- *buni- *bun[u]C-*buni- *bünik-

Initial apical voiced stop /*d/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*d- *d*d *d *d *d
not *dɛ *dɛ *dɛ *dɛ
come *dɜ- *dɜ- *da- *dɜ- *dæx-
heart *d[ʉ]b-ɾɔ *dibɔ *d[i/ʉ]bɾɔ*dʉb[u]ɾɔ*dübro
salt *daN- *da *daN *daN-
hear *daC- *da- *da- *daC- *da- *dak-
get up/stand up*datɔ- *datɔ-*d[a]tɔ- *dɔtɔ- *dɔtɔ- *dɔtox-
sago *d[ɔᵘ] *do̝ *du *dʉ *du *dü/*du
burn (intr.) *dɔ- *dɔ- *dɔ- *dɔ- *dɔ-
nail *dɔx *dɔx *dɔx
cook/burn *du- *dʉ- *dʉ-
island *dub[i/e̝] *dʉbi *d[ʉ]bi *dübe/*dübi

Initial velar voiced stop /*g/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*g- *g *g *g *g *g
scratch/scrape*gi- *gi- *gi- *gi- *gi-
gather *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N-*gigi-ko̝N- *gigi[jɔ] kuN-*gigio kun-
sand *giɾiN *giɾiN *giɾiN *giɾiN *geren/*girin
snap (tr.) *gɛ-mɛ- *-gɛmɛ- *-gɛmɛ-*-gɛm[ɛ]- *gɛme-/*gɛmo-
garden *gijɔN *gij[ɛ/a] *gijɔN *gijɔN *giɔn
snap (intr.) *gɛ-ne̝C- *gɛne̝- *gɛniC-*gɛni- *gɛne-
2 sg. poss. *ga *ga *ga *ga *ga
chin/jaw *gando̝N *gando̝
blood *gɔN *gɔN *gɔN *gɔN *gɔN *gon
incorrect *gɔbaN *gɔba
forget *gɔbaN- *gɔbaN-
2 sg. *go̝ *go̝ *go̝ *gu *gu *gu
nape *go̝be̝N *gubiN
2 pl. *g[o̝/u]go̝ *go̝go̝ *go̝go̝ *gʉgu *g[ɔ]g[ʉ] *gügu/*gugu
navel *guN *gu *gʉN *g[ʉ]N *gün
brain *guN *gu *gʉN *g[ʉ]N *gün

Initial bilabial fricative /*ɸ/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*ɸ- *f
name *ɸi *ɸi *ɸi *ɸi *ɸi *fi
think/know *ɸiN-mi- *ɸimi- *ɸimi- *ɸim[i]-*fimi-
bamboo *ɸe̝-ɔ *ɸe̝jɔ *ɸijɔ *ɸijɔ
see *ɸe̝tɛ- *ɸe̝tɛ- *ɸe̝t[ɛ]-*ɸit[ɛ]-*ɸit[ɛ]-**fɛtɛox-
not *ɸa *ɸa *ɸa
tongue *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *fagɛ
bird of paradise*ɸɔdɔ *ɸɔdɔ
stink *ɸɔxɔ-mɔ-*ɸɔxɔmɔ- *ɸɔxɔmɔ-foxomo-
stab/kill (fut.)*ɸu- *… *ɸʉ-

Initial fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*s- *s *s *s *s *s
nose *siN *si *siN *siN *siN *sin
mucus *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *sin-ifo
high/above *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siri
black *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *sere/*siri
*tere/*tiri
torch *sija *sija *sija *sija *sia
spine *se̝ *se̝ *si *se
ashes *se̝na *se̝na *sina *sena
pinkie/nail *sɛ *sɛ *-sɛ *-sɛ *se
widower *sɛN *sɛ *sɛN *sɛN *sɛn
young man *s[ʉ]baN *sib[a]N *s[ʉ]baN *sʉbaN *sʉbaN *süban
in front *samaN *samaN *samaN *samaN
sun *sawɜ *s[a]wɜ *sawa *sawɜ *sɔwɔ
wallaby *sVb[a]xaⁱ *[sV]b[a]xaⁱ*sVb[a]xaⁱ*sVb[a]xaⁱ*baxae/*baxai
dry *sɔ *sɔ *sɔ *sɔ *so
earth/ground*sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *soxo
slow *so̝ko̝m[a/ɔ]N*so̝ko̝m[ɔ] *sukum[a]N*sukumɔn

Initial velar fricative /*x/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*x- *x *x *x *x *x
skin/bark *xa *xa *xa *xa *xa *xa
give birth *xaⁱ- *xaⁱ- *xaⁱ- *xaⁱ- *xai
house *xaⁱN *-x[aⁱ]N *-xaN *x[aⁱ]N *xaⁱN
head *xaⁱbaN *xaⁱba *xabaN *xaⁱbaN *xaⁱbaN *xaiban
fence *xaⁱti *x[aⁱ]ti *xaⁱti *xaⁱti **xaiti
lime *xame̝[N] *xame̝ *xame̝ *xami
widow *xamɔ *xamɔ *xam[ɜ] *xam-
friend *xabe̝N *xabe̝ *xabe̝N *xabiN
stone axe *xabo̝ *xabo̝ *xabu *xabu *xabu
palate *xanaN *xa[na]N
spear *xati *x[a]ti *xasi *xati *xati
saliva/spittle*xate̝ *xate̝ *xasi *xate
mouth *xat[ɛ/ɜ] *xatɛ-tɔ *xatɜ *xatɔ *xatɜ *xatɛ
centipede *xax *xax *xa *xax
far *xaxaN *xaxa *xaxaN
husband *xaxo̝ *xaxo̝ *xɔxu
drumming *xaxɸɛ *xaxɸɛ *xa[x]ɸɛ *xaxfɛ
fence/wall *xaɾi *xɛɾi *xaɾi *xaɾi
be enough *xaɾe̝-ne̝C- *xaɾi-niC-*xaɾi-ni- xare nek-
xari nik-
break (intr.) *xaɾ[ɔ]-ne̝C- *xaɾ[a]-ni-
crocodile *xajambo̝ *xajambo̝*xajambu *xajambu *xayambu
white *xajɔ *xajɔ *xajɜ *xajɔ *xaja *xayɔ
cloud/sky *xɔᵘ[t](-tɔ) *xɔᵘ[t](-tɔ)*xɔᵘ(-tɔ)*xɔᶶ(-tɔ) *xɔᶶ *xoü; *xuito
over there *xɔ *xɔ- *xɔ- *xɔ
man *xɔ *xɔ *xɔ *xɔ *xɔ *xo
walk/go *xɔ- *xɔ- *xɔ- *xɔ- *xɔ- *xox-
far *xɔmaN *xamaN *x[a]maN
die (pl.) *xɔsV[ŋ]gi- *xɔs[i]gi- *xɔs[a]ŋgi-
flying fox *xɔŋge̝ *xɔŋge̝ *xɔŋgi *xɔŋgi *xonge
ghost *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔxɔⁱ *xoxoi
husband *xo̝ *xo̝ *xu *xu
milk *xo̝N *xo̝N *xu[N] *xu[N] *xu

Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*w- *w *w *w *w *w
pig *wɛⁱ *wi *wi *wi *wɛⁱ *wi
worm *wɛɾu *wɛɾu *… *wɛɾʉ *wɛɾʉ
left/lame *wɜ *wa *wɜ *wa *wɜ
3 sg. poss. *wa *wa *wa (?) *wa *wa *wa
night *wamiN *wɔmiN
snake *wati *wɛti *wVti *wisi *wati *wati/*witi
river *wadɛⁱ *w[i]di *w[i]di *w[i]di *wadɛⁱ *wadi/*widi
thumb/big toe *wadɔ *wɔdɔ *wadɔ *wɔdo
bamboo knife *waki *waki *wɔki *waki
war *waki *wɛki *waki **wæki
ripe/yellow *waxamaN *waxama *waxamaN *waxaman
break/crush (tr.)*waxaɾ-mɔ-*waxaɾ-mɔ- *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ-*waxarmo-
liver *wɔᵘN *wɔᵘ *wɔᶶN *wɔᶶN *wün
inside *wɔm… *wɔmu *wɔmu *wɔm[u] *wɔm[u] *womu
tail *wɔbu *wɔbu *wɔbu *wɔbʉ *wɔbʉ *wobu
testicle(s) *wɔbu-ɾɔ *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ*wɔbʉ-ɾɔ *wobü-ro
stab/kill *wu- *wu- *… *wʉ- *wʉ- *wü-/*wu-

Initial apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*ɾ- *r
rib(s) *ɾiN *ɾiN *ɾiN *ɾiN *rin
twist rope *ɾiN- *ɾiN- *ɾiN- *rin-
call/sing *ɾiC- *ɾi *ɾiC *ɾi *rik-
lie down *ɾe̝- *ɾe̝- *ɾ[e̝]- *ɾi- *ɾi- *reg-
take/hold *ɾa- *ɾa- *ɾa- *ɾa- *ræx-
woman/wife *ɾaN *ɾa *ɾaN *ɾaN *ɾaN *ran
fruit/seed *ɾɔ *ɾɔ *ɾɔ *ɾɔ *ɾɔ *ro
hair/leaf/feather*ɾɔN *ɾɔN *ɾɔN *ɾɔN *ron
weep/cry *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ron-
say/speak *ɾɔ[x]-*ɾɔxɔ- *ɾɔ- *ɾɔ- *rox-
voice/speech *ɾo̝x *ɾɔx *ɾ[o̝] *ɾu *ɾu *rux
boil (n.) *ɾuN *ɾuN *ɾʉN *ɾʉN *rün
chop down *ɾuC- *ɾu- *ɾʉC- *ɾʉ- *rük-

Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*j- *j *j *j *j *y
bird *je̝ *ji *j[e̝] *ji *ji *yi
tree/firewood*je̝N *jiN *je̝N *jiN *jiN *yin
love/desire *jɜ *ja *jɜ **ya *yæ
thorn *jam[ɔ]xɔN*jɔmɔ *jamɔxɔN *jɔmɔxɔN*jamɔxɔN *yɔmo
good *jaɸe̝ *jaɸi
lie (n.) *jaxamɔ *jaxamɔ *jaxam[ɔ]
older brother*jaxɔ *jaxɔ *jaxɔ *j[a]xɔ **yaxo
canoe *jaxʷuN *j[a]ɸ[u]N*jaxʷʉN *jaxʷʉN *yɔfün
scabies/tinea*j[a/ɔ]miN *j[ɔ]miN*j[a]miN *yɔmin
copulate *jɔN- *jɔN- *jɔN- *jɔN- *yon-
3 pl. *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *yoxo
rattan/rope *jɔxo̝ *jɔx[o̝]*j[o̝]xo̝ *jɔxu *jɔxu

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*[ɾ/j]-*j *j *j *[ɾ/j]*y
breadfruit*[ɾ/j]awɔt *j[ɔ]w[ɔ]t*jaw[ɔ]t *jawɔ[N] (?)*[ɾ/j]awɔ *yɔwɔt

Any consonant can occur medially, excepting perhaps rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ which has not been found in medial position.

Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-m- *m *m *m *m *m
do/make *-mɔ- *-mɔ- *-mɔ- *-mɔ- *-mɔ- *-mo
gall/bile *[e̝/ɛ]tim[o̝/u]N*[e̝/ɛ]timu (?) *[i]simu (?)*[i]timuN *etumün
*etimun
young woman *ame̝ge̝ *amigi *amigi *amgi
son *amut *amut *[a]mʉ *[a]mʉ **amu
two *ɔkɾo̝maN *ɔko̝ma *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma*… *kɔɾumaN **okrumɔ(n)
morning *mimiN *mimi *mimiN *mimiN *mimin
think/know *ɸiN-mi- *ɸimi- *ɸimi– *ɸim[i]- *fimi-
in front *samaN *samaN *samaN *samaN
slow *so̝ko̝m[a/ɔ]N *so̝ko̝m[ɔ] *sukum[a]N*sukumɔn
moon *kamo̝ *kamo̝ *kamo̝ *kamu
lime *xame̝[N] *xame̝ *xame̝ *xami
widow *xamɔ *xamɔ *xam[ɜ] *xam-
far *xɔmaN *xamaN *x[a]maN
night *wamiN *wɔmiN
ripe/yellow *waxamaN *waxama *waxamaN *waxaman
inside *wɔm… *wɔmu *wɔmu *wɔm[u] *wɔm[u] *womu
thorn *jam[ɔ]xɔN *jɔmɔ *jamɔxɔN *jɔmɔxɔN *jamɔxɔN *yɔmo
lie (n.) *jaxamɔ *jaxamɔ *jaxam[ɔ]
scabies/tinea*j[a/ɔ]miN *j[ɔ]miN *j[a]miN *yɔmin

Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-n-*n *n *n *n *n
be/become *-ne̝C- *-ne̝- *-niC- *-ni- *-nek-/*-nik-
do/make (imp.) *-no̝ *-no̝ *-no̝ *-nu *-nu
older sister *ani *ani *ani *ani *ɛni/*ni/*nɛni
leaf *ana *ana *ana
tail *minu *minu
spirit/soul *bɔna *bɔna *bɔna *b[a]na*bɔna
go out (of fire)*buniC- *buni- *bun[u]C-*buni- *bünik-
mucus *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ*sin-ifo
ashes *se̝na *se̝na *sina *sena
sleep (n.) *ko̝no̝N*ko̝no̝N*ko̝no̝N *kunuN *kunuN *kunun
palate *xanaN *xa[na]N

Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is, like initial /*p/, uncommon. It is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-p- *p*p *p *p*p
mother's mother*api *api *api
butterfly *apɜ(-ɾɔ)*apa *ap[a]ɾɔ*apɜɾɔ*aprɔ
hot *apat *apat *apat *apa *apa *apat

Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ when followed by low and low mid vowels /*ɛ *ɜ *ɔ *a/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-t-/_ɛ *t *t *t
see *ɸe̝tɛ- *ɸe̝tɛ- *ɸe̝t[ɛ]- *ɸit[ɛ]-*ɸit[ɛ]-**fɛtɛox-
goura pigeon *kutɛ *kʉtɛ *kutɛ *(ü)kütɛ
*-t-/_[ɛ/ɜ]*t *t *t *t *t
mouth *xat[ɛ/ɜ] *xatɛ-tɔ*xatɜ *xatɔ *xatɜ *xatɛ
*-t-/_ɜ *t *t *t
face *kɜtɔ *katɔ *kɜtɔ
*-t-/_ɔ *t *t *t *t *t
vagina *a-tɔ *a-tɔ *a-tɔ *a-tɔ *aato(p)
get up/stand up*datɔ- *datɔ- *d[a]tɔ- *dɔtɔ- *dɔtɔ- *dɔtox-
foot/leg *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kito
*-t-/_a *t *t *t *t *t
outside *bVt[a]xa *be̝taxa*be̝t[a]x[a]*bɛtaxa *butaxa **betaxa

When medial /*t/ is followed by high and high mid vowels /*i *u *e̝ *o̝/, it is fricated and merged with /*s/ in Central Awyu:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-t-/_i *t *t *s *t *t
gall/bile *[e̝/ɛ]tim[o̝/u]N*[e̝/ɛ]timu (?) *[i]simu (?)*[i]timuN *etumün
*etimun
male *baxtiN *baxti[N] *batiN *basiN *b[a]tiN *baxtin
fence *xaⁱti *x[aⁱ]ti *xaⁱti *xaⁱti **xaiti
spear *xati *x[a]ti *xasi *xati *xati
snake *wati *wɛti *wVti *wisi *wati *wati/*witi
*-t-/_u *t *t *s *t *t/*s
dream *axtu *axatu *axsʉ
beard *matu *masʉ *mas[i] *masi/*mati
*masü/*matü
old (thing) *patu *patu *pasʉ *patʉ
village *b[o̝/u]tu *b[o̝/u]tu *… *bʉsʉ *b[ʉ/u]sʉ
*-t-/_e̝ *t *t *s *t *t/*s
tail of bird *ɔte̝-ɾɔN *ɔt[ɔ]ɾɔ *ɔsiɾ[ɔN] *ɔtiɾɔN **o=tirɔ(n)
sharp *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N *k[e̝]te̝ *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N*k[i/ɛ]siN *k[i/ɛ]tiN*kesen/*keten
*kisin/*kitin
sweat (n.) *kʷate̝N *ko̝te̝ *kasiN *kasiN *kɔten
saliva/spittle *xate̝ *xate̝ *xasi *xate
*-t-/_o̝ *t *t *s *t *t
daughter *[ɔ]to̝b-ɾaN *[ɔ]to̝b-ɾa *sub-ɾaN *tub-ɾaN *tub®an
get up/stand up*mato̝C- *m[a]to̝- *mat[u]-

Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-k- *k *k *k *k *k
smoke *aku *ɔku *aku *[a]k[ʉ]*aku *aku/*üku
two *ɔkɾo̝maN *ɔko̝ma *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma*… *kɔɾumaN **okrumɔ(n)
forehead *mika *mika *mika
swallow *miko̝N- *miko̝N- *mikuN- *m[i]kuN- *mikun-
afraid *mɔke̝ *mɔke̝ *mɔke̝ *mɔki *mɔki
earth/below *mɔkaN *mɔkaN *makaN *makaN *mɔkaN *makan/*mokan
knee/elbow *bɔkiN *bɔkiN *bɔki[N]*bɔkiN *bün/*bun
slow *so̝ko̝m[a/ɔ]N*so̝ko̝m[ɔ] *sukum[a]N*sukumɔn
rope *ke̝ke̝N *kikiN *kikiN *keken/*kikin
carry *kɛko̝N- *kɛko̝N- *kɛkuN- *kɛkuN- *kɛkun-
belly *kaku *kɔku *kakʉ *kaku *kɔkü
bamboo knife*waki *waki *wɔki *waki
war *waki *wɛki *waki **wæki

Rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ has not been found to occur medially.

Medial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-b- *b *b *b *b *b
laughter *abɛN *abV *abV *ab[ɛN] *ab[VN] *ab(ɛ)
daughter *[ɔ]to̝b-ɾaN*[ɔ]to̝b-ɾa *sub-ɾaN *tub-ɾaN *tub®an
shiver *bɔbVN- *bɔbɔN- *bɔbiN- *bobin-/*bobon-
heart *d[ʉ]b-ɾɔ *dibɔ *d[i/ʉ]bɾɔ*dʉb[u]ɾɔ *dübro
island *dub[i/e̝] *dʉbi *d[ʉ]bi *dübe/*dübi
young man *s[ʉ]baN *sib[a]N *s[ʉ]baN *sʉbaN *sʉbaN *süban
wallaby *sVb[a]xaⁱ *[sV]b[a]xaⁱ*sVb[a]xaⁱ*sVb[a]xaⁱ*baxae/*baxai
incorrect *gɔbaN *gɔba
forget *gɔbaN- *gɔbaN-
nape *go̝be̝N *gubiN
head *xaⁱbaN *xaⁱba *xabaN *xaⁱbaN *xaⁱbaN *xaiban
friend *xabe̝N *xabe̝ *xabe̝N *xabiN
stone axe *xabo̝ *xabo̝ *xabu *xabu *xabu
tail *wɔbu *wɔbu *wɔbu *wɔbʉ *wɔbʉ *wobu
testicle(s)*wɔbu-ɾɔ *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ *wobü-ro

Medial apical voiced stop /*d/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-d- *d *d *d *d *d
tie *ad[awɔ]C- *adɔ- *adV- *adaC- *ad[awɔ]- *adɔk-
body *adu *adu *adʉ *adü/*adu
thigh *midiN *midi *midi[N]*midiN *midi(n)
stomach *madu *mɔdu *m[a]du *madʉ *madʉ *modü
moon *b[i/e̝]d[i/e̝]N *bidiN *bidiN *beden/*bidin
hand/arm *b[e̝]d[ɔ] *be̝d[ɜ/ɔ]*b[ɛ]d[ɔ]*bɛdɔ *bidɜ **bedo
heavy *bɔd[ʉ/u] *bɔd[i/u] *bɔdʉ *bodü
bird of paradise*ɸɔdɔ *ɸɔdɔ
alive/awake *kadax[aᵉ] *kadax[aᵉ] *kadax[aᵉ]*kadaxae
younger sibling *kudɜ *kuda *kudɜ *kʉda *kudɜ *küda
flesh *kʷado̝ *kɔdɔ *ko̝do̝ *kadu *kadu *kɔdu
river *wadɛⁱ *w[i]di *w[i]di *w[i]di *wadɛⁱ *wadi/*widi
thumb/big toe *wadɔ *wɔdɔ *wadɔ *wɔdo

Medial velar voiced stop /*g/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast CentralWest Healey
*-g- *g *g *g *g *g
3 sg. *ɛ-ge̝ *ɛge̝ *ɛge̝ *ɛ-gi *ɛge/*ɛke
young woman *ame̝ge̝ *amigi *amigi *amgi
correct/true*aga *aga *aga-ni-
seek *ago̝C- *aguC- *agu- *agok-
teeth *maga *maga *maga *maga *maga *maga
egg *mugɔ *mugɔ *mʉgɔ *mugɔ *mügo
short/blunt *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bago
bone *b[a/ɔ]ge̝ *bɔge̝ *b[a/ɔ]g[e̝]*b[ɛ]gi*bagi *bɔge
tongue *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *fagɛ
crocodile *nagaɾo̝ *nagaɾu
1 pl. *n[o̝/u]go̝ *no̝go̝ *no̝go̝ *nʉgu *nugu *nügu/*nugu
penis *t[e̝/ɛ]ge̝ *te̝ge̝ *s[ɛ]gi*tigi *tege
gather *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N-*gigi-ko̝N *gigi[jɔ] kuN*gigio kun-
2 pl. *g[o̝/u]go̝ *go̝go̝ *go̝go̝ *gʉgu *g[ɔ]g[ʉ] *gügu/*gugu

Medial bilabial fricative /*ɸ/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-ɸ- *f
break/split (tr.)*axaɸuN-*axaɸuN- *axaɸʉN-*axaɸʉN- *axafün-
knowledge *n[a]ɸaN*naɸa *n[a]ɸaN *naɸaN *naɸaN
mucus *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *sin-ifo
wind *kiɸɛⁱ *kiɸi *k[i]ɸi *kiɸi *kɛɸi (?)*kifi
good *jaɸe̝ *jaɸi

Medial fricative /*s/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-s- *s *s *s *s *s
one *e̝sijɔ *e̝sijɔ *isijɔ *isijɜ
mosquito *ɛⁱsɜ *is[i] *ɛⁱsɜ *ese/*ete
*isi/*iti
sneeze (n.)*asiN *si *asiN *asiN *asin
night/dark *as[ij]u *as[ij]u *asʉ *asʉ *asʉ *asü
sore/wound *pɛsɔ *pɛsɔ *pɛsɔ *pɛso
leech *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N*t[ɛ]se̝ *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N*s[i]siN*tiɾiN *tese
marsupial *ke̝sɔ *ke̝sɔ *… *kisɔ *kisɔ *kiso/*kuso
die (pl.) *xɔsV[ŋ]gi- *xɔs[i]gi- *xɔs[a]ŋgi-

Medial velar fricative /*x/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-x- *x *x *x *x *x
fish *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaɛ
break/split (tr.)*axaɸuN- *axaɸuN- *axaɸʉN- *axaɸʉN- *axafün-
dream *axtu *axatu *axsʉ
water *ɔxɔ *ɔxɔ *ɔxɔ *ɔxɔ *ɔx
cheek *mɔxɔN *mɔxɔN *mɔxɔ[N] *mɔxɔN *moxo(n)
excrement *pax[a] *pax[a] *pax[a] *pax[a] *paxa
outside *bVt[a]xa *be̝taxa *be̝t[a]x[a]*bɛtaxa *butaxa **betaxa
black *bo̝xo̝N *b[o̝]x[o̝]
stink *ɸɔxɔ-mɔ- *ɸɔxɔmɔ- *ɸɔxɔmɔ- *foxomo-
go (imperative) *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ
tired/crippled *taxaN *taxa *taxaN *taxaN *taxan
wallaby *sVb[a]xaⁱ *[sV]b[a]xaⁱ*sVb[a]xaⁱ*sVb[a]xaⁱ *baxae/*baxai
earth/ground *sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *soxo
alive/awake *kadax[aᵉ]*kadax[aᵉ] *kadax[aᵉ] *kadaxae
far *xaxaN *xaxa *xaxaN
husband *xaxo̝ *xaxo̝ *xɔxu
ghost *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔxɔⁱ
ripe/yellow *waxamaN *waxama *waxamaN *waxaman
break/crush (tr.)*waxaɾ-mɔ-*waxaɾ-mɔ- *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ-*waxarmo-
lie (n.) *jaxamɔ *jaxamɔ *jaxam[ɔ]
older brother *jaxɔ *jaxɔ *jaxɔ *j[a]xɔ **yaxo
3 pl. *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *yoxo
rattan/rope *jɔxo̝ *jɔx[o̝] *j[o̝]xo̝ *jɔxu *jɔxu

Medial rounded velar fricative /*xʷ/ is found only in loans from Marind, where it reflects proto-Marind /*w/ [hʷ] (below):

Awyu South Southeast CentralWest Healey
*-xʷ- *xʷ*xʷ*f
paddle (n.)*kaxʷe̝ *kaɸe̝*kaɸe̝ *kaxʷi *kaxʷi *kafe/*kɛfe
canoe *jaxʷuN *j[a]ɸ[u]N*jaxʷʉN*jaxʷʉN*yɔfün

Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-w- *w *w *w *w *w
sun *sawɜ *s[a]wɜ *sawa *sawɜ *sɔwɔ
breadfruit*[ɾ/j]awɔt*j[ɔ]w[ɔ]t*jaw[ɔ]t *jawɔ[N] (?)*[ɾ/j]awɔ*yɔwɔt

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWestHealey
*-w-
elbow*mo̝[wɔ]*mo̝wɔ *mu

Medial apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is very common It is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-ɾ- *r
rainbow *e̝ɾe̝N *iɾiN
earthquake *e̝ɾ[i]ɾi *e̝ɾiɾi *iɾ[ɛ]ɾi *iɾiɾi *yeriri
stone *ɛⁱɾɔ *iɾɔ *iɾɔ *iɾɔ *ɛⁱɾɔ *ero/*iro
light/bright *[a]ɾa *aɾa
long *pe̝ɾe̝ *pe̝ɾe̝ *pe̝ɾe̝ *piɾi *piɾi *pere
fly (v.) *bo̝ɾo̝N- *bo̝ɾo̝N- *bo̝ɾo̝N-*buɾuN- *buɾuN- *burun-
crocodile *nagaɾo̝ *nagaɾu
chin *tɛɾɛ *tɛɾɛ *tɛɾɛ *tɛɾɛ
tooth *taɾe̝ *taɾe̝ *taɾe̝
cold *taɾ[u] *tɔɾu *taɾ[u] *taɾʉ *taɾu *tɔrü
finger/toe *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔ *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔN *toron
hide *(a-)to̝ɾo̝-mɔ-*(a-)to̝ɾo̝mɔ- *atuɾumɔ- *aturumo-
ear *to̝ɾo̝N *to̝ɾo̝ *to̝ɾo̝N *suɾuN *tuɾuN *turun
high/above *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siri
black *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *sere/*siri
*tere/*tiri
eye *ke̝ɾɔ *ke̝ɾɔ *k[e̝]ɾɔ *kiɾɔ *kiɾɔ *kero
dry *kɛɾa *kɛɾa *k[a]ɾa
break (intr.)*xaɾ[ɔ]-ne̝C- *xaɾ[a]-ni-
sand *giɾiN *giɾiN *giɾiN *giɾiN *geren/*girin
fence/wall *xaɾi *xɛɾi *xaɾi *xaɾi
be enough *xaɾe̝-ne̝C- *xaɾi-niC-*xaɾi-ni- xare nek-
xari nik-
worm *wɛɾu *wɛɾu *… *wɛɾʉ *wɛɾʉ

Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-j- *j *j *j *j *y *ø
one *e̝sijɔ *e̝sijɔ *isijɔ *isijɜ
water spirit*ɜjɜ *aja *ɜjɜ *ɜjɜ
coconut *pɜjɔ *pajɔ *p[ɜ]jɔ *pajɔ *pɜjɔ *pæyo
torch *sija *sija *sija *sija *sia
bad/evil *k[e̝/ɛ]jɔN*k[i]j[ɛ/a]*k[i]jɔN *k[i/ɛ]jɔN*k[i/ɛ]jɔN
garden *gijɔN *gij[ɛ/a] *gijɔN *gijɔN *giɔn
crocodile *xajambo̝ *xajambo̝*xajambu *xajambu *xayambu
white *xajɔ *xajɔ *xajɜ *xajɔ *xaja *xayɔ

Prenasalized stops [*mb *nd *ŋg] are found only medially, where they now contrast with the denasalized reflexes /*b *d *g/ of Cental Digul River voiced prenasalized /*mb *nd *ŋg/.

Medial bilabial voiced prenasalized stop [*mb] …:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-mb-*mb*mb *mb *mb *mb
crocodile*xajambo̝ *xajambo̝*xajambu*xajambu*xayambu

Medial apical voiced prenasalized stop [*nd] …:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWestHealey
*-nd-*nd *nd
become (fut.)*-nde̝- *-ndi-
chin/jaw *gando̝N *gando̝

Medial velar voiced prenasalized stop [*ŋg] is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*-ŋg-*ŋg*ŋg *ŋg*ŋg*ng
dog *aŋg[i] *aŋg[i]*aŋg[i] *aŋgi *aŋgi *(y)ange
*(y)angi
sour *tɔᵘŋgi
red *kaŋgɔN *kaŋgɔ *kaŋg[o̝]*kaŋgɔN*kaŋgɔN*kango(n)
flying fox*xɔŋge̝ *xɔŋge̝ *xɔŋgi *xɔŋgi *xonge

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-[ŋ]g-*g *[ŋ]g*g *g *x *ng
armpit *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN *tɔgɔ *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN*tɔgɔN *togon/*toxon
*tongon
*-[ŋ]g-*g *ŋg
die (pl.)*xɔsV[ŋ]gi-*xɔs[i]gi- *xɔs[a]ŋgi-

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*… *g*ŋg *ŋg*ŋg
louse*[aŋ]gV*gu *[aŋ]go̝ *aŋgu *aŋgu *angu

… final consonants …:

Final nasal archiphoneme /*N/ …:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-N *… *… *N *N *n
gall/bile *[e̝/ɛ]tim[o̝/u]N*[e̝/ɛ]timu (?) *[i]simu (?)*[i]timuN *etumün
*etimun
rainbow *e̝ɾe̝N *iɾiN
laughter *abɛN *abV *abV *ab[ɛN] *ab[VN] *ab(ɛ)
sneeze (n.) *asiN *si *asiN *asiN *asin
breast *ɔN *ɔN *ɔN *ɔN *ɔN *om
two *ɔkɾo̝maN *ɔko̝ma *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma *… *kɔɾumaN **okrumɔ(n)
star/firefly *miN *mi *mi[N] *miN *miN
morning *mimiN *mimi *mimiN *mimiN *mimin
thigh *midiN *midi *midi[N] *midiN *midi(n)
earth/below *mɔkaN *mɔkaN *makaN *makaN *mɔkaN *makan/*mokan
cheek *mɔxɔN *mɔxɔN *mɔxɔ[N] *mɔxɔN *moxo(n)
shin *biN *biN *biN *biN *bin
chest *be̝N *biN
moon *b[i/e̝]d[i/e̝]N *bidiN *bidiN *beden/*bidin
male *baxtiN *baxti[N] *batiN *basiN *b[a]tiN *baxtin
knee/elbow *bɔkiN *bɔkiN *bɔki[N] *bɔkiN *bün/*bun
black *bo̝xo̝N *b[o̝]x[o̝]
knee/elbow *buN *buN *bʉN *buN *bün/*bun
knowledge *n[a]ɸaN *naɸa *n[a]ɸaN *naɸaN *naɸaN
leech *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N *t[ɛ]se̝ *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N*s[i]siN *tiɾiN *tese
tired/crippled *taxaN *taxa *taxaN *taxaN *taxan
armpit *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN *tɔgɔ *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN *tɔgɔN *togon/*toxon
*tongon
finger/toe *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔ *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔN *toron
ear *to̝ɾo̝N *to̝ɾo̝ *to̝ɾo̝N *suɾuN *tuɾuN *turun
salt *daN- *da *daN *daN-
nose *siN *si *siN *siN *siN *sin
widower *sɛN *sɛ *sɛN *sɛN *sɛn
young man *s[ʉ]baN *sib[a]N *s[ʉ]baN *sʉbaN *sʉbaN *süban
in front *samaN *samaN *samaN *samaN
slow *so̝ko̝m[a/ɔ]N *so̝ko̝m[ɔ] *sukum[a]N*sukumɔn
ankle *ke̝N *ke̝nɔ-bɔge̝ *kiN *kin
side *ke̝N-ke̝N *ke̝ŋge̝ *kikiN
rope *ke̝ke̝N *kikiN *kikiN *keken/*kikin
sharp *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N *k[e̝]te̝ *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N*k[i/ɛ]siN *k[i/ɛ]tiN*kesen/*keten
*kisin/*kitin
bad/evil *k[e̝/ɛ]jɔN *k[i]j[ɛ/a] *k[i]jɔN *k[i/ɛ]jɔN *k[i/ɛ]jɔN
red *kaŋgɔN *kaŋgɔ *kaŋg[o̝] *kaŋgɔN *kaŋgɔN *kango(n)
sand *giɾiN *giɾiN *giɾiN *giɾiN *geren/*girin
garden *gijɔN *gij[ɛ/a] *gijɔN *gijɔN *giɔn
sweat (n.) *kʷate̝N *ko̝te̝ *kasiN *kasiN *kɔten
sleep (n.) *ko̝no̝N *ko̝no̝N *ko̝no̝N *kunuN *kunuN *kunun
sugarcane *kuN *kuN *kʉN *kuN *kün
chin/jaw *gando̝N *gando̝
blood *gɔN *gɔN *gɔN *gɔN *gɔN *gon
incorrect *gɔbaN *gɔba
nape *go̝be̝N *gubiN
navel *guN *gu *gʉN *g[ʉ]N *gün
brain *guN *gu *gʉN *g[ʉ]N *gün
house *xaⁱN *-x[aⁱ]N *-xaN *x[aⁱ]N *xaⁱN
head *xaⁱbaN *xaⁱba *xabaN *xaⁱbaN *xaⁱbaN *xaiban
friend *xabe̝N *xabe̝ *xabe̝N *xabiN
palate *xanaN *xa[na]N
far *xaxaN *xaxa *xaxaN
far *xɔmaN *xamaN *x[a]maN
milk *xo̝N *xo̝N *xu[N] *xu[N] *xu
night *wamiN *wɔmiN
ripe/yellow *waxamaN *waxama *waxamaN *waxaman
liver *wɔᵘN *wɔᵘ *wɔᶶN *wɔᶶN *wün
rib(s) *ɾiN *ɾiN *ɾiN *ɾiN *rin
woman/wife *ɾaN *ɾa *ɾaN *ɾaN *ɾaN *ran
hair/leaf/feather*ɾɔN *ɾɔN *ɾɔN *ɾɔN *ron
boil (n.) *ɾuN *ɾuN *ɾʉN *ɾʉN *rün
tree/firewood *je̝N *jiN *je̝N *jiN *jiN *yin
thorn *jam[ɔ]xɔN *jɔmɔ *jamɔxɔN *jɔmɔxɔN *jamɔxɔN *yɔmo
canoe *jaxʷuN *j[a]ɸ[u]N *jaxʷʉN *jaxʷʉN *yɔfün
scabies/tinea *j[a/ɔ]miN *j[ɔ]miN *j[a]miN *yɔmin

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-t *t *t *t *ø
son *amut *amut *[a]mʉ *[a]mʉ **amu
hot *apat *apat *apat *apa *apa *apat
flower *ke̝t *ke̝t *ki *ki *ket
breadfruit *[ɾ/j]awɔt*j[ɔ]w[ɔ]t*jaw[ɔ]t *jawɔ[N] (?)*[ɾ/j]awɔ*yɔwɔt
*-x *x *x
hair *mo̝x *mɔx *m[o̝] *mu *mox/*mux
nail *dɔx *dɔx *dɔx *dɔx-
centipede *xax *xax *xa *xa *xax
voice/speech*ɾo̝x *ɾɔx *ɾ[o̝] *ɾu *ɾu *rux
*-ɾ *r
excrement *ɔɾ *ɔɾ *or

In verb roots, two final archiphonemes are found, nasal /*N/ and non-nasal /*C/.

… /*N/ …:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-N- *N *N *N *N *n
eat *ɛN- *ɛN- *ɛN- *ɛn-
break/split (tr.)*axaɸuN- *axaɸuN- *axaɸʉN-*axaɸʉN- *axafün-
swallow *miko̝N- *miko̝N- *mikuN- *m[i]kuN- (mikun-
not want *mo̝N- *mo̝N- *muN- *mun-
shiver *bɔbVN- *bɔbɔN- *bɔbiN- *bobin-/*bobon-
fly (v.) *bo̝ɾo̝N- *bo̝ɾo̝N- *bo̝ɾo̝N-*buɾuN- *buɾuN- *burun-
bathe/swim *kiN- *kiN- *kiN- *kiN- *kiN- *kin-
carry *kɛko̝N- *kɛko̝N- *kɛkuN- *kɛkuN- *kɛkun-
wash *ko̝N- *ko̝N- *ko̝N- *kuN- *kuN- *kun-
plant (v.) *ko̝N- *ko̝N- *kuN- *kun-
die (sg.) *kuN- *kuN- *kuN- *kʉN- *kuN- *kün-
gather *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N-*gigi-ko̝N- *gigi[jɔ] kuN-*gigio kun-
forget *gɔbaN- *gɔbaN-
twist rope *ɾiN- *ɾiN- *ɾiN- *rin-
weep/cry *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ron-
copulate *jɔN- *jɔN- *jɔN- *jɔN- *yon-

Final archiphoneme /*C/ is only known to be discernible in Central Awyu …:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*-C- *C *k
stand *ɛC- *ɛ- *ɛC- *ɛk-
bite *at[i]C- *ati- *ati- *asiC- *asu- *atik-
tie *ad[awɔ]C-*adɔ- *adV- *adaC- *ad[awɔ]-*adɔk-
go out (of fire)*buniC- *buni- *bun[u]C-*buni- *bünik-
seek *ago̝C- *aguC- *agu- *agok-
be/become *-ne̝C- *-ne̝- *-niC- *-ni- *-nek-/*-nik-
cough/sneeze *tiC- *ti- *ti- *siC- *ti- *tik-
go up *(a-)to̝C-*ɔto̝- *asuC- *tu- *otuk-
hear *daC- *da- *da- *daC- *da- *dak-
be *ke̝C- *ke̝- *kiC- *ki *ke-
call/sing *ɾiC- *ɾi- *ɾiC- *ɾi- *rik-
chop down *ɾuC- *ɾu- *ɾʉC- *ɾʉ- *rük-

Consonant clusters are most usually found in compounds. Pobably all examples indicate a compound, but if so the meaning of their constitutents isn't always apparent, and in any event these were already established by the time of proto-Awyu. Besides voiced prenasalized stops /*mb *nd *ŋg/, which while secondary appear to be unit phonemes at the proto-Awyu level, clusters are avoided by modern speakers, and are either separated by an interpolated vowel or simplified to a single consonant.

In a number of instances, these clusters reveal the qualities of final consonants which have been lost in proto-Awyu free forms. For example, /*a/ “nest” descends from Awyu-Dumut /*ap/ “house.” When this is root is found in compounds, rather than being dropped, bilabial stop /*p/ is fricated to /*ɸ/ as is medial /*p/ rather than being dropped. Awyu-Dumut final nasals /*m *n/ are most usually indistiguishable in Awyu, both yielding nasal archiphoneme /*N/ (above,) but in clusters with second member apical non-stop /*ɾ/, they behave differently, with final bilabial /*m/ being denasalized to voiced stop /*b/ while final /*n/ is dropped.

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*-b-ɾ- *br
heart *d[ʉ]b-ɾɔ *dibɔ *d[i/ʉ]bɾɔ *dʉb[u]ɾɔ *dübro
*-ɸ-t- *n=x
doorway *aɸ-tɔ *aɸ[i]-tɔ
*-ɸ-x- *n=x
house *aɸ-xaⁱN *aɸɔ-x[aⁱ]N *aɸ[a]-xaN *aɸ[a]-x[aⁱ]N*aɸ[a]-xaⁱN
*-N-x- *n=x
lip(s) *bɔN-xa *bɔ[m/n]-xa *bɔn-xa *bɔ[m/n]-xa *bV[m/n]-xa *bon=xa
bark of tree *je̝N-xa
*-N-ɾ- *r
eye *ke̝N-ɾɔ *ke̝ɾɔ *k[e̝]ɾɔ *kiɾɔ *kiɾɔ *kero
*-kɾ- *kr
two *ɔkɾo̝maN *ɔko̝ma *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma*… *kɔɾumaN **okrumɔ(n)
*-x-ɸ- *xf
drumming *xaxɸɛ *xaxɸɛ *xa[x]ɸɛ *xaxfɛ
*-x-n- *xn
be cooked *pax-ne̝C- *pax[a]-ne̝C- *pa[x]-niC- *paxnek-/*paxnik-
*-xt-/_i u *xt
dream *axtu *axatu *asʉ
male *baxtiN *baxti[N] *batiN *basiN *b[a]tiN *baxtin
*-x-s-
nail *dɔx-sɛ *dɔx-sɛ *dɔx-sɛ *dɔx-sɛ
*-ɾ-m- *rm
break/crush (tr.)*waxaɾ-mɔ- *waxaɾ-mɔ- *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ-*waxarmo-


… vowels …

High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*i *i *i *i *i *i
name *ɸi *ɸi *ɸi *ɸi *ɸi *fi
mother *ni *ni *ni *ni
plait *ti- *ti- *si- *ti- *ti-
scratch/scrape *gi- *gi- *gi- *gi- *gi-
star/firefly *miN *mi *mi[N] *miN *miN
drink (realis) *mi[N/C]- *miN- *mi[N]- *miC- *mi- *mik-/*min-
shin *biN *biN *biN *biN *bin
cough/sneeze *tiC- *ti- *ti- *siC- *ti- *tik-
nose *siN *si *siN *siN *siN *sin
bathe/swim *kiN- *kiN- *kiN- *kiN- *kiN- *kin-
rib(s) *ɾiN *ɾiN *ɾiN *ɾiN *rin
twist rope *ɾiN- *ɾiN- *ɾiN- *rin-
call/sing *ɾiC- *ɾi- *ɾiC- *ɾi- *rik-
think/know *ɸiN-mi- *ɸimi- *ɸimi– *ɸim[i]- *fimi-
high/above *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siri
black *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *siɾi *sere/*siri
*tere/*tiri
morning *mimiN *mimi *mimiN *mimiN *mimin
thigh *midiN *midi *midi[N] *midiN *midi(n)
sand *giɾiN *giɾiN *giɾiN *giɾiN *geren/*girin
tail *minu *minu
swallow *miko̝N- *miko̝N- *mikuN- *m[i]kuN- *mikun-
gather *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N- *gigi-ko̝N- *gigi[jɔ] kuN-*gigio kun-
wind *kiɸɛⁱ *kiɸi *k[i]ɸi *kiɸi *kɛɸi (?) *kifi
foot/leg *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kito
garden *gijɔN *gij[ɛ/a] *gijɔN *gijɔN *giɔn
mucus *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *sin-ifo
forehead *mika *mika *mika
torch *sija *sija *sija *sija *sia
go out (of fire)*buniC- *buni- *bun[u]C- *buni- *bünik-
earthquake *e̝ɾiɾi *e̝ɾiɾi *iɾ[ɛ]ɾi *iɾiɾi *yeriri
gall/bile *[e̝/ɛ]tim[o̝/u]N*[e̝/ɛ]timu (?) *[i]simu (?)*[i]timuN *etumün
*etimun
one *e̝sijɔ *e̝sijɔ *isijɔ *isijɜ
sour *tɔᵘŋgi
knee/elbow *bɔkiN *bɔkiN *bɔki[N] *bɔkiN *bün/*bun
scabies/tinea *j[a/ɔ]miN *j[ɔ]miN *j[a]miN *yɔmin
die (pl.) *xɔsV[ŋ]gi- *xɔs[i]gi- *xɔs[a]ŋgi-
fence *xaⁱti *x[aⁱ]ti *xaⁱti *xaⁱti **xaiti
mother's mother *api *api *api
older sister *ani *ani *ani *ani *ɛni/*ni/*nɛni
spear *xati *x[a]ti *xasi *xati *xati
fence/wall *xaɾi *xɛɾi *xaɾi *xaɾi
snake *wati *wɛti *wVti *wisi *wati *wati/*witi
bamboo knife *waki *waki *wɔki *waki
war *waki *wɛki *waki **wæki
sneeze (n.) *asiN *si *asiN *asiN *asin
night *wamiN *wɔmiN
male *baxtiN *baxti[N] *batiN *basiN *b[a]tiN *baxtin

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*[ʉ] *i
heart *d[ʉ]b-ɾɔ*dibɔ *d[i/ʉ]bɾɔ*dʉb[u]ɾɔ*dübro
young man*s[ʉ]baN *sib[a]N*s[ʉ]baN *sʉbaN *sʉbaN *süban

High back rounded vowel /*u/ is generally fronted to [*ʉ] in both Central and West Awyu:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*u *u *…
neck *mu *mu *mʉ *m[ʉ] *mü
back *mu *mu *mʉ *mü
stab/kill (fut.) *ɸu- *… *ɸʉ-
urinate *tu- *tu- *tʉ- *tü-
banana *tu *tu *tʉ *sʉ *tʉ *tü
cook/burn *du- *dʉ- *dʉ-
stab/kill *wu– *wu- *… *wʉ- *wʉ- *wü-/*wu-
knee/elbow *buN *buN *bʉN *buN *bün/*bun
navel *guN *gu *gʉN *g[ʉ]N *gün
brain *guN *gu *gʉN *g[ʉ]N *gün
boil (n.) *ɾuN *ɾuN *ɾʉN *ɾʉN *rün
chop down *ɾuC- *ɾu- *ɾʉC- *ɾʉ- *rük-
go out (of fire) *buniC- *buni- *bun[u]C-*buni- *bünik-
island *dub[i/e̝] *dʉbi *d[ʉ]bi *dübe/*dübi
egg *mugɔ *mugɔ *mʉgɔ *mugɔ *mügo
tail *minu *minu
night/dark *as[ij]u *as[ij]u *asʉ *asʉ *asʉ *asü
village *b[o̝/u]tu*b[o̝/u]tu*… *bʉsʉ *b[ʉ/u]sʉ
worm *wɛɾu *wɛɾu *… *wɛɾʉ *wɛɾʉ
tail *wɔbu *wɔbu *wɔbu *wɔbʉ *wɔbʉ *wobu
testicle(s) *wɔbu-ɾɔ *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ *wobü-ro
body *adu *adu *adʉ *adü/*adu
dream *axtu *axatu *asʉ
stomach *madu *mɔdu *m[a]du *madʉ *madʉ *modü
old (thing) *patu *patu *pasʉ *patʉ
son *amut *amut *[a]mʉ *[a]mʉ **amu
break/split (tr.)*axaɸuN- *axaɸuN- *axaɸʉN- *axaɸʉN- *axafün-

When preceded by voicless velar stop /*k/, /*u/ is fronted in Central Awyu but not in West Awyu:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*u/k_*u*u *u*ü *u
dig *ku- *ku- *ku- *kʉ- *ku- *küox-
sugarcane *kuN *kuN *kʉN *kuN *kün
die (sg.) *kuN- *kuN- *kuN- *kʉN- *kuN- *kün-
goura pigeon *kutɛ *kʉtɛ *kutɛ *(ü)kütɛ
younger sibling*kudɜ *kuda *kudɜ *kʉda *kudɜ *küda
smoke *aku *ɔku *aku *[a]k[ʉ]*aku *aku/*üku
belly *kaku *kɔku *kakʉ *kaku *kɔkü

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*… *u (?) *o̝ *u *u *u
louse *[aŋ]gV *gu (?) *[aŋ]go̝ *aŋgu *aŋgu *angu
*[o̝/u] (?) *u (?) ? *u *u *ü/*u
gall/bile*[e̝/ɛ]tim[o̝/u]N*[e̝/ɛ]timu (?) *[i]simu (?)*[i]timuN *etumün
*etimun
*u *u *u (?) *u (?)*u
inside *wɔm… *wɔmu *wɔmu *wɔm[u] *wɔm[u] *womu

High mid front vowel /*e̝/ is raised and merged with the reflexes of high front /*i/ in Central and West Awyu:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*e̝ *e̝ *e̝ *i *i *e
areca nut *te̝ *te̝ *te̝(te̝)
become (fut.) *-nde̝- *-ndi-
spine *se̝ *se̝ *si *se
lie down *ɾe̝- *ɾe̝- *ɾ[e̝]- *ɾi- *ɾi- *reg-
chest *be̝N *biN
be/become *-ne̝C- *-ne̝- *-niC- *-ni- *-nek-/*-nik-
ankle *ke̝N *ke̝nɔ-bɔge̝ *kiN *kin
tear(s) *ke̝n- *ke̝n-ɔx *kin-ɔxɔ *kin-ɜjɜ *ken-ox
be *ke̝C- *ke̝- *kiC- *ki- *ke-
flower *ke̝t *ke̝t *ki *ki *ket
long *pe̝ɾe̝ *pe̝ɾe̝ *pe̝ɾe̝ *piɾi *piɾi *pere
rainbow *e̝ɾe̝N *iɾiN
rope *ke̝ke̝N *kikiN *kikiN *keken/*kikin
side *ke̝N-ke̝N *ke̝ŋge̝ *kikiN
earthquake *e̝ɾiɾi *e̝ɾiɾi *iɾ[ɛ]ɾi *iɾiɾi *yeriri
one *e̝sijɔ *e̝sijɔ *isijɔ *isijɜ
see *ɸe̝tɛ- *ɸe̝tɛ- *ɸe̝t[ɛ]- *ɸit[ɛ]- *ɸit[ɛ]- **fɛtɛox-
bamboo *ɸe̝-ɔ *ɸe̝jɔ *ɸijɔ *ɸijɔ
marsupial *ke̝sɔ *ke̝sɔ *… *kisɔ *kisɔ *kiso/*kuso
eye *ke̝ɾɔ *ke̝ɾɔ *k[e̝]ɾɔ *kiɾɔ *kiɾɔ *kero
tear(s) *ke̝n-ɔxɔ *ke̝n-ɔx *kin-ɔxɔ *ken-ox
ashes *se̝na *se̝na *sina *sena
nape *go̝be̝N *gubiN
penis *t[e̝/ɛ]ge̝ *te̝ge̝ *s[ɛ]gi *tigi *tege
leech *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N*t[ɛ]se̝ *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N*s[i]siN *tiɾiN *tese
sharp *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N*k[e̝]te̝ *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N*k[i/ɛ]siN *k[i/ɛ]tiN*kesen/*keten
*kisin/*kitin
snap (intr.) *gɛ-ne̝C- *gɛne̝- *gɛniC- *gɛni- *gɛne-
afraid *mɔke̝ *mɔke̝ *mɔke̝ *mɔki *mɔki
tail of bird *ɔte̝-ɾɔN *ɔt[ɔ]ɾɔ *ɔsiɾ[ɔN] *ɔtiɾɔN **o=tirɔ(n)
flying fox *xɔŋge̝ *xɔŋge̝ *xɔŋgi *xɔŋgi *xonge
bone *b[a/ɔ]ge̝ *bɔge̝ *b[a/ɔ]g[e̝]*b[ɛ]gi *bagi *bɔge
eat (future) *a[n]de̝- *ade̝- *ade̝- *a[n]di[N]-*a[n]di-
tooth *taɾe̝ *taɾe̝ *taɾe̝
paddle (n.) *kaxʷe̝ *kaɸe̝ *kaɸe̝ *kaxʷi *kaxʷi *kafe/*kɛfe
saliva/spittle*xate̝ *xate̝ *xasi *xate
good *jaɸe̝ *jaɸi
lime *xame̝[N] *xame̝ *xame̝ *xami
friend *xabe̝N *xabe̝ *xabe̝N *xabiN
sweat (n.) *kʷate̝N *ko̝te̝ *kasiN *kasiN *kɔten
young woman *ame̝ge̝ *amigi *amigi *amgi

When /*e̝/ is preceded by palatal glide /*j/, it is raised and merged with high front /*i/ everywhere but Southeast Awyu:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*e̝/j_*i*e̝ *i *i*i
bird *je̝ *ji *j[e̝] *ji *ji *yi
tree/firewood*je̝N *jiN *je̝N *jiN *jiN *yin

In one example …:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
* * * * **e
hand/arm*b[e̝]d[ɔ]*be̝d[ɜ/ɔ]*b[ɛ]d[ɔ]*bɛdɔ *bidɜ**bedo

Due to the merger described above, it's not possible to distinguish high mid front /*e̝/ from high front /*i/ where attestations are found in only Central Awyu and West Awyu and there is no outcomparison:

Awyu SouthSoutheastCentral West Healey
*[i/e̝] *i *i *e/*i
moon *b[i/e̝]d[i/e̝]N *bidiN *bidiN *beden/*bidin
island *dub[i/e̝] *dʉbi *d[ʉ]bi *dübe/*dübi
be enough*xaɾe̝-ne̝C- *xaɾi-niC-*xaɾi-ni-xare nek-
xari nik-

High mid back rounded vowel /*o̝/ is raised to high back /*u/ in Central and West Awyu:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*o̝ *o̝ *o̝ *u *u *u
all *mo̝ *mo̝- *-mu
heel *bo̝ *bo̝ *bu *bu
1 sg. *no̝ *no̝ *no̝ *nu *nu *nu
do/make (imp.) *-no̝ *-no̝ *-no̝ *-nu *-nu
corpse *to̝ - *tu
and/also *-ko̝ *-ko̝ *-ku
2 sg. *go̝ *go̝ *go̝ *gu *gu *gu
husband *xo̝ *xo̝ *xu *xu
not want *mo̝N- *mo̝N- *muN- *mun-
wash *ko̝N- *ko̝N- *ko̝N- *kuN- *kuN- *kun-
plant (v.) *ko̝N- *ko̝N- *kuN- *kun-
milk *xo̝N *xo̝N *xu[N] *xu[N] *xu
black *bo̝xo̝N *b[o̝]x[o̝]
fly (v.) *bo̝ɾo̝N- *bo̝ɾo̝N- *bo̝ɾo̝N- *buɾuN- *buɾuN- *burun-
ear *to̝ɾo̝N *to̝ɾo̝ *to̝ɾo̝N *suɾuN *tuɾuN *turun
sleep (n.) *ko̝no̝N *ko̝no̝N *ko̝no̝N *kunuN *kunuN *kunun
nape *go̝be̝N *gubiN
elbow *mo̝[wɔ] *mo̝wɔ *mu
hide *(a-)to̝ɾo̝-mɔ-*(a-)to̝ɾo̝mɔ- *atuɾumɔ- *aturumo-
slow *so̝ko̝m[a/ɔ]N *so̝ko̝m[ɔ] *sukum[a]N *sukumɔn
swallow *miko̝N- *miko̝N- *mikuN- *m[i]kuN *mikun-
gather *gigi[jɔ] ko̝N-*gigi-ko̝N- *gigi[jɔ] kuN-*gigio kun-
1 pl. *n[o̝/u]go̝ *no̝go̝ *no̝go̝ *nʉgu *nugu *nügu/*nugu
2 pl. *g[o̝/u]go̝ *go̝go̝ *go̝go̝ *gʉgu *g[ɔ]g[ʉ] *gügu/*gugu
carry *kɛko̝N- *kɛko̝N- *kɛkuN- *kɛkuN- *kɛkun-
rattan/rope *jɔxo̝ *jɔx[o̝] *j[o̝]xo̝ *jɔxu *jɔxu
daughter *[ɔ]to̝b-ɾaN *[ɔ]to̝b-ɾa *sub-ɾaN*tub-ɾaN *tub®an
two *ɔkɾo̝maN *ɔko̝ma *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma*… *kɔɾumaN **okrumɔ(n)
moon *kamo̝ *kamo̝ *kamo̝ *kamu
stone axe *xabo̝ *xabo̝ *xabu *xabu *xabu
husband *xaxo̝ *xaxo̝ *xɔxu
flesh *kʷado̝ *kɔdɔ *ko̝do̝ *kadu *kadu *kɔdu
go up *a-to̝C- *ɔto̝- *asuC- *tu- *otuk-
seek *ago̝C- *aguC- *agu- *agok-
get up/stand up*mato̝C- *m[a]to̝- *mat[u]-
chin/jaw *gando̝N *gando̝
crocodile *nagaɾo̝ *nagaɾu
crocodile *xajambo̝ *xajambo̝ *xajambu*xajambu *xayambu

When followed by final velar fricative /*x/, high mid back rounded /*o̝/ is lowered to low mid /*ɔ/ in South Awyu :

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWestHealey
*o̝*o̝ *u *o/*u
hair *mo̝x *mɔx *m[o̝] *mu *mox/*mux
voice/speech*ɾo̝x *ɾɔx *ɾ[o̝] *ɾu *ɾu *rux

In one example, …:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*
nipple/larynx*t[e̝]b[ɔ] (?)*t[ɛ/ɔ]bɔ (?) *sɔb[ɔ/u] (?)*sub[ɔ/u]*tubo/*tubu

Low mid front vowel /*ɛ/ is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
3 sg. *ɛ- *ɛ- *ɛ- *ɛ- *ɛ-
tendon *mɛ *mɛ *mɛ *mɛ
this/here *nɛ *nɛ- *nɛ *nɛ- *nɛ- *nɛ
not *dɛ *dɛ *dɛ *dɛ
pinkie/nail *sɛ *sɛ *-sɛ *-sɛ *se
eat *ɛN- *ɛN- *ɛN- *ɛn-
stand *ɛC- *ɛ- *ɛC- *ɛk-
widower *sɛN *sɛ *sɛN *sɛN *sɛn
chin *tɛɾɛ *tɛɾɛ *tɛɾɛ *tɛɾɛ
snap (tr.) *gɛ-mɛ- *-gɛmɛ- *-gɛmɛ- *-gɛm[ɛ]-*gɛme-/*gɛmo-
worm *wɛɾu *wɛɾu *… *wɛɾʉ *wɛɾʉ
snap (intr.)*gɛ-ne̝C-*gɛne̝- *gɛniC- *gɛni- *gɛne-
carry *kɛko̝N- *kɛko̝N- *kɛkuN- *kɛkuN- *kɛkun-
sore/wound *pɛsɔ *pɛsɔ *pɛsɔ *pɛso
this/here *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ-gɔ
goura pigeon*kutɛ *kʉtɛ *kutɛ *(ü)kütɛ
see *ɸe̝tɛ- *ɸe̝tɛ- *ɸe̝t[ɛ]-*ɸit[ɛ]-*ɸit[ɛ]- **fɛtɛox-
tongue *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *fagɛ
drumming *xaxɸɛ *xaxɸɛ *xa[x]ɸɛ *xaxfɛ
laughter *abɛN *abV *abV *ab[ɛN] *ab[VN] *ab(ɛ)

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*… *e
penis *t[e̝/ɛ]ge̝ *te̝ge̝ *s[ɛ]gi *tigi *tege
leech *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N*t[ɛ]se̝ *t[e̝/ɛ]se̝N*s[i]siN *tiɾiN *tese
sharp *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N*k[e̝]te̝ *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝N*k[i/ɛ]siN*k[i/ɛ]tiN*kesen/*keten
*kisin/*kitin
bad/evil*k[e̝/ɛ]jɔN *k[i]j[ɛ/a]*k[i]jɔN *k[i/ɛ]jɔN*k[i/ɛ]jɔN

Low mid central vowel /*ɜ/…

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*a *a *æ *a
butterfly *apɜ(-ɾɔ)*apa *ap[a]ɾɔ*apɜɾɔ*aprɔ
come *dɜ- *dɜ- *da- *dɜ- *dæx-
left/lame *wɜ *wa *wɜ *wa *wɜ
love/desire *jɜ *ja *jɜ **ya *yæ
water spirit *ɜjɜ *aja *ɜjɜ *ɜjɜ
coconut *pɜjɔ *pajɔ *p[ɜ]jɔ *pajɔ *pɜjɔ *pæyo
face *kɜtɔ *katɔ *kɜtɔ
younger sibling*kudɜ *kuda *kudɜ *kʉda *kudɜ *küda
sun *sawɜ *s[a]wɜ *sawa *sawɜ *sɔwɔ

Low mid back rounded vowel /*ɔ/ is generally retained as such in all attested subgroups:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*o
behind *mɔ *mɔ *mɔ *mɔ *mɔ
do/make *-mɔ- *-mɔ- *-mɔ- *-mɔ- *-mɔ- *-mo-
father *bɔ *bɔ *bɔ
hole *tɔ *tɔ *tɔ *tɔ *tɔ *to
burn (intr.) *dɔ- *dɔ- *dɔ- *dɔ- *dɔ-
dry *sɔ *sɔ *sɔ *sɔ *so
over there *xɔ *xɔ- *xɔ- *xɔ
man *xɔ *xɔ *xɔ *xɔ *xɔ *xo
walk/go *xɔ- *xɔ- *xɔ- *xɔ- *xɔ- *xox-
fruit/seed *ɾɔ *ɾɔ *ɾɔ *ɾɔ *ɾɔ *ro
breast *ɔN *ɔN *ɔN *ɔN *ɔN *om
excrement *ɔɾ *ɔɾ *r
nail *dɔx *dɔx *dɔx *dɔx-
blood *gɔN *gɔN *gɔN *gɔN *gɔN *gon
hair/leaf/feather*ɾɔN *ɾɔN *ɾɔN *ɾɔN *ron
weep/cry *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ɾɔN- *ron-
say/speak *ɾɔ[x]- *ɾɔxɔ *ɾɔ *ɾɔ *rox-
copulate *jɔN– *jɔN- *jɔN- *jɔN- *yon-
water *ɔxɔ *ɔxɔ *ɔxɔ *ɔxɔ *ɔx
bird of paradise *ɸɔdɔ *ɸɔdɔ
earth/ground *sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *sɔxɔ *soxo
3 pl. *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *yoxo
cheek *mɔxɔN *mɔxɔN *mɔxɔ[N] *mɔxɔN *moxo(n)
armpit *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN *tɔgɔ *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN *tɔgɔN *togon/*toxon
*tongon
/toe *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔ *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔN *tɔɾɔN *toron
stink *ɸɔxɔ-mɔ- *ɸɔxɔmɔ- *ɸɔxɔmɔ- *foxomo-
knee/elbow *bɔkiN *bɔkiN *bɔki[N] *bɔkiN *bün/*bun
die (pl.) *xɔsV[ŋ]gi-*xɔs[i]gi- *xɔs[a]ŋgi-
shiver *bɔbVN- *bɔbɔN- *bɔbiN- *bobin-/*bobon-
heavy *bɔd[ʉ/u] *bɔd[i/u] *bɔdʉ *bodü
inside *wɔm[u] *wɔmu *wɔmu *wɔmu *wɔmu *womu
tail *wɔbu *wɔbu *wɔbu *wɔbʉ *wɔbʉ *wobu
testicle(s) *wɔbu-ɾɔ *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ *wɔbʉ-ɾɔ *wobü-ro
afraid *mɔke̝ *mɔke̝ *mɔke̝ *mɔki *mɔki
flying fox *xɔŋge̝ *xɔŋge̝ *xɔŋgi *xɔŋgi *xonge
tail of bird *ɔte̝-ɾɔN *ɔt[ɔ]ɾɔ *ɔsiɾ[ɔN] *ɔtiɾɔN **o=tirɔ(n)
rattan/rope *jɔxo̝ *jɔx[o̝] *j[o̝]xo̝*jɔxu *jɔxu
go (imperative) *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ
ghost *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔxɔⁱ *xoxoi
foot/leg *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kitɔ *kito
mucus *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *siniɸɔ *sin-ifo
egg *mugɔ *mugɔ *mʉgɔ *mugɔ *mügo
bamboo *ɸe̝-ɔ *ɸe̝jɔ *ɸijɔ *ɸijɔ
marsupial *ke̝sɔ *ke̝sɔ *… *kisɔ *kisɔ *kiso/*kuso
eye *ke̝ɾɔ *ke̝ɾɔ *k[e̝]ɾɔ *kiɾɔ *kiɾɔ *kero
stone *ɛⁱɾɔ *iɾɔ *iɾɔ *iɾɔ *ɛⁱɾɔ *ero/*iro
sore/wound *pɛsɔ *pɛsɔ *pɛsɔ *pɛso
this/here *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ-gɔ *nɛ-gɔ
coconut *pɜjɔ *pajɔ *p[ɜ]jɔ *pajɔ *pɜjɔ *pæyo
face *kɜtɔ *katɔ *kɜtɔ
butterfly *apɜ-ɾɔ *ap[a]ɾɔ *apɜɾɔ *aprɔ
short/blunt *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bago
get up/stand up *datɔ- *datɔ- *d[a]tɔ- *dɔtɔ- *dɔtɔ- *dɔtox-
widow *xamɔ *xamɔ *xam[ɜ] *xam-
thumb/big toe *wadɔ *wɔdɔ *wadɔ *wɔdo
older brother *jaxɔ *jaxɔ *jaxɔ *j[a]xɔ **yaxo
red *kaŋgɔN *kaŋgɔ *kaŋg[o̝]*kaŋgɔN *kaŋgɔN *kango(n)
breadfruit *[ɾ/j]awɔt *j[ɔ]w[ɔ]t*jaw[ɔ]t *jawɔ[N] (?)*[ɾ/j]awɔ *yɔwɔt
thorn *jam[ɔ]xɔN *jɔmɔ *jamɔxɔN *jɔmɔxɔN *jamɔxɔN *yɔmo
lie (n.) *jaxamɔ *jaxamɔ *jaxam[ɔ]
break/crush (tr.)*waxaɾ-mɔ- *waxaɾ-mɔ- *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ-*waxarmo-

When low mid back rounded /*ɔ/ is followed by low central /*a/ in the next syllable, …. The originality of /*ɔ/ is supported by outcomparison to Wambon, as well as by the probable derivation of /*xɔman/ “far” from the distal demonstrative /*xɔ/ “over there”:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*ɔ/_Ca *a *ɔ *a *ɔ *a*a/*o
spirit/soul*bɔna *bɔna *bɔna *b[a]na *bɔna
earth/below*mɔkaN *mɔkaN *makaN *m[ɔ/a]kaN*mɔkaN *makan/*mokan
incorrect *gɔbaN *gɔba
forget *gɔbaN- *gɔbaN-
far *xɔmaN *xamaN *x[a]maN

Two examples …:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*ɔ/CVj_*[ɛ/a]
garden *gijɔN *gij[ɛ/a] *gijɔN *gijɔN *giɔn
bad/evil*k[e̝/ɛ]jɔN*k[i]j[ɛ/a]*k[i]jɔN *k[i/ɛ]jɔN*k[i/ɛ]jɔN

One seeming counterexample is historically a compound; cf. Wambon /*pe̝k-ɔp/:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
bamboo*ɸe̝-ɔ *ɸe̝jɔ *ɸijɔ *ɸijɔ

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*ɔ/CVj_ *a
white*xajɔ *xajɔ *xajɜ *xajɔ *xaja *xayɔ

Auxilliary /*-mɔ-/ …:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*-mɔ-/i_ *mi-
think/know *ɸiN-mi- *ɸimi- *ɸimi- *ɸim[i]- *fimi–
*-mɔ-/ɛ_ *me-/*mo-
snap (tr.) *gɛ-mɛ- *-gɛmɛ- *-gɛmɛ-*-gɛm[ɛ]- *gɛme-/*gɛmo-
*-mɔ-/o̝_ *mo-
hide *(a-)to̝ɾo̝-mɔ-*(a-)to̝ɾo̝mɔ- *atuɾumɔ- *aturumo-
*-mɔ-/ɔ_ *mo-
stink *ɸɔxɔ-mɔ- *ɸɔxɔmɔ- *ɸɔxɔmɔ- *foxomo-
*-mɔ-/a_ *mo-
break/crush (tr.)*waxaɾ-mɔ- *waxaɾ-mɔ- *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ-*waxarmo-

Low central vowel /*a/ is generally retained as such in all subgroups:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*a *a *a *a *a *a *aa
rain *a *a *a *a *a *aa
nest *a *a *a *a *aa
cooked *ma *ma *ma *ma
sit *ba- *ba- *ba- *ba- *ba- *bæx-
not *ɸa *ɸa *ɸa
1 sg. poss. *na *na *na (?) *na *na *na
eat (imperative) *na *na *na[N] *na
2 sg. poss. *ga *ga *ga *ga *ga
skin/bark *xa *xa *xa *xa *xa *xa
3 sg. poss. *wa *wa *wa (?) *wa *wa *wa
take/hold *ɾa- *ɾa- *ɾa- *ɾa- *ræx-
salt *daN- *da *daN *daN-
hear *daC- *da- *da- *daC- *da- *dak-
woman/wife *ɾaN *ɾa *ɾaN *ɾaN *ɾaN *ran
centipede *xax *xax *xa *xa *xax
leaf *ana *ana *ana
correct/true *aga *aga *aga-ni-
light/bright *[a]ɾa *aɾa
teeth *maga *maga *maga *maga *maga *maga
excrement *pax[a] *pax[a] *pax[a] *pax[a] *paxa
hot *apat *apat *apat *apa *apa *apat
knowledge *n[a]ɸaN *naɸa *n[a]ɸaN *naɸaN *naɸaN
tired/crippled *taxaN *taxa *taxaN *taxaN *taxan
in front *samaN *samaN *samaN *samaN
palate *xanaN *xa[na]N
far *xaxaN *xaxa *xaxaN
ripe/yellow *waxamaN *waxama *waxamaN *waxaman
mother's mother *api *api *api
older sister *ani *ani *ani *ani *ɛni/*ni/*nɛni
dog *aŋg[i] *aŋg[i] *aŋg[i] *aŋgi *aŋgi *(y)ange
*(y)angi
spear *xati *x[a]ti *xasi *xati *xati
bite *at[i]C- *ati- *ati- *asiC- *asu- *atik-
sneeze (n.) *asiN *si *asiN *asiN *asin
male *baxtiN *baxti[N] *batiN *basiN *b[a]tiN *baxtin
night/dark *as[ij]u *as[ij]u *asʉ *asʉ *asʉ *asü
body *adu *adu *adʉ *adü/*adu
beard *matu *masʉ *mas[i] *masi/*mati
*masü/*matü
old (thing) *patu *patu *pasʉ *patʉ
dream *axtu *axatu *asʉ
son *amut *amut *[a]mʉ *[a]mʉ **amu
canoe *jaxʷuN *j[a]ɸ[u]N *jaxʷʉN *jaxʷʉN *yɔfün
break/split (tr.)*axaɸuN- *axaɸuN- *axaɸʉN- *axaɸʉN- *axafün-
eat (future) *a[n]de̝- *ade̝- *ade̝- *a[n]di[N]- *a[n]di-
tooth *taɾe̝ *taɾe̝ *taɾe̝
paddle (n.) *kaxʷe̝ *kamake̝ *kaɸe̝ *kaxʷi *kaxʷi *kafe/*kɛfe
saliva/spittle *xate̝ *xate̝ *xasi *xate
good *jaɸe̝ *jaɸi
lime *xame̝[N] *xame̝ *xame̝ *xami
friend *xabe̝N *xabe̝ *xabe̝N *xabiN
be cooked *pax-ne̝C- *pax[a]-ne̝C- *pa[x]-niC- *paxnek-/*paxnik-
young woman *ame̝ge̝ *amigi *amigi *amgi
be enough *xaɾe̝-ne̝C- *xaɾi-niC- *xaɾi-ni- xare nek-
xari nik-
louse *[aŋ]gV *gu *[aŋ]go̝ *aŋgu *aŋgu *angu
moon *kamo̝ *kamo̝ *kamo̝ *kamu
stone axe *xabo̝ *xabo̝ *xabu *xabu *xabu
husband *xaxo̝ *xaxo̝ *xɔxu
seek *ago̝C- *aguC- *agu- *agok-
get up/stand up *mato̝C- *m[a]to̝- *mat[u]-
chin/jaw *gando̝N *gando̝
crocodile *nagaɾo̝ *nagaɾu
crocodile *xajambo̝ *xajambo̝ *xajambu *xajambu *xayambu
tongue *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *ɸagɛ *fagɛ
drumming *xaxɸɛ *xaxɸɛ *xa[x]ɸɛ *xaxfɛ
laughter *abɛN *abV *abV *ab[ɛN] *ab[VN] *ab(ɛ)
mouth *xat[ɛ/ɜ] *xatɛ-tɔ *xatɜ *xatɔ *xatɜ *xatɛ
butterfly *apɜ(-ɾɔ) *apa *ap[a]ɾɔ *apɜɾɔ *aprɔ
sun *sawɜ *s[a]wɜ *sawa *sawɜ *sɔwɔ
vagina *a-tɔ *a-tɔ *a-tɔ *a-tɔ *aato(p)
short/blunt *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bagɔ *bago
widow *xamɔ *xamɔ *xam[ɜ] *xam-
white *xajɔ *xajɔ *xajɜ *xajɔ *xaja *xayɔ
older brother *jaxɔ *jaxɔ *jaxɔ *j[a]xɔ **yaxo
red *kaŋgɔN *kaŋgɔ *kaŋg[o̝] *kaŋgɔN *kaŋgɔN *kango(n)
breadfruit *[ɾ/j]awɔt *j[ɔ]w[ɔ]t *jaw[ɔ]t *jawɔ[N] (?)*[ɾ/j]awɔ *yɔwɔt
lie (n.) *jaxamɔ *jaxamɔ *jaxam[ɔ]
break/crush (tr.)*waxaɾ-mɔ- *waxaɾ-mɔ- *waxaɾ[a]-mɔ-*waxarmo-
tie *ad[awɔ]C- *adɔ- *adV- *adaC- *ad[awɔ]- *adɔk-
break (intr.) *xaɾ[ɔ]-ne̝C- *xaɾ[a]-ni-
fish *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaɛ
alive/awake *kadax[aᵉ] *kadax[aᵉ] *kadax[aᵉ] *kadaxae
forehead *mika *mika *mika
torch *sija *sija *sija *sija *sia
young man *s[ʉ]baN *sib[a]N *s[ʉ]baN *sʉbaN *sʉbaN *süban
ashes *se̝na *se̝na *sina *sena
outside *bVt[a]xa *be̝taxa *be̝t[a]x[a]*bɛtaxa *butaxa **betaxa
dry *kɛɾa *kɛɾa *k[a]ɾa
two *ɔkɾo̝maN *ɔko̝ma *[ɔ]k[o̝]ma *… *kɔɾumaN **okrumɔ(n)
spirit/soul *bɔna *bɔna *bɔna *b[a]na *bɔna
earth/below *mɔkaN *mɔkaN *makaN *makaN *mɔkaN *makan/*mokan
incorrect *gɔbaN *gɔba
forget *gɔbaN- *gɔbaN-
far *xɔmaN *xamaN *x[a]maN
head *xaⁱbaN *xaⁱba *xabaN *xaⁱbaN *xaⁱbaN *xaiban

When low central /*a/ is followed by high front /*i/ in the next syllable, it is typically fronted to low mid /*ɛ/ in South Awyu:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*a/_Ci
fence/wall*xaɾi *xɛɾi *xaɾi *xaɾi
snake *wati *wɛti *wVti *wisi *wati*wati/*witi
war *waki *wɛki *waki**wæki

When low central /*a/ is followed by high back rounded /*u/ in the next syllable, it is typically backed to low mid /*ɔ/ in South Awyu:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*a/_Cu*a *a *a *a *ɔ *o
smoke *aku *ɔku *aku *[a]k[ʉ]*aku *aku/*üku
beard *matu *masʉ *mas[i]*masi/*mati
*masü/*matü
stomach*madu *mɔdu *m[a]du *madʉ *madʉ *modü
cold *taɾ[u] *tɔɾu *taɾ[u] *taɾʉ *taɾu *tɔrü
belly *kaku *kɔku *kakʉ *kaku *kɔkü

When low central /*a/ is preceded by initial rounded velar voiceless stop /* kʷ/ … :

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*a/kʷ_Ce̝*o̝ *a *a
sweat (n.)*kʷate̝N *ko̝te̝ *kasiN *kasiN*kɔten
*a/kʷ_Co̝ *o̝ *a *a
flesh *kʷado̝ *kɔdɔ *ko̝do̝ *kadu *kadu *kɔdu

When /*a/ is preceded by initial bilabial non-stop /*w/, it is typically backed to /*ɔ/ in Central Awyu:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*a/w_*a*a *a
night *wamiN *wɔmiN
thumb/big toe*wadɔ *wɔdɔ *wadɔ *wɔdo
bamboo knife *waki *waki *wɔki *waki

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentral West Healey
*a/_Cɔ*a *a
thorn*jam[ɔ]xɔN*jɔmɔ *jamɔxɔN *jɔmɔxɔN*jamɔxɔN*yɔmo

Diphthongs /*uⁱ *ɛⁱ *ɔⁱ *aⁱ *aᵉ/ …

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*uⁱ*uⁱ? *i *i*ui
theft*kʷuⁱ *kuⁱ *ki *ki *kui

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*ɛⁱ*i *i *i *ɛⁱ*i *e
pig *wɛⁱ *wi *wi *wi *wɛⁱ *wi
mosquito*ɛⁱsɜ *is[i] *ɛⁱsɜ *ese/*ete
*isi/*iti
stone *ɛⁱɾɔ *iɾɔ *iɾɔ *iɾɔ *ɛⁱɾɔ *ero/*iro
river *wadɛⁱ *w[i]di*w[i]di *w[i]di*wadɛⁱ *wadi/*widi

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*ɔⁱ*ɔⁱ*ɔⁱ *ɔⁱ*ɔⁱ*oi
go (imperative)*nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ *nɔxɔⁱ
ghost *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔx[ɔⁱ] *xɔxɔⁱ *xɔxɔⁱ *xoxoi

…:

Awyu South Southeast Central West Healey
*aⁱ *aⁱ *a *aⁱ *aⁱ *ai
give birth*xaⁱ- *xaⁱ- *xaⁱ- *xaⁱ- *xai
house *xaⁱN *-x[aⁱ]N*-xaN *x[aⁱ]N *xaⁱN
fence *xaⁱti *x[aⁱ]ti*xaⁱti *xaⁱti **xaiti
head *xaⁱbaN *xaⁱba *xabaN *xaⁱbaN *xaⁱbaN *xaiban
wallaby *sVb[a]xaⁱ *[sV]b[a]xaⁱ*sVb[a]xaⁱ*sVb[a]xaⁱ*baxae/*baxai

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*aᵉ *aᵉ *aᵉ *aᵉ*aᵉ *aɛ *ae
fish *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaᵉ *axaɛ
alive/awake*kadax[aᵉ]*kadax[aᵉ] *kadax[aᵉ]*kadaxae

…:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
*[ɔᵘ]*o̝*u *u*ü/*u
sago*d[ɔᵘ] *do̝ *du *dʉ *du *dü/*du

Pronouns

Awyu free pronouns are reconstructed as follows:

Awyu South SoutheastCentralWest Healey
1 sg.*no̝ *no̝ *no̝ *nu *nu *nu
2 sg.*go̝ *go̝ *go̝ *gu *gu *gu
3 sg.*ɛ(-ge̝) *ɛge̝, *ɛwe̝*ɛge̝ *ɛ-(gi)*ɛki *ɛge/*ɛke
1 pl.*n[o̝/u]go̝*no̝go̝ *no̝go̝ *nʉgu *nugu *nügu/*nugu
2 pl.*g[o̝/u]go̝*go̝go̝ *go̝go̝ *gʉgu *g[ɔ]g[ʉ]*gügu/*gugu
3 pl.*jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *jɔxɔ *yoxo

West Awyu's third person singular does not quite correspond with those of the other branches; the vowels are regular but velar voicless stop /*k/ from voiced /*g/ is not. No explanation is offered here for this discrepancy.

The separability of /*ɛ/ is proven by Drabbe's Pisà possessive forms /ɛ-na ɛ-wa/, where /-na/ is the general possessive particle and /*wa/ the third person possessive prefix (below.)

Singular possessive pronouns are reconstructed as follows:

AwyuSouthSoutheastCentralWestHealey
1 sg. poss.*na *na *na (?) *na *na *na
2 sg. poss.*ga *ga ? *ga *ga *ga
3 sg. poss.*wa *wa *wa (?) *wa *wa *wa

Verbal morphology

[under construction]






Loans from Marind and Yaqay

Words shared between Awyu and Marind, Yaqay or both include the following, with Yaqay forms drawn from Drabbe (1954: 128-142) or from Kriens and Lebold (2010: 40-53) [rk], with Wambon presented for comparison. It may be seen that the greatest influence is between Yaqay and Awyu:

Marind Yaqay Awyu Wambon
canoe *iawun jun *jaxʷuN
grandparentaˈpi *api
testicle(s)*ombo 'wamba *wɔbu-ɾɔ *wambu(-ɾɔp)
ground/low *makan mo'qon *mɔkaN
hair/head ˈmuku *mo̝x *mɵ̝k
coconut ˈpajo *pɜjɔ
old 'pɑtu [rk] *patu
smoke *haku a'ku *aku
mosquito *naŋgit na:'ŋgit *n[a]gi
crocodile naŋgo *nagaɾo̝
salt ⁿdɑn [rk] *daN
bamboo *suba *sumb[ɛ/a]
moon ka:'mo *kamo̝
paddle (n.)*ka-wai-a*kaxʷe̝
widow qa'moq *xamɔ *kamɔk
flying fox qoŋge *xɔŋge̝
flesh 'kɑ'doʔ [rk]*kʷado̝ *kandɵ̝
snake wɑti [rk] *wati *ŋgʷati
copulate *jom *jɔN-

In several of these instances, we can upon phonological grounds be confident that Yaqay, Marind or a relative or predecessor thereof was the lender. For example, Marind-Yaqay /*h/ in “smoke” should reflect Fly River /*ɸ/, an element regularly dropped in Yaqay and likewise absent from the Awyu forms. The terms for “canoe” and “paddle (n.)” have a special phoneme /*xʷ/ thusfar identified in only these words (above.) One reflex of “canoe” in Mandobo (Wambon) /*jahun/ is mandatorily a loan from either Awyu or Marind, as Mandobo /*h/ is found only in loans. “Paddle (n.)” is a derived compound in Marind /*ka-wai-a/, /*wai/ being the Fly River term for “paddle (v.)”. /As Awyu /*p/ is uncommon and has no native source, terms for “grandparent”, “coconut” and “old” can all be presumed to be loans from Yaqay. “Flying fox”, too, is probably a loan from Yaqay, as /*ŋg/ is rare in native words.

Others can be identified as loans on distributional grounds. Attestation of /*naŋgit/ “mosquito,” for example, is near-universal in Fly River, but is not otherwise found in Digul River-Ok.

On the other hand, /*wati/ “snake” must be a loan from Awyu into Yaqay, as the Central Digul River form is /*ŋgʷati/. “Widow” (cf. Wambon /*kamɔk/) must date from a point at which intial /*k/ had already been aspirated, but final /*k/ had not yet been dropped, Drabbe's Yaqay initial <q> in native words reflecting Marind-Yaqay /*ɣ/ < Fly River /*ŋg/, not /*k/.