Digul River

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

[under construction]

Subclassification

The internal classification of Digul River is as follows:

Digul River

Sawi

North Digul River

Awbono-Bayono

Becking and Dawi Rivers

Central Digul River

Awyu

Ndeiram River

Dumut

Sources

[under construction]

History of classification

[under construction]

Drabbe (1950, 1957, 1059) Awju group

Healey (1970) proto-Awyu-Dumut

Voorhoeve (1971) adds Sawuj.

Voorhoeve (2000) adds Kombai

Voorhoeve (2005) …

de Vries (2012) …

van den Heuvel, de Vries et al. (CITE) independently propose the inclusion of Becking-Dawi with Awyu-Dumut in a Greater Awyu family upon the basis of shared morphology.

Historical phonology

[under construction]

Proto-Digul River had perhaps 15 consonants and 8 vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *s *k *kʷ
*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg *ŋgʷ
*w *j
*i *u
*e̝ *o̝
*a

….

Digul River neutralized the distinction between Digul River-Ok’s plain and prenasalized final stops, leaving only a restricted subset of consonants which occur finally:

*m *n
*p *t *s *k



Initial consonants correspond as follows:

Digul Sawuy North Central
*m- m *m *m
*n- n *n *n
*p-
*t- t *t *t
*t-/i e̝_ s *t *t
*s-
*k- x *k *k
*kʷ-
*mb- b *mb *mb
*nd- d *d *nd
*ndz-
*ŋg- g *g *ŋg
*ŋgʷ- *ŋgʷ
*w- *w *w
*ɾ- *j
*j-

Medial consonants correpsond as follows:

Digul Sawuy North Central
*-m-
*-n-
*-p-
*-t-
*-s-
*-k-
*-mb-
*-nd-
*-ŋg-
*-w-
*-ɾ-
*-j-

Final consonants correspond as follows:

Digul Sawuy North Central
*-m m *m *m
*-n n *n *n
*-p p *p *p
*-t r *t *t
*-s
*-k x *k *k
*-ɾ r *r

These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Sawuy forms drawn from Voorhoeve (1971: 88-92, 110-114) unless otherwise indicated; those drawn from unpublished vocabularies by Dietz and Richardson are designated as [xd] and [dr] respectively.


Digul RiverNorth DigulCentral DigulSawuy

Only a restricted set of consonants /*m *n *p *t *s *k *ɾ/ occurs finally. These are generally stable in all three subgroups.

Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …:

Digul RiverSawuy North DigulCentral Digul
*-m m *m *m
breast *… aːm *am *ɒm
men's house*kaⁱm xaⁱm [dr]*kaⁱm *kaⁱm
knee/elbow *ŋgambum *gabum *ŋgambum
jungle fowl*wako̝m *wako̝m *wako̝m

Final apical nasal /*n/ …:

Digul River Sawuy North DigulCentral Digul
*-n n *n *n
laughter *ambɛn *ambɛn
thorn *aɾun *aɾun *aɾun
hot *mamun *mamun *mamun
rattan/rope*… *nan
rope *ke̝ke̝n kegeːn *ke̝₂ke̝₂n
head *kamb[e̝]jan *kabe̝jan *kambijan
sweat *kʷate̝₁n *kʷate̝₁n
calf *… *wan

Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:

Digul RiverSawuy North DigulCentral Digul
*-p p [p ɸ] *p *p
house *… ap ~ aːp ~ aɸ*ɔp *ap
sun/day *[a]tap ataːp
day/yesterday *aɾup *aɾup
turtle/tortoise*mbiɾip *biɾip *mbiɾip
village *… *bɔ[t]up *mbɔᵘtup
tongue *te̝p seːp ~ seɸ *te̝p
hole *… taːp *tɔp *tɔp
banana *ndzo̝p *dzo̝p
inside *… *kaɾo̝p *kaɾɔᵘp
fruit/seed *ɾɔp *jɔp *ɾɔp

Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:

Digul RiverSawuy North DigulCentral Digul
*-t r *t *t
mouth *maŋgɔt *maŋgɔt
dog *tit siːr *tit *tit
root *ndit dir [dr]*dit *ndit
hear *ndat dar *… *ndat
bird *ndzeːt eːr *dze̝t *je̝t
flower *ke̝t *ke̝t *ke̝₂t
skin/bark *… *kat *kat
cloud/sky *… xaᵘr *k[o̝]t *kɔᵘt
bamboo pipe*ŋge̝t *ge̝t
breadfruit *[ɾ/j]awɔt *jawɔt *[ɾ/j]awɔt

Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:

Digul RiverSawuyNorth DigulCentral Digul
*-k x*k *k
water *… aːx *[a/ɔ]k *ɔk
leaf/hair*mo̝k moːx *mo̝k *mo̝k
voice *ɾo̝k roːx *jo̝k *ɾo̝k

Final apical non-stop /*ɾ/ …:

Digul RiverSawuyNorth DigulCentral Digul
*-ɾ r
excrement*… aːr *[ɔ]ɾ *ɒɾ
go up *to̝ɾ- *to̝ɾ- *to̝ɾ-
moon *wakɔɾ oxaːr*wakɔɾ *wakɔɾ

Vowels /*i *u *e̝ *o̝ *ɛ *ɔ *a *ɒ/ …

High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in all thee subgroups:

Digul RiverSawuy North DigulCentral Digul
*i *i *i i
sneeze *asin *asin
drink *mi *mi *mi
star *min *min *min
turtle/tortoise*mbiɾip *biɾip *mbiɾip
mother *ni *ni *ni
dog *tit siːr *tit *tit
root *ndit dir [dr]*dit *ndit

High back rounded vowel /*u/ …:

Digul RiverSawuy North DigulCentral Digul
*u *u *u u
yesterday *aɾup *aɾup
thorn *aɾu[n] arug [dr]*aɾun *aɾun
egg *mug… mugo *mugɔ
cook/burn *(a-)ndu *adu *(a-)ndu
village *… *bɔ[t]ʉp *mbɔᵘtup
die (present)*kum *kum
knee/elbow *ŋgambum *gabum *ŋgambum

High mid front vowel /*e̝/ …

Digul RiverSawuy North DigulCentral Digul
i *e̝ *e̝₁
ashes*te̝na *te̝n[a] *te̝₁na
sweat*kʷate̝n *kʷate̝₁n
foot *ke̝nɔp kiːnib *ke̝₁nɔp

…:

Digul RiverSawuy North DigulCentral Digul
*e̝ e *e̝ *e̝₂
be *ke̝ *ke̝₂
flower *ke̝t *ke̝t *ke̝₂t
rope *ke̝ke̝n kegeːn *ke̝₂ke̝₂n
bamboo pipe*ŋge̝t *ge̝t

High mid back vowel /o̝/ …:

Digul RiverSawuy North DigulCentral Digul
*o̝ o *o̝ *o̝
leaf/hair *mo̝k moːx *mo̝k *mo̝k
black *mbo̝ko̝n bokoːn *mbo̝ko̝n
1 sg. *no̝p *no̝p *no̝p
go up *to̝ɾ- *to̝ɾ- *to̝ɾ-
2 sg. *ŋgo̝p go ~ gop*go̝p *ŋgo̝p
voice/speech*ɾo̝k roːx *jo̝k *ɾo̝k
jungle fowl *wako̝m *wako̝m *wako̝m

Low mid front vowel /*ɛ/ …:

Digul RiverSawuyNorth DigulCentral Digul
e*e̝
laughter *… *ambɛn
vein/tendon*mɛt *me̝t *mɛt
rib(s)/side*mɛɾɛn *me̝ɾe̝n *mɛɾɛn

…:

Digul RiverSawuyNorth DigulCentral Digul
*… o
egg *… mugo *mugɔ
father *… bo *mbɔ
die (non-pres.)*… xom- *kɔmi- *kɔm-

… is lowered to /a/ in Sawuy:

Digul RiverSawuyNorth DigulCentral Digul
*… a
hole*… taːp *tɔp *tɔp
moon*… oxaːr*wakor *wakɔɾ

…:

Digul RiverSawuyNorth DigulCentral Digul
*… a*[a/ɔ]
water*… aːx *[a/ɔ]k *ɔk

… :

Digul RiverSawuyNorth DigulCentral Digul
*… a*…
breast aːm *am *ɒm
excrement*… aːr *ɔɾ *ɒɾ
chin *… *bɔn *mbɒn

…:

Digul RiverSawuyNorth DigulCentral Digul
*…
mouth *… *maŋgɔt
do *… *-mɔ *-mɔ
mother's br.*… *mɔm *mɔm
short/blunt *… *baŋgɔ *mbaŋgɔ
burn (intr.)*… *ndɔ *ndɔ
white *… *kajɔ *kajɔ
song *… *gɔm *ŋgɔm
fruit/seed *… *jɔp *ɾɔp
breadfruit *… *jawɔt *[ɾ/j]awɔt

…:

Digul RiverSawuy North DigulCentral Digul
*… a
elbow*… baŋkut [xd]*bɔŋgo̝p

Digul River Sawuy North DigulCentral Digul
*… a *a *a
laughter *… *ambɛn
day/yesterday*aɾup *aɾup
thorn *… arug [dr]*aɾun *aɾun
mouth *… *maŋgɔt
sit *… *ba- *mba-
short/blunt *… *baŋgɔ *mbaŋgɔ
rattan/rope *nan
hear *ndat dar *… *ndat
head *kamb[e̝]jan *kabe̝jan *kambijan
skin/bark *… *kat *kat
inside *… *kaɾo̝p *kaɾɔᵘp
white *… *kajɔ *kajɔ
knee/elbow *ŋgambum *gabum *ŋgambum
breadfruit *… *jawɔt *[ɾ/j]awɔt
calf *… *wan
jungle fowl *wako̝m *wako̝m *wako̝m

Diphthongs … :

Digul RiverSawuy North DigulCentral Digul
*aⁱ aⁱ *aⁱ *aⁱ
men's house*kaⁱm xaⁱm [dr]*kaⁱm *kaⁱm
*… aᵘ *o̝ *ɔᵘ
inside *… *kaɾo̝p *kaɾɔᵘp
cloud/sky *… xaᵘr *ko̝t *kɔᵘt
*… *ɔᵘ *ɔᵘ
liver *ɔᵘm *ɔᵘm *wɔᵘm
*… u *aᶶ *ɔᵘ
sago *… du *… *ndɔᵘ

Pronouns

[under construction]


Verbal morphology

[under construction]