East Kainantu

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

The East Kainantu family is comprised of perhaps five languages spoken in the Kainantu and Okapa subdistricts of Papua New Guinea's Eastern Highland's province and in the Kaiapit subdistrict of Morobe province, just west of the Markham river valley and south of the Markham-Ramu divide.

Subclassification

The internal classification of East Kainantu is as follows:

East Kainantu

Waffa

Afaqina-Tairora

Afaqina (Binumarien)

Tairora

North Tairora

Omwunra

Vinaata

Sources

Capell (1948-1949: 350-354) pronouns and 118 comparative terms for Taiora (North Tairora) and pronouns and 90 comparative terms for Binumarian

Vincent and Vincent (1961) (North) Tairora final verbs (unobtained)

Vincent and Vincent (1962) verbal morphology and syntax of (North) Tairora (unobtained)

Vincent and Vincent (1962) phonology of (North) Tairora (unobtained)

Vincent and Vincent (1964) grammar of (North) Tairora

Vincent and Vincent (1968) grammar of (North) Tairora (unobtained)

Vincent (1973: 530-546) nominal morphology of (North) Tairora of Bantura village

Vincent (1973: 561-587) verbal morphology of (North) Tairora

Vincent, compiler (1973: 625-688) (North) Tairora texts

Vincent (1994) dictionary of (North) Tairora

Vincent and Vincent (1994) sketch phonology of Northern Tairora

Vincent and Vincent (1994) sketch phonology of Obura-To'okena

Vincent and Vincent (1994) sketch phonology of Vinata

Vincent (2010) dictionary and grammar of (North) Tairora of Vaantura village, including some forms from Kuvaira (Suwaira) village

McKaughan (1964: 98-121) includes 546 comparative terms for (North) Tairora of Batainabura village, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 694-738)

McKaughan (1973: 588-597) (North) Tairora sequential clauses

Oatridge and Oatridge (1965) Binumarien final verb morpholoogy

Oatridge (n.d.) Binumarien nominal morphology

Bee (1966) grammar of Binumarien following Oatridge and Oatridge

Oatridge and Oatridge (1967: 13-21) phonology of Binumarien of Oníkurádarannai village, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 517-522)

Oatridge, Oatridge and Healey (1973: 557-560) Binumarien nominal morphology

Stringer and Hotz (1969) Waffa verbal morphology and verb phrases

Hotz and Stringer (1970) discourse grammar of Waffa

Stringer and Hotz (1971: 42-48) phonology of Waffa of Kusing village, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 523-529)

Stringer and Hotz (1971: 49-62) Waffa nominal morphology, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 547-556)

Stringer and Hotz (1971) Waffa clauses

Stringer and Hotz (1979) dictionary of central Waffa

Hotz and Stringer, compilers (n.d.) Waffa texts

Stringer (1992) sketch phonology of Waffa

Bee (1965: 1-37) 58 (North) Tairora and 47 Binumarien reflexes of proto-Kainantu, reprinted in McKaughan ed. (1973: 739-768)

Kerr (1973: 598-624) verbal subjects for Obura (Omwunra)

Kerr (1973: 769-799) 35 (North) Tairora and 32 Binumarien reflexes of proto-Kainantu kin terms

Gajudsek (1980) brief ethnological description and a few words for Pinata (Viinata)

Xiao (1990) comparison of Binumarien with Awa and Hua

Historical phonology

[under construction]

Proto-East Kainantu had 8 consonants, 6 simple vowels and 4 diphthongs as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *s
*w *j
*i *u
*e: *o:
*ɑ:
*iᵄ *uᵄ
*ɐⁱ *ɐᵘ

Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ does not occur initially. Otherwise, any consonant can occur initially or medially. Consonants do not occur word-finally.

Vowels /*i *ɐ *u/ are inherently short and /*e: *o: *ɑ:/ are inherently long …. This distinction is explicitly specified for Afaqina (Binumarien) (Oatridge and Oatridge CITE) and evident in Waffa (Stringer and Hotz 1979: ibid.) and is also found in West Kainantu … Diphthongs /*iᵄ *uᵄ *ɐⁱ *ɐᵘ/ group in several phonotactic respects with the simple long vowels against the short vowels … Initial short vowels can be dropped (below) but long vowels and diphthongs are never dropped … conversely, thematic long vowels or diphthongs can induce the loss of initial short vowels in some enviroments … Verb stems must end in short vowels, not long vowels or diphthongs …





Word-initial consonants correspond as follows:

E. Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*m₁- β m
*m₂- m m m
*n₁- n n
*n₂- n n n
*p- k ʔ k
*p₂- p ʔ k
*p₃- k k ʔ
*p₄- k p
*p₅- p p β
*t- t t ʔ
*t₂- t ʔ ʔ
*t₃- t t t
*s- s h s
*w- β β ɸ
*w₂- ɸ β ɸ
*j- j k s
*j₂- s k s

Intervocalic consonants, whether root-medial or root-initial following a prefix, correspond as follows:

E. Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-m- β m
*-m-/_u ø β m
*-n- ᵰ ɾ ɾ n
*-n-/i_ ŋʲ n
*-n-/… ø ɾ n
*-p- k ʔ k:
*-t- t t ʔ
*-t₂- t ʔ ʔ
*-s- s h s
*-w- β β ɸ
*-w-/_u ø β ɸ
*-ɾ- ɾ ɾ ɾ
*-ɾ-/… ø ɾ ɾ
*-j- j k s
*-j-/i ɐⁱ_ k s

Medial consonant clusters with syllable-final /*N/ correspond as follows:

E. Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-Nm- m m m:
*-Nn- n n n:
*-Np- ŋg ŋk k:
*-Nt- nd nt ʔ
*-Ns-
*-Nw- ŋgʷ mp
*-Nj- ŋgʲ nt

Medial consonant clusters with syllable-final stop /*ʔ/ correspond as follows:

E. Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-ʔm- mb mp mp
*-ʔn- n nt nt
*-ʔp-
*-ʔt-
*-ʔs- s h ʔt
*-ʔw-
*-ʔj- j h ʔt
*-ʔj-/i ɐⁱ_ h ʔt

Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:

E. Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*i i i i
*i-/… ø ø i
*-i/… i ɐ ɐ
*u u u u
*u-/… ø ø u
ɐ ɐ ɐ
*ɐ-/…
*e: e: e e:
*o: o: o o:
*ɑ: ɑ: ɑ: ɑ:
*iᵄ ie: iᵄ iᵄ
*uᵄ uᵄ uᵄ uᵄ
*ɐⁱ ɐⁱ ɐⁱ ɐⁱ
*ɐᵘ ɐᵘ ɐᵘ ɐᵘ

These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Waffa attestations drawn from Stringer and Hotz (1973: 523-529, 547-558, 1979: ibid.) North Tairora of Vaantura from Vincent (2010 ibid.) and Afaqina from Oatridge and Oatridge (1973: 517-522, Bee 1973: 745-759, Kerr 776-795, unattributed n.d.) and Capell (1948-1948: 350-354.)

Vaantura rather than Proto-Tairora is presented here because Omwunra and Viinata are very scantily attested, such that most Proto-Tairora forms would be derived from Vaantura and outcomparison alone. Where a Vaantura segment is known to continue a more archaic proto-Tairora value, this is signified.

As data for Afaqina is quite limited, gaps in attestation are not necessarily meaningful and aren't reliable guides for cognate frequencies.


Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*m- β m
maggot *mimi ᵯiᵯi
earth/ground *mɐtɐ ᵯɐtɐ βɐtɐ mɐʔɐ
put down *mɐtɐ- ᵯɐtɐ- βɐte
bird arrow *mɐto:ɾu ᵯɐtoɾu
earthquake *mɐtuɾɐ βɐtuɾɐ
village *mɐtujɐ ᵯɐtu:jɐβɐtukɐ maʔusa [ac]
tail *me:jɐ ᵯe:jɐ βekɐ ɐ-me:sɐ
possum sp. *mɐne:jɐ ᵯɐᵰe:jɐβɐɾekɐ
ancestors *mɐnip[ɑ:] ᵯɐᵰikɑ:βɐɾiʔɐ
shadow/soul *mɐnɐ ᵯɐᵰɐ βɐɾɐ
girl *mɐnɑ:tɐ ᵯɐᵰɑ:tɐβɐɾɑ:tɐ mɐnɑ:ʔɐ
message/news *mɐjɑ:jɐ ᵯɐjɑ:jɐβɐkɑ:kɐ
vulva/vagina *mɑ:[m/w]u ᵯɐu βɑ:βu
ambush/trap *mɑ:ɾɐ ᵯɑ:ɾɐ βɑ:ɾɐ
one *mo:ʔjɑ: ᵯuɑ: βohɑ: mo:ʔtɑ:
dust/refuse *mumu ᵯuᵯu βuβu
wart/mole *muɾi ᵯiɾi βuɾi muɾi
vomit *muɾu ᵯuɾu βuɾu
grass/grassland*mujɐᵘ ᵯujɐᵘ ukɐᵘ (?)
bone *muʔjɑ:ni ᵯujɐi βuhɑ:ɾi muʔtɑ:ni

Two verbs … /*m/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*m- ᵯ [β]β m
be *mɐɾi- βɐɾ(i)- βɐɾi mɐɾi
take/get*mɐɾɐ- βɐɾɐ- βɐɾe mɐɾe

… /*m/ … /*m₂/:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*m₂- m m
give *m₂i- ᵯi- -mi mi
chest *m₂iNmiɾɐ mimiɾɐ
owl sp. *m₂ɐno:Nmɐni mɐɾomɐɾi
meat/flesh *m₂ɐti ᵯɐti mɐti ɐ-mɐʔi
this/here *m₂ɑ: mɑ: mɑ:
tongue *m₂ɑ:piɾi ᵯɑ:kiɾi mɑ:ʔiɾi ɐ-mɑ:k:iɾi
place *m₂ɑ:pɐ mɑ:ʔɐ
son *m₂ɑ:p₂u ᵯɑ:pu mɑ:ʔu mɑ:k:u
law/instruction*m₂ɑ:nɐ ᵯɑ:ᵰɐ mɑ:ɾɐ
chin *m₂ɑ:tini mɑ:tiɾi mɑ:ʔini
mat/house *m₂ɑ:tɐ ᵯɑ:tɐ mɑ:tɐ mɑ:ʔɐ
back *m₂o:pɐ- ᵯo:kɐ- moʔɐ
day after tom. *m₂o:nɐ βo:ᵰɐ (?)moɾɐ mo:nɐ
kiss *m₂o:t₂ɐ- ᵯo:tɐ- moʔe
haze *m₂uno:jɐ ᵯuᵰo:jɐ muɾokɐ [k.]
old garden *m₂uti ᵯuti muti
down/lean *m₂uNtu muntu
heart *m₂uNtujɐ ᵯundu:jɐ muntukɐ muʔusɐ

… /*m/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*m₂- mm
*…

Initial apical nasal /*n/ is lenited to nasal flap /ᵰ/ in Waffa:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*n- n n
walk *ni- ᵰi- ni ni-
old *nisi ᵰisi: nihi
tuber of s.p.*nɐⁱʔnɐ ᵰɐⁱnɐ nɐⁱntɐ
cicada *n[ɐᵘ]si ᵰo:si nɐᵘhi
eat/drink *nɐ- ᵰɐ- ne
enemy *nɐmutɑ:(-wɐ) ᵰɐᵯutʷɑ: nɐβutɑ:-(βɐ)
grease/water *nɐ[N]mɐɾi ᵰɐᵯɐɾi nɐmɐɾi nɐm:ɐɾi
sore (n.) *n[ɐ]Nmuᵄnɐ numuᵄɾɐ
shiver *nɐɾu nɐɾu ᵰɐɾu-ᵰɐɾu-nɐɾu nɐɾu
house *nɑ:mu ᵰɐu nɑ:βu
headband sp. *nɑ:mu ᵰɑ:ᵯu nɑ:βu
breast *nɑ:Nmɐ ᵰɑ:ᵯɐ nɑ:mɐ nɑ:m:ɐ
vine/rope *nɑ:puʔnɐ nɑ:ʔuntɐ nɑ:k:untɐ
laugh/smile *nɑ:nɐⁱ nɐɾɐⁱ-hi nɑ:nɐⁱ-ʔtɐɾɐ
baby *nɑ:ti nɑ:ti nɑ:ʔi
wife *nɑ:tɐ ᵰɑ:tɐ nɑ:tɐ nɑ:ʔɐ
tuber *nɑ:tupɐ ᵰɑ:tukɐ nɑ:tuʔɐ
blood/red *nɑ:ɾe: nɑ:ɾe
long ago/old *nɑ:ɾu ᵰɑ:ɾu nɑ:ɾu nɑ:ɾu
behind/later *nɑ:Njiᵄ[n/ɾ]iᵰɑ:ŋgʲɐi nɑ:ntiɐɾɐ
yam sp. *no:mɐ[n/ɾ]i ᵰo:ᵯɐɾi noβɐɾi
water *no:ni ᵰo:ɾi noɾɐ
big *no:nɐ ᵰo:ᵰɐ noɾɐ
duck sp. *no:Ntumu nontuβu
fish *no:ʔjɐnɐ no:ʔtɐnɐ
louse *numɐ ᵰuᵯʷɐ numɐ
sand *nupɐ ᵰukɐ nuʔɐ

In the Waffa form of the first person singular, initial /*n/ is not lenited:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*n- nn n
1 sg.*nɐ

In Waffa kin terms … /*n/ … Note suppletion in the terms for “older sister”:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
1 sg. 2/3 sg./pl./1 pl.
*n- n [< *n-n] n n
grandchild *n[ɐⁱ]-Nti ne:ndi ᵰe:ndi nɐⁱnti
mother's br. *nɐᵘ(-wɐ) nɐᵘ-ŋgo:-βɐ ᵰɐᵘ-βɐ nɐᵘ(-βɐ)
sister's child*nɐᵘNti nɐᵘndi ᵰɐᵘndi nɐᵘnti nɐᵘʔi [hk]
older sister *nɐjɑ:(-wɐ) ᵰɐjɑ:-βɐ nɐkɑ:-(βɐ)nɐsɑ:-ɸɐ
grandfather *nɑ:pu(-wɐ) nɑ:ku-βɐ ᵰɑ:ku-βɐ nɑ:ʔu-(βɐ)nɑ:k:u-ɸɐ
son's wife *nɑ:p₂utu nɑ:putu ᵰɑ:putu nɑ:ʔutu nɑ:k:uʔu
older sister *nɑ:Nno:(-wɐ)nɑ:no(:)-βɐ
mother *no:(-wɐ) no:-βɐ no-(βɐ) ɐ-no:-ɸɐ-

One example … /*n/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*n- tn n
kunai grass*nɐmusi tɐusinɐβuhi

One example … /*n/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*n- ø n
casuarina sp.*nɑ:ɾe:[Np]ɑ:ɐɾe:mbɑ:nɑ:ɾempɑ:

Initial bilabial stop /*p/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*p- k ʔ [ʔ ø] k [≈ -k:-]
co-wife *piᵄ[n/ɾ]i kie:- ʔiᵄɾi
head *piᵄtɐ kie:tɐ ʔiᵄtɐ ɐ-k:iᵄʔɐ
hook *pipo:[n/ɾ]ɐ ki:ko: ʔiʔoɾɐ
short *pipu kiku ʔiʔu
brain *piʔn[o:]nɐ pinɑ:ɾɐ
pith/quid *pit[ɐ/ɑ:] kitɐ ʔitɑ: ≈ itɐ
doorway *pe:Njɐ ke:ŋgʲɐ ʔe:nti ≈ ʔe:ntɐ
afraid *pe:tɐ- ʔete
go inside *pe:tɐ- ke:tɐ-
again *pɐⁱpɑ: kɐⁱkɑ: ʔɐⁱʔɑ:
sweat *pɐᵘsɐ kɐᵘsɐ
yam sp. *pɐNmiNnɐ kɐminɐ ʔɐminɐ
just/merely *pɐt₂i kɐti ʔɐʔi
younger brother*pɐtɐ kɐtɐ ʔɐtɐ kɐʔɐ [hk]
nettle sp. *pɐNtipɐ kɐndikɐ ʔɐtiʔɐ [k.]
burnt/charred *pɐɾɐ kɐɾɐ ʔɐɾɐ
raw/new *pɐɾɑ:j₂ɐ kɐɾɑ:sɐ ʔɐɾɑ:kɐ
kidney *pɐjɑ:… kɐjɑ:tɐ ʔɐkɑ:βɐ
tree sp. *pɐNj[o:]jɐ kɐŋgʲɐ ʔɐntokɐ
comb *pɑ:si ʔɑ:hi
wild *pɑ:jɐᵘ kɑ:jɐᵘ ʔɑ:kɐᵘ
earthworm *pɐʔjiᵄ… ʔɐhiᵄʔu kɐʔtiᵄɾu
cuscus sp. *po:tɐjɐ ko:tɐjɐ otɐkɐ
woman's bro. *po:ɾutɐ ko:ɾutɐ ʔoɾutɐ
notched post *puᵄʔmɐⁱ kuᵄmbɐⁱ ʔuᵄmpɐⁱ
banana sp. *puᵄɾisɑ:p₂ɐ kuᵄɾisɑ:pɐʔuᵄɾihɑ:ʔɐ
shoulder *pumu ʔuβu [k.] ɐ-k:umu
cough *pu[ʔn/Nt]u kundu: ʔuntu kuntu
true *put₂ɑ: kutɑ: ʔuʔɑ:
speech *puwɐ kuɐ uβɐ

In Waffa kin terms … /*p/ … the regular reflex of cluster /*Np/ (below) when formerly preceded by a dropped initial /*i/ (below):

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
1 sg. 2/3 sg./1 pl.2 pl.
*p- p k ŋgʲ [< *iN-p]ʔ k:
father*po:(-wɐ) nɐ-po:-βɐko:-βɐ ŋgʲo:-βɐ ʔo-(βɐ) ɐ-k:o:-ɸɐ-

… /*p/ … /*p₂/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*p₂- p ʔ k
penis *p₂ɐje: pe: ʔɐke:
pandanus sp. *p₂ɐjɑ:nɐ pɐjɑ:ᵰɐʔɐkɑ:ɾɐ
nose ornament*p₂o:ɾɑ: po:ɾɑ:
pig *p₂uᵄɾɐ puᵄɾɐ ʔuᵄɾɐ kuᵄɾɐ
initiate *p₂umɑ:ɾɑ: puɑ:ɾɑ:ʔuβɑ:ɾɑ:
die *p₂utu- put- ʔuti kuʔ-

… /*p/ … /*p₃/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*p₃- k k ʔ
embers/ashes*p₃ɐɾɐʔmɑ: kɐɾɐmbɑ:jɐkɐɾɐmpɑ:

… /*p/ … /*p₄/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*p₄- k p β
butterfly*p₄… keŋgenɑ:pempenɑ:ɾu
dirty *p₄ɐⁱNɑ:Nmɐ kɐⁱnɑ:mɐpɐⁱnɑ:mɐ

… /*p/ … /*p₅/ … It seems very likely that these are loans …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*p₅- p p β
bark skirt*p₅ɐʔjɑ:nɐ pɐjɑ:ᵰɐ pɐhɑ:ɾɐ
wet *p₅utɐ pu:tɐ putɐ
thumb *p₅o:Nnɐn[ɑ:]po:nɐnɑ:ponɐɾɐ
wall sp. *p₅o:ɾo:mɑ: poɾoβɑ:

…:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*… ø ʔ
bandicoot sp.*[p]iɾo:jɐ iɾo:jɐʔiɾokɐ

Initial apical stop /*t/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*t- t t ʔ [ʔ ø]
speak/say *ti- ti- ti ʔi-
forehead *tini tiᵰi tiɾi ʔini
headdress sp. *tiNtiɾɐ tindi:ɾɐ tintiɾɐ
stump of tree *tiNtunɐ tinduᵰɐ tintuɾɐ
dream *tɐⁱnɐ tɐⁱɾɐ
platform/shelf *tɐⁱʔnɐ tɐⁱnɐ tɐⁱntɐ ɐⁱntɐ
stillbirth *tɐⁱɾi tɐⁱɾi- tɐⁱɾi
forget *tɐᵘnu tɐᵘᵰ- tɐᵘɾu-
cook/burn *tɐ- tɐ-
stubborn *tɐmi tumi tɐᵯi-tu:- tɐβi tuβi
fruit/seed *tɐmɐ tɐβɐ
waist/middle *tɐmɑ:[n/ɾ]ɐ tɐᵯɑ: tɐβɑ:ɾɐ
firefly *tɐʔmu tɐmbu tɐmpumpu [k.]
fireplace *tɐp₂i tɐpi tɐʔi
bamboo *tɐp₂u tɐpu tɐʔu
P. raggiana *tɐpuᵄnɐ tɐkuᵄᵰɐ tɐβuᵄɾɐ
squeeze/wring *tɐti- tɐti- tɐti
sap *tɐtɐ tɐtɐ tɐtɐ
tree kangaroo *tɐwe:Nnɐnɐ tɐβenɐɾɐ
see *tɐwɐ- ta- tɐβe ʔɐɸ-
P. alberti *tɐɾi[n/ɾ]ɐ tɐɾiɾɐ tɐɾiɾɐ
nettle *tɐɾo:p₂ɐ tɐɾo:pɐ tɐɾoʔɐ
flea *tɐɾu tɐɾu tɐɾu ɐɾu
joint/node *tɑ: ɐ-tɑ: ɐ-tɑ:
mountain/ridge *tɑ:p₂i tɑ:pi tɑ:ʔi
bush garden *tɑ:nɑ: tɑ:ᵰɐ tɑ:ɾɑ:
ginger sp. *tɑ:tu tɑ:tu tɑ:tu
pandanus mat *tɑ:ɾi tɑ:ɾi tɑ:ɾi
two *tɑ:ɾɐ tɑ:ɾɐ- tɑ:ɾɐ ʔɑ:ɾɐ
spittle *tɑ:ɾɐ tɑ:ɾɐ tɑ:ɾɐ
betel pepper *tɑ:ɾut₂ɑ: tɐɾutɑ: tɑ:ɾuʔɑ:
casuarina sp. *tɑ:jɐ tɑ:jɐ tɑ:kɐ
hair net *to:m[e:]pɐ toᵯe:kɐ toβɐʔɐ
join/extend *to:Nmɐpɐ- to:mɐkɐ- tomɐʔe
cloud *to:Nnɐmu tonɐβu o:nɐmu
trading partner*to:Nti to:ndi tonti
striped pig *to:Ntɐⁱ to:ndɐⁱ tontɐⁱ
heat/hot *to:to:pɐ toto:kɐ totoʔe
knee *to:ɾi to:ɾi-βu toɾi ɐ-ʔo:ɾi
edge/boundary *to:jɑ: to:jɐ tokɑ:
liver *tumu ɐ-tu tuβu a-ʔumu [ac]
come down *tum[u] tumɐ tuβi
rat *tumunɐ tuβuɾɐ ʔumunɐ
poison vine sp.*tupɐ tukɐ tuʔɐ
turn *tupɐNj[ɑ:] tukɐŋgʲɐ- tuʔɐntɑ: uʔɐntɐ
disappear *tupɑ:jɐ tukɐ(i)- tuʔɑ:kɐ
house post *tunɐ tu:ᵰɐ tuɾɐ
poker stick *tunɑ:Nj[ɑ:] tuᵰɑ:ŋgʲɑ:tuɾɑ:ntɐ
headrest *tunu tuɾu
rattan sp. *tuNnɑ:nɐ tunɑ:ᵰɐ tunɑ:ɾɐ
fence *tutujɐ tutukɐ ʔuʔusɐ
top of tree *tuɾu tuɾu tuɾu

In a minority of examples, /*t/ is unexpectedly reflected as glottal stop /ʔ/ in Tairora, a change which characterizes not only Afaqina but also Kambaira immediately to the northeast. It's not clear whether these should be viewed as loans from these relatively poorly documented languages into Tairora, or as an affectation introduced by their speakers. This correspondence is shown as /*t₂/ since its historic identity with /*t/ is not in question:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*t₂- t ʔ [ʔ ø]ʔ [ʔ ø]
bark cloak*t₂ɐ[N]mu[N]nɐ ʔɐβunɐ ɐm:unɐ
torch *t₂o:mɐ to:mbɐoβɐ ʔo:mɐ
fence post*t₂o:sɑ: to:sɑ:ohɑ:

… /*t/ … /*t₃/ …:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*t₃- t t t
finish *t₃ɐⁱpɐ- tɐⁱkɐ- tɐⁱʔe tɐⁱk:ɐ-
spine *t₃ɐᵘwɐpɐ tɐᵘβɐʔɐ tɐᵘɸɐk:ɐ
grandmother*t₃ɑ:t₃o:(-wɐ)tɑ:to(:)-βɐtɑ:to-(βɐ)tɑ:t:o:-ɸɐ
root *t₃upɐ tu:kɐ tuʔɐ ɐ-tukɐ

… /*t/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*t- øt
leech*tumo:pɐ ᵯo:kɐtuβoʔɐ

… special case … /*t/ … when followed by nasal cluster /*Np/ is reflected as velar /k/ in all descendants:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*tVNp kVŋg kVŋk kVk:
flying fox *tɑ:Npɑ:nɐ kɑ:ŋgɑ:ɾɐkɑ:ŋkɑ:ɾɐkɑ:k:ɑ:nɐ
Job's tears*tuNpuɾɐ kuŋgu:ɾɐ kuŋkuɾɐ kuk:uɾɐ

Initial laminal /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/ in Vaantura, reflecting Proto-Tairora /*s/:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*s- s h [< *s]s
bowstring *siʔnɐ si:nɐ hintɐ
sorcery *sijɑ:pɐ sɑ:kɐ hikɑ:ʔɐ
fly (n.) *s[i/u]ʔmɐᵘ simbɐᵘ humpɐᵘ [k.]
magic sp. *se:p₅i se:pi hepi
nit(s) *se:pɐ se:kɐ he:ʔɐ
aimless *sɐʔmi sɐmbi hɐmpi
sew *sɐp₂iɾV- sɐpiɾɐ- hɐʔiɾi
chip/splinter*sɐNpɐ sɐŋgɐɾe: hɐŋkɐ
orchid sp. *sɐwɐɾijɐ sɐβɐɾi:jɐhɐβɐɾikɐ
tree sp. *sɐɾɐⁱ sɐɾɐⁱ hɐɾɐⁱ
shelter sp. *sɐɾɑ:nɐ sɐɾɑ:ᵰɐ hɐɾɑ:ɾɐ
parcel *sɑ:ʔmɐ sɑ:mbɐ hɑ:mpɐ
greens sp. *so:Nni so:ni
owl sp. *so:wiɾi so:βiɾi hoβiɾoɾoɾɐ
cool *suʔmɐ- su:mbɐ- humpe
smell/stink *suNtɐ su:ndɐ huntɐ
blackpalm/bow*suɾu suɾu huɾu

Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is occluded to [β] in Waffa and in Tairora, and fricated to [ɸ] in Binumarien in parallel with the reflexes of palatal /*j/ (below):

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*w- β β ɸ
get (person) *witɐ- βitɐ- βite
blood *wi[ʔt]ipɐ βiti:kɐ ɸiʔtik:ɐ
spit *wis[i/u]- βis(i)- βisi
frog sp. *wisɐᵘʔnɐ βisɐᵘnɐ βisɐᵘntɐ
face *wiɾi βiɾi βiɾi
adopt/care for*wiɾi- wiɾ(i)- wiɾi
indicative *-we: -βe: -βe -ɸe:
food packet *we:mu βeβu ɸe:mu
whirlwind *we:to:ɾɐ βe:to:ɾɐ βetoɾɐ
poverty *we:si βe:si βehi
shin *we:ʔjɐ βe:jɐ βehɐ ɸe:ʔtɐ
near *wɐⁱ βɐⁱ-ni βɐⁱ
tooth *wɐⁱ ɐ-βɐⁱ ɐ-βɐⁱ ɐ-ɸɐⁱ
lie down/sleep*wɐⁱ- βɐⁱ- βɐⁱ
man *wɐⁱ-iNti βɐⁱndi βɐⁱnti ɸɐⁱʔi
men's house *wɐⁱnɐ βɐⁱŋʲɐ βɐⁱɾɐ
lie down/sleep*wɐⁱtɐ- βɐⁱte ɸɐⁱʔɐ-
not *-wɐᵘ -ɸɐᵘ
patella *wɐᵘɾo:ɾɐ βɐᵘɾo: βɐᵘɾoɾɐ
strong wind *wɐᵘɾuɾu βɐᵘɾuɾu βɐᵘɾuɾu
widow *wɐte:pɐ βɐteʔɐ
fat/grease *wɐʔsɐme:nɐ βɐhɐβeɾɐ ɸɐʔtɐme:nɐ
lake/pool *wɐɾumɐ βɐɾuβɐ
star *wɐjɐᵘ mɐkɐᵘ ɸɐsɐᵘ
older brother *wɐjɑ:(-wɐ) βɐjɑ:-βɐ βɐkɑ:(-βɐ) ɐ-ɸɐsɑ:-ɸɐ
ghost *wɑ:Nnɐ βɑ:nɐ fana [ac]
husband *wɑ:ti βɑ:ti βɑ:ti ɸɑ:ʔi
nape *wɑ:we: βɑ:βe: βɑ:βe
older brother *wɑ:wo:(-wɐ) βɑ:βo-βɐ
fence/palisade*wɑ:Njɑ:munɐ βɐŋgʲɑ:muᵰɐβɑ:ntɑ:βuɾɐ
eye *wu ɐ-βu (ɐ)-βu ɐ-ɸu
go *wu- βi fu- [ac]
king parrot *wuᵄjɑ:ɾɐ βuᵄjɑ: βuᵄkɑ:ɾɐ
thigh *wuʔnɐnɐ (ɐ)-βunteɾɐfundona [ac]
cassowary *wuje:nɐ βukeɾɐ ɸuse:nɐ

… /*w/ … /*w₂/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*w₂- ɸβ ɸ
dog*w₂ɐⁱni ɸɐⁱ βɐⁱɾi ɸɐⁱni
dew*w₂ɐɾɐ[m/w]u ɸɐɾɐuβɐɾɐβu

Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ does not occur initially.

Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is occluded to velar stop /k/ in Vaantura, reflecting Proto-Tairora /*j/, and fricated to laminal /s/ in Afaqina:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*j- j k [< *j] s [s ts]
not *jiᵄ kiᵄ siᵄ
pandanus sp. *jɐⁱmu jɐⁱᵯu kɐⁱβu
smoking rack *jɐⁱ[s]e:[n/ɾ]ɐ jɐⁱhe:ɾɐ kɐⁱhe:ɾɐ
birth feast *jɐⁱsɐ jɐⁱsɐ kɐⁱhɐ
cowrie shell sp.*jɐᵘ jɐᵘ kɐᵘ
limbless tree *jɐᵘpɐ jɐᵘkɐ- kɐᵘʔɐ
hand *jɐᵘpu jɑ:ku kɐᵘʔu ɐ-sɐᵘk:u
digging stick *jɐᵘnu jɐᵘ kɐᵘɾu
hair/feather *jɐᵘsi jɑ:si: ≈ jɐᵘsi kɐᵘhi ≈ kɑ:hisɐᵘsi
snake *jɐp₂ɐni jɐpɐi sɐk:ɐni
tree *jɐtɐɾi jɐtɐɾi ≈ jɐtiɾikɐtɐɾi sɐʔɐɾi
fallow *jɐNtu jɐndu kɐntu
bush/mountain *jɐwɐjɐ jɐβɐjɐ kɐβɐkɐ
tree kangaroo *jɐwɑ:si jɐβɑ:sɐ kɐβɑ:hi
sugarcane *jɑ:pi jɑ:ki kɑ:ʔɐ sɑ:k:ɐ
branch *jɑ:nɐ kɑ:ɾɐ
tree sp. *jɑ:no:nɐ jɑ:ᵰo:ᵰɐ kɑ:ɾoɾɐ
rope/string *j[ɑ:]ʔnɐ je:nɐ kɑ:ntɐ
elbow *jɑ:Ntɑ: jɐndɑ: kɑ:ntɑ: sɑ:t:ɑ:
centipede *j[ɑ:][s]ɑ:[n/ɾ]ɐjɐhɑ:ɾɐ kɑ:hɑ:ɾɐ
crest *jɑ:wɐ jɑ:βɐ kɑ:βɐ
bark sp. *j[ɑ:]wɐ[nɐ] jɐβɐ
count *jɑ:ɾ[ɐ]- jɑ:ɾ- kɑ:ɾɐ
rolling string *jɑ:jɐ[m/w]u jɑ:jɐu kɑ:kɐβu
woman's bro. *jo:pi(-wɐ) koʔi-(βɐ)
good *jo:pe: joketɐ- koʔe
payment/price *jo:pɑ: jo:kɐ- koʔɑ:
brideprice *jo:tɐ jo:tɐ kotɐ
swell *jo:tɐ- jo:tɐ-
tree sp. *jo:Njɑ:… jo:ŋgʲauɾɐ kontɑ:βuɾɐ
seed *jumu kuβu ɐ-sumu
python sp. *juNnɐ ju:nɐ kunɐ

In Waffa kin terms … /*j/ … the regular reflex of cluster /*Nj/ (below):

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
1 sg. 2/3 sg./3 pl.
*j- ŋgʲ [< *n-j]j k s
mother's sib*jɑ:jo:(-wɐ) ŋgʲɑ:jo-βɐ jɑ:jo kɑ:ko

… /*j/ … /*j₂/ … :

East KainantuWaffaVaantura Afaqina
*j₂- sk [< *j]s
sun*j₂uᵄni suᵄi kuᵄɾi suᵄni

… /*j/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*… j ø
tree sp./salt*[j]o:ɾo:pu joɾokuoɾoʔu

In addition to these, there are several correspondences which cannot be traced back to proto-Eastern Highlands. They have so far been identified only initially, but that does not preclude them from having occurred medially, though it is doubtful that they would been affected by or support the medial cluster rules which govern native words.

… /*h/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*h- hø ø
*…

…:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*…
*…

…:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*…
*…

Intervocalic bilabial nasal /*m/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-m- β m
over/along *-mɐᵘ -βɐᵘ -mɐᵘ
cassowary quill*e:ɾimɐ e:ɾiᵯɐ eɾiβɐ
underneath *ɐme:mɑ:nɐ ᵯe:mɑ: βeβɑ:ɾɐ ɐme:mɑ:nɐ
husk/peel *upɐmɑ:si kʷɐᵯɑ:si ʔɐβɐhi
maggot *mimi ᵯiᵯi
wall sp. *p₅o:ɾo:mɑ: poɾoβɑ:
enemy *nɐmutɑ:(-wɐ)ᵰɐᵯutʷɑ: nɐβutɑ:-(βɐ)
headband sp. *nɑ:mu ᵰɑ:ᵯu nɑ:βu
yam sp. *no:mɐ[n/ɾ]i ᵰo:ᵯɐɾi noβɐɾi
stubborn *tɐmi tumi tɐᵯi-tu:-tɐβi tuβi
fruit/seed *tɐmɐ tɐβɐ
waist/middle *tɐmɑ:[n/ɾ]ɐ tɐᵯɑ: tɐβɑ:ɾɐ
rat *tumunɐ tuβuɾɐ ʔumunɐ
fat/grease *wɐʔsɐme:nɐ βɐhɐβeɾɐ ɸɐʔtɐme:nɐ
pandanus sp. *jɐⁱmu jɐⁱᵯu kɐⁱβu

… /*m/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaantura Afaqina
*-m- m
stone file*inumi ŋʲuᵯinumi [k.]
louse *numɐ ᵰuᵯʷɐnumɐ

… /*m/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-m-/ɐ_u ø β m
kunai grass*nɐmusi tɐusi nɐβuhi
*-m-/ɑ:_ɐᵯ ø
bird *inɑ:mɐ ŋʲɑ:ᵯɐ ≈ ŋʲɑ:
*-m-/ɑ:_uø β m
daughter *iɾɑ:-munɐ ɾɐuɾɐ ɾɑ:βuɾɐ ɾɑ:munɐ
cave *o:Nn[ɑ:]mu o:nɐu onɐβu
house *nɑ:mu ᵰɐu nɑ:βu
*-m-/u_i ø β
stubborn *tɐmi tumi tɐᵯi-tu:- tɐβi tuβi
*-m-/u_ɑ:ø β
initiate *p₂umɑ:ɾɑ: puɑ:ɾɑ: ʔuβɑ:ɾɑ:
*-m-/u_u ø β m
liver *tumu ɐ-tu tuβu a-ʔumu [ac]

…:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*-m-/ɑ:_uø m
women's house*inɑ:muni ŋʲɐuᵰinɑ:muɾɐ

Intervocalic apical nasal /*n/ …:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-n- ɾ [< *n] n
women's house *inɑ:muni ŋʲɐuᵰi nɑ:muɾɐ
thunder *inɑ:ɾunɐ ŋʲɑ:ɾuᵰɐ nɑ:ɾuɾɐ
afternoon *[h]e:nɐⁱni haᵰɐⁱ- eɾɐⁱɾikɐ
grass sp. *e:w[ɐ]ni eβe:ᵰi eβɐɾi
song sp. *ɐⁱjo:nɐ ɐⁱjo:ᵰɐ ɐⁱkoɾɐ
path/road *ɑ:ni ɑ:ɾɐ ɑ:nɐ
tusk *ɑ:nɐⁱ ɑ:ᵰɐⁱ ɑ:ɾɐⁱ
dry *ɑ:ʔsɐnɐ ɑ:sɐᵰɐ ɐhɐɾɐ ≈ ɑ:hɐɾɐɑ:ʔtɐnɐ
call/shout *ɑ:jɐnɐ ɑ:jɐᵰɐ ɑ:kɐɾɐ
stone *o:ni oɾi o:ni
orchid sp. *o:te:nɐ ote:ᵰɐ oteɾɐ
younger sister *unɐ (ᵰ)-uᵰɐ ɐ-uɾɐ unɐ
tendon/vein *[u]nu[N]n[ɐ/u]ᵰ-iᵰu:nɐ ɐ-uɾuɾɐ
moon *[u]to:nɐ toɾɐ uʔo:nɐ
bird *uwini uβiɾi uɸini
ancestors *mɐnip[ɑ:] ᵯɐᵰikɑ: βɐɾiʔɐ
shadow/soul *mɐnɐ ᵯɐᵰɐ βɐɾɐ
girl *mɐnɑ:tɐ ᵯɐᵰɑ:tɐ βɐɾɑ:tɐ mɐnɑ:ʔɐ
law/instruction*m₂ɑ:nɐ ᵯɑ:ᵰɐ mɑ:ɾɐ
chin *m₂ɑ:tini mɑ:tiɾi mɑ:ʔini
day after tom. *m₂o:nɐ βo:ᵰɐ moɾɐ mo:nɐ
mushroom sp. *[N]muʔjɑ:ni ᵯujɑ:ᵰi muhɑ:ɾi
grub sp. *Nmɐni mɐᵰi mɐɾi
pandanus sp. *p₂ɐjɑ:nɐ pɐjɑ:ᵰɐ ʔɐkɑ:ɾɐ
laugh/smile *nɑ:nɐⁱ nɐɾɐⁱ-hi nɑ:nɐⁱ-ʔtɐɾɐ
stump of tree *tiNtunɐ tinduᵰɐ tintuɾɐ
forget *tɐᵘnu- tɐᵘᵰ- tɐᵘɾu-
P. raggiana *tɐpuᵄnɐ tɐkuᵄᵰɐ tɐβuᵄɾɐ
bush garden *tɑ:nɑ: tɑ:ᵰɐ tɑ:ɾɑ:
rat *tumunɐ tuβuɾɐ ʔumunɐ
house post *tunɐ tu:ᵰɐ tuɾɐ
poker stick *tunɑ:Nj[ɑ:] tuᵰɑ:ŋgʲɑ: tuɾɑ:ntɐ
headrest *tunu tuɾu
rattan sp. *tuNnɑ:nɐ tunɑ:ᵰɐ tunɑ:ɾɐ
shelter sp. *sɐɾɑ:nɐ sɐɾɑ:ᵰɐ hɐɾɑ:ɾɐ
fat/grease *wɐʔsɐme:nɐ βɐhɐβeɾɐ ɸɐʔtɐme:nɐ
fence/palisade *wɑ:Njɑ:munɐ βɐŋgʲɑ:muᵰɐβɑ:ntɑ:βuɾɐ
shell nosepiece*jɐᵘʔnɐnɐ jɐᵘnɐᵰɐ kɐᵘntɐɾɐ
branch *jɑ:nɐ kɑ:ɾɐ
tree sp. *jɑ:no:nɐ jɑ:ᵰo:ᵰɐ kɑ:ɾoɾɐ

… /*n/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-n-/#i_ ŋʲ n [< *nʲ]n
far *iniᵄnɐ ŋʲe:ᵰɐ ≈ ŋʲe:ɾɐniᵄɾɐ
bird *inɑ:mɐ ŋʲɑ:ᵯɐ ≈ ŋʲɑ:
women's house*inɑ:muni ŋʲɐuᵰi nɑ:muɾɐ
old man *inɑ:ʔmɐⁱ ŋʲɑ:mbɐⁱ nɑ:mpɐⁱ
sky *inɑ:ɾu[m/w]Vŋʲɐu nɑ:ɾuβɐ inaru [ac]
thunder *inɑ:ɾunɐ ŋʲɑ:ɾuᵰɐ nɑ:ɾuɾɐ
stone file *inumi ŋʲuᵯi numi [k.]

… /*n/ …:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-n-/i ɐⁱ_ŋʲɾ [< *nʲ]
ask/ask for*in[ɑ:]- ŋʲɑ:- iɾe
dream *tɐⁱnɐ tɐⁱɾɐ
men's house*wɐⁱnɐ βɐⁱŋʲɐβɐⁱɾɐ

… /*n/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-n- ᵰ ɾ ɾ [< *n]n
far *iniᵄnɐ ŋʲe:ᵰɐ ≈ ŋʲe:ɾɐ niᵄɾɐ
daughter *iɾɑ:-munɐ ɾɐuɾɐ ɾɑ:βuɾɐ ɾɑ:munɐ
leaves sp.*Nmɐᵘnɐ mɐᵘɾɐ mɐᵘɾɐ
brain *piʔn[o:]nɐ pinɑ:ɾɐ
≈ pinɑ:ᵰɐ
water *no:ni ᵰo:ɾi noɾɐ
flying fox*tɑ:Npɑ:nɐ kɑ:ŋgɑ:ɾɐ kɑ:ŋkɑ:ɾɐ kɑ:k:ɑ:nɐ

… /*n/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-n- ø ɾ [< *n]n
underneath *ɐme:mɑ:nɐ ᵯe:mɑ:βeβɑ:ɾɐ ɐme:mɑ:nɐ
bone *muʔjɑ:ni ᵯujɐi βuhɑ:ɾi muʔtɑ:ni
dog *w₂ɐⁱni ɸɐⁱ βɐⁱɾi ɸɐⁱni
stone axe/adze*[hʲ]ɐni hɐi kɐɾi sɐni
digging stick *jɐᵘnu jɐᵘ kɐᵘɾu
snake *jɐp₂ɐni jɐpɐi sɐk:ɐni
sun *j₂uᵄni suᵄi kuᵄɾi suᵄni

Intervocalic bilabial stop /*p/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-p- k ʔ k:
in *-pi -ki- -ʔi -k:i-
only *-pɐⁱ -ʔɐⁱ -k:ɐⁱ
calf *imɑ:pu ᵰ-iᵯɑ:kuɐ-iβɑ:ʔu
nose *ipi ᵰ-iki ɐ-iʔi ɐ-ik:i
weeping/crying *ipi iʔi
foot/leg *ipu juku ɐ-iʔu ik:u
white cockatoo *e:pɐɾɐ e:kɐɾɐ eʔɐɾɐ e:k:ɐɾɐ
rain *ɑ:pu ɑ:ʔu ɑ:k:u
needle *upɐ uʔɐ
husk/peel *upɐmɑ:si kʷɐᵯɑ:siʔɐβɐhi
tongue *m₂ɑ:piɾi ᵯɑ:kiɾi mɑ:ʔiɾi ɐ-mɑ:k:iɾi
place *m₂ɑ:pɐ mɑ:ʔɐ
back *m₂o:pɐ- ᵯo:kɐ- moʔɐ
hole *[N]mɐⁱpɐ mɐⁱʔɐ
narrow space *Nmuᵄpe: muᵄke: muᵄʔe
hook *pipo:[n/ɾ]ɐ ki:ko: ʔiʔoɾɐ
short *pipu kiku ʔiʔu
again *pɐⁱpɑ: kɐⁱkɑ: ʔɐⁱʔɑ:
nettle sp. *pɐNtipɐ kɐndikɐ ʔɐtiʔɐ [k.]
grandfather *nɑ:pu(-wɐ) ᵰɑ:ku-βɐnɑ:ʔu-(βɐ) nɑ:k:u-ɸɐ
vine/rope *nɑ:puʔnɐ nɑ:ʔuntɐ nɑ:k:untɐ
tuber *nɑ:tupɐ ᵰɑ:tukɐ nɑ:tuʔɐ
sand *nupɐ ᵰukɐ nuʔɐ
finish *t₃ɐⁱpɐ- tɐⁱkɐ- tɐⁱʔe tɐⁱk:ɐ-
spine *t₃ɐᵘwɐpɐ tɐᵘβɐʔɐ tɐᵘɸɐk:ɐ
hair net *to:m[e:]pɐ toᵯe:kɐ toβɐʔɐ
join/extend *to:Nmɐpɐ- to:mɐkɐ-tomɐʔe
heat/hot *to:to:pɐ toto:kɐ totoʔe
leech *tumo:pɐ ᵯo:kɐ tuβoʔɐ
root *t₃upɐ tu:kɐ tuʔɐ ɐ-t:uk:ɐ
poison vine sp.*tupɐ tukɐ tuʔɐ
disappear *tupɑ:jɐ tukɐ(i)-tuʔɑ:kɐ
sorcery *sijɑ:pɐ sɑ:kɐ hikɑ:ʔɐ
nit(s) *se:pɐ se:kɐ he:ʔɐ
limbless tree *jɐᵘpɐ jɐᵘkɐ- kɐᵘʔɐ
hand *jɐᵘpu jɑ:ku kɐᵘʔu ɐ-sɐᵘk:u
sugarcane *jɑ:pi jɑ:ki kɑ:ʔɐ sɑ:k:ɐ
woman's bro. *jo:pi(-wɐ) koʔi-(βɐ)
good *jo:pe: joketɐ- koʔe
payment/price *jo:pɑ: jo:kɐ- koʔɑ:

In one example …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*-p- k ʔ ʔ
turn*tupɐNj[ɑ:] tukɐŋgʲɐ-tuʔɐntɑ:uʔɐntɐ

… /*p/ … /*p₂/ …:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-p₂- p ʔ k:
son-in-law *iɾɑ:-m[ɑ:]p₂uiɾɑ:-pu iɾɑ:-mɐʔu iɾɑ:-mɐk:u
handle *ɐp₂u ɐpu ɐʔu
ripe *ɐp₂u ɐpu- ɐʔu
white clay *ɑ:p₂ɐtɐⁱ ɑ:pɐtɐⁱ ɑ:ʔɐtɐⁱ
son *m₂ɑ:p₂u ᵯɑ:pu mɑ:ʔu mɑ:k:u
banana sp. *puᵄɾisɑ:p₂ɐ kuᵄɾisɑ:pɐʔuᵄɾihɑ:ʔɐ
son's wife *nɑ:p₂utu ᵰɑ:putu nɑ:ʔutu nɑ:k:uʔu
fireplace *tɐp₂i tɐpi tɐʔi
bamboo *tɐp₂u tɐpu tɐʔu
nettle *tɐɾo:p₂ɐ tɐɾo:pɐ tɐɾoʔɐ
mountain/ridge*tɑ:p₂i tɑ:pi tɑ:ʔi
sew *sɐp₂iɾV- sɐpiɾɐ- hɐʔiɾi
widow *wɐte:pɐ βɐteʔɐ
snake *jɐp₂ɐni jɐpɐi sɐk:ɐni

… /*p/ … /*p₅/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*-p₅- pp
magic sp.*se:p₅i se:pihepi

Intervocalic apical stop /*t/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-t- t t ʔ
dual *-tɐʔnɐ -tɐnɐ -tɐntɐ -ʔɐntɐ
s.'s husband *ituᵄ(-wɐ) (ᵰ)-ituo:-βɐ ɐ-ituᵄ(-βɐ) iʔuᵄ(-ɸɐ) [hk]
woven band *ijo:tɐ kotɐ
banana *e:tɐ etɐ e:ʔɐ
white clay *ɑ:p₂ɐtɐⁱ ɑ:pɐtɐⁱ ɑ:ʔɐtɐⁱ
surpass *ɑ:tɐɾɐ- j-ɑ:tɐɾɐ- ɑ:tɐɾe
ear *ɑ:to: ɑ:to ɑ:ʔo:
fear *ɑ:tu ɑ:tu:- ɑ:tu
orchid sp. *o:te:nɐ ote:ᵰɐ oteɾɐ
(going) down *o:t[u] oto otu
netbag *utɐ utʷɐ utɐ uʔɐ
moon *[u]to:nɐ toɾɐ uʔo:nɐ
name *utu ᵰ-utu (ɐ)-utu ɐ-uʔu
hold *utu- ut- uti
plant (v.) *utu- ut- uti
real/true *utɐNnɐɾɐ tʷɐnɐɐ tɐnɐɾɐ uʔɐn:ɐ
edge/end *miti ᵯiti βiti
girl *mɐnɑ:tɐ ᵯɐᵰɑ:tɐ βɐɾɑ:tɐ mɐnɑ:ʔɐ
meat/flesh *m₂ɐti ᵯɐti mɐti ɐ-mɐʔi
earth/ground *mɐtɐ ᵯɐtɐ βɐtɐ mɐʔɐ
put down *mɐtɐ- ᵯɐtɐ- βɐte
bird arrow *mɐto:ɾu ᵯɐtoɾu
earthquake *mɐtuɾɐ βɐtuɾɐ
village *mɐtujɐ ᵯɐtu:jɐ βɐtukɐ maʔusa [ac]
chin *m₂ɑ:tini mɑ:tiɾi mɑ:ʔini
mat/house *m₂ɑ:tɐ ᵯɑ:tɐ mɑ:tɐ mɑ:ʔɐ
old garden *muti ᵯuti muti
now/today *[N]mɐte: mɐte: βɐte mɐʔe:
sister-in-law *Nmɑ:ti(-wɐ) mɑ:ti-βɐ mɑ:ti-(βɐ) mɑ:ʔi-ɸɐ
head *piᵄtɐ kie:tɐ ʔiᵄtɐ ɐ-kiᵄʔɐ
pith/quid *pit[ɐ/ɑ:] kitɐ ʔitɑ: ≈ itɐ
afraid *pe:tɐ- ʔete
go inside *pe:tɐ- ke:tɐ-
younger brother*pɐtɐ kɐtɐ ʔɐtɐ kɐʔɐ [hk]
cuscus sp. *po:tɐjɐ ko:tɐjɐ otɐkɐ
woman's bro. *po:ɾutɐ ko:ɾutɐ ʔoɾutɐ
wet *p₅utɐ pu:tɐ putɐ
die *p₂utu- put- ʔuti kuʔ-
enemy *nɐmutɑ:(-wɐ)ᵰɐᵯutʷɑ: nɐβutɑ:-(βɐ)
son's wife *nɑ:p₂utu ᵰɑ:putu nɑ:ʔutu nɑ:k:uʔu
baby *nɑ:ti nɑ:ti nɑ:ʔi
wife *nɑ:tɐ ᵰɑ:tɐ nɑ:tɐ nɑ:ʔɐ
tuber *nɑ:tupɐ ᵰɑ:tukɐ nɑ:tuʔɐ
squeeze/wring *tɐti- tɐti- tɐti
sap *tɐtɐ tɐtɐ tɐtɐ
ginger sp. *tɑ:tu tɑ:tu tɑ:tu
fence *tutujɐ tutukɐ ʔuʔusɐ
get (person) *witɐ- βitɐ- βite
whirlwind *we:to:ɾɐ βe:to:ɾɐ βetoɾɐ
lie down/sleep *wɐⁱtɐ- βɐⁱ- βɐⁱte ɸɐⁱʔɐ-
widow *wɐte:pɐ βɐteʔɐ
and/also *-wɐtɐ -βɐtɐ -ɸɐʔɐ-
husband *wɑ:ti βɑ:ti βɑ:ti ɸɑ:ʔi
tree *jɐtɐɾi jɐtɐɾi ≈ jɐtiɾikɐtɐɾi sɐʔɐɾi
brideprice *jo:tɐ jo:tɐ kotɐ
swell *jo:tɐ- jo:tɐ-

… /*t/ … /*t₂/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*-t₂- t ʔ ʔ
kiss *mo:t₂ɐ- ᵯo:tɐ- moʔe
just/merely *pɐt₂i kɐti ʔɐʔi
true *put₂ɑ: kutɑ: ʔuʔɑ:
betel pepper*tɑ:ɾut₂ɑ: tɐɾutɑ:tɑ:ɾuʔɑ:

… /*t/ … /*t₃/ …:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-t₃- t t t
tail of bird*ɐɾɐt₃iɾɐ ɾɐtiɾɐ ɐɾɐt:iɾɐ
grandmother *t₃ɑ:t₃o:(-wɐ)tɑ:to(:)-βɐtɑ:to-(βɐ)tɑ:t:o:-ɸɐ

Intervocalic laminal /*s/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-s- s h [< *s] s
ginger sp. *isɑ:ji isɐi hɑ:kɐ
areca nut *isu isu ihu
plug of leaves*e:sɐ[Nw]u e:sɐŋu ehɐmpu
belly *[ɐᵘ/u]sɐ ɐusɐ ɐuhɐ
husk/peel *upɐmɑ:si kʷɐᵯɑ:si ʔɐβɐhi
shadow/soul *mɐnɐsɐ ᵯɐᵰɐsɐ βɐɾɐhɐ [k.]
coconut *Nmɑ:su mu:sɐ (?) mɑ:hu
sweat *pɐᵘsɐ kɐᵘsɐ
comb *pɑ:si ʔɑ:hi
white magic *puᵄsɐ kuᵄsɐ ʔuᵄhɐ
banana sp. *puᵄɾisɑ:p₂ɐ kuᵄɾisɑ:pɐ ʔuᵄɾihɑ:ʔɐ
old *nisi ᵰisi: nihi
cicada *n[ɐᵘ]si ᵰo:si nɐᵘhi
kunai grass *nɐmusi tɐusi nɐβuhi
fence post *t₂o:sɑ: to:sɑ: ohɑ:
spit *wis[i/u]- βis(i)- βisi
frog sp. *wisɐᵘʔnɐ βisɐᵘnɐ βisɐᵘntɐ
poverty *we:si βe:si βehi
birth feast *jɐⁱsɐ jɐⁱsɐ kɐⁱhɐ
hair/feather *jɐᵘsi jɑ:si: ≈ jɐᵘsikɐᵘhi ≈ kɑ:hisɐᵘsi
tree kangaroo *jɐwɑ:si jɐβɑ:sɐ kɐβɑ:hi

Intervocalic bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-w- β β ɸ
singular *-wɐ -βɐ -βɐ -ɸɐ
singular *-wɐNno: -βɐno -ɸɐn:o:
and/also *-wɐtɐ -βɐtɐ -ɸɐʔɐ-
eel *iwɑ:ɾi iβɑ:ɾi
grass sp. *e:w[ɐ]ni eβe:ᵰi eβɐɾi
yam sp. *o:wɐ o:βɐ oβɐ
thorn/barb *uwi o:βi ɐ-uβi
bird *uwini uβiɾi uɸini
spine *t₃ɐᵘwɐpɐ tɐᵘβɐʔɐ tɐᵘɸɐk:ɐ
tree kangaroo*tɐwe:Nnɐnɐ tɐβenɐɾɐ
see *tɐwɐ- ta- (?) tɐβe ʔɐɸ-
orchid sp. *sɐwɐɾijɐ sɐβɐɾi:jɐhɐβɐɾikɐ
owl sp. *so:wiɾi so:βiɾi hoβiɾoɾoɾɐ
nape *wɑ:we: βɑ:βe: βɑ:βe
older brother*wɑ:wo:(-wɐ) βɑ:βo-βɐ
bush/mountain*jɐwɐjɐ jɐβɐjɐ kɐβɐkɐ
tree kangaroo*jɐwɑ:si jɐβɑ:sɐ kɐβɑ:hi
crest *jɑ:wɐ jɑ:βɐ kɑ:βɐ
bark sp. *j[ɑ:]wɐ[nɐ] jɐβɐ

… /*w/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*-w-/_u øβ β
*…
*-w-/u_ øβ β
wind *uwɐⁱ uβɐⁱ uɸɐⁱ
speech*puwɐ kuɐ uβɐ

Intervocalic apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-ɾ- ɾ ɾ ɾ
in valley *-ɾuNnɐ -ɾunɐ -ɾun:ɐ
sky *inɑ:ɾu[m/w]V ŋʲɐu nɑ:ɾuβɐ inaru [ac]
thunder *inɑ:ɾunɐ ŋʲɑ:ɾuᵰɐ nɑ:ɾuɾɐ
eel *iwɑ:ɾi iβɑ:ɾi
bridge *iɾi iɾi iɾi
bear fruit *iɾɐ- iɾe
wife's parents *iɾɑ: -iɾɑ:- -iɾɑ:- -iɾɑ:-
white cockatoo *e:pɐɾɐ e:kɐɾɐ eʔɐɾɐ e:k:ɐɾɐ
cassowary quill*e:ɾimɐ e:ɾiᵯɐ eɾiβɐ
pinkie *e:ɾɐ(-Nnɐ[n/ɾ]ɐ)e:ɾɐ-(nɐ) eɾɐ-nɐɾɐ
slime of eel *ɐɾiɾi ɾiɾi ɾiɾi
edge/end *ɐɾɐⁱ ɐɾɐⁱ
tail of bird *ɐɾɐt₃iɾɐ ɾɐtiɾɐ ɐɾɐt:iɾɐ
hit *ɐɾu- ɾi- ≈ ɾu- ɐɾi aɾu-
surpass *ɑ:tɐɾɐ- j-ɑ:tɐɾɐ- ɑ:tɐɾe
“hmm…” *ɑ:ɾi ɑ:ɾi ɑ:ɾi
call/call out *ɑ:ɾɐ- ɑ:ɾe a:ɾa [ac]
point *ɑ:ɾu ɑ:ɾu
(going) down *o:ɾ[u] oɾo oɾu
heavy *umɑ:ɾɐ ᵯʷɑ:ɾɐ mɑ:ɾɐ ʔumɑ:ɾɐ
echidna sp. *umɑ:ɾu[m/w]u ᵯʷɑ:ɾu mɑ:ɾuβu
theft/adultery *umuᵄɾɐ ᵯuᵄɾɐ muᵄɾɐ
chest *m₂iNmiɾɐ mimiɾɐ
bird arrow *mɐto:ɾu ᵯɐtoɾu
be *mɐɾi- βɐɾ(i)- βɐɾi mɐɾi
take/get *mɐɾɐ- βɐɾɐ- βɐɾe mɐɾe
tongue *m₂ɑ:piɾi ᵯɑ:kiɾi mɑ:ʔiɾi ɐ-mɑ:k:iɾi
ambush/trap *mɑ:ɾɐ ᵯɑ:ɾɐ βɑ:ɾɐ
wart/mole *muɾi ᵯiɾi βuɾi muɾi
bandicoot sp. *[p]iɾo:jɐ iɾo:jɐ ʔiɾokɐ
embers/ashes *p₃ɐɾɐʔmɑ: kɐɾɐmbɑ:jɐ kɐɾɐmpɑ:
raw/new *pɐɾɑ:j₂ɐ kɐɾɑ:sɐ ʔɐɾɑ:kɐ
nose ornament *p₂o:ɾɑ: po:ɾɑ:
wall sp. *p₅o:ɾo:mɑ: poɾoβɑ:
woman's bro. *po:ɾutɐ ko:ɾutɐ ʔoɾutɐ
initiate *p₂umɑ:ɾɑ: puɑ:ɾɑ: ʔuβɑ:ɾɑ:
banana sp. *puᵄɾisɑ:p₂ɐ kuᵄɾisɑ:pɐ ʔuᵄɾihɑ:ʔɐ
pig *p₂uᵄɾɐ puᵄɾɐ ʔuᵄɾɐ kuᵄɾɐ
grease/water *nɐ[N]mɐɾi ᵰɐᵯɐɾi nɐmɐɾi nɐm:ɐɾi
blood/red *nɑ:ɾe: nɑ:ɾe
casuarina sp. *nɑ:ɾe:[Np]ɑ: ɐɾe:mbɑ: nɑ:ɾempɑ:
long ago/old *nɑ:ɾu ᵰɑ:ɾu nɑ:ɾu nɑ:ɾu
tree sp. *Nno:ɾi no:ɾi noɾi
headdress sp. *tiNtiɾɐ tindi:ɾɐ tintiɾɐ
stillbirth *tɐⁱɾi tɐⁱɾi- tɐⁱɾi
P. alberti *tɐɾi[n/ɾ]ɐ tɐɾiɾɐ tɐɾiɾɐ
nettle *tɐɾo:p₂ɐ tɐɾo:pɐ tɐɾoʔɐ
flea *tɐɾu tɐɾu tɐɾu ɐɾu
pandanus mat *tɑ:ɾi tɑ:ɾi tɑ:ɾi
two *tɑ:ɾɐ tɑ:ɾɐ- tɑ:ɾɐ ʔɑ:ɾɐ
spittle *tɑ:ɾɐ tɑ:ɾɐ tɑ:ɾɐ
betel pepper *tɑ:ɾut₂ɑ: tɐɾutɑ: tɑ:ɾuʔɑ:
knee *to:ɾi to:ɾi-βu toɾi ɐ-ʔo:ɾi
Job's tears *tuNpuɾɐ kuŋgu:ɾɐ kuŋkuɾɐ kuk:uɾɐ
top of tree *tuɾu tuɾu tuɾu
hang up *[s/h]iɾi- hiɾi- hiɾi
sew *sɐp₂iɾV- sɐpiɾɐ- hɐʔiɾi
tree sp. *sɐɾɐⁱ sɐɾɐⁱ hɐɾɐⁱ
shelter sp. *sɐɾɑ:nɐ sɐɾɑ:ᵰɐ hɐɾɑ:ɾɐ
orchid sp. *sɐwɐɾijɐ sɐβɐɾi:jɐ hɐβɐɾikɐ
owl sp. *so:wiɾi so:βiɾi hoβiɾoɾoɾɐ
blackpalm/bow *suɾu suɾu huɾu
face *wiɾi βiɾi βiɾi
adopt/care for *wiɾi- wiɾ(i)- wiɾi
whirlwind *we:to:ɾɐ βe:to:ɾɐ βetoɾɐ
patella *wɐᵘɾo:ɾɐ βɐᵘɾo: βɐᵘɾoɾɐ
strong wind *wɐᵘɾuɾu βɐᵘɾuɾu βɐᵘɾuɾu
dew *w₂ɐɾɐ[m/w]u ɸɐɾɐu βɐɾɐβu
lake/pool *wɐɾumɐ βɐɾuβɐ
king parrot *wuᵄjɑ:ɾɐ βuᵄjɑ: βuᵄkɑ:ɾɐ
legend/story *[w]uɾi uɾi βuɾi
tree *jɐtɐɾi jɐtɐɾi ≈ jɐtiɾikɐtɐɾi sɐʔɐɾi
count *jɑ:ɾ[ɐ]- jɑ:ɾ- kɑ:ɾɐ
because *-jɑ:ɾɐ -kɑ:ɾɐ -sɑ:ɾɐ
tree sp./salt *[j]o:ɾo:pu joɾoku oɾoʔu

… /*ɾ/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*-ɾ- øɾ ɾ
*…

Intervocalic palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-j- j k [< *j]s
at/place *-jɐNtɐ -kɐntɐ -sɐʔɐ
on *-jɑ: -jɑ: -kɑ: -sɑ:
because *-jɑ:ɾɐ -kɑ:ɾɐ -sɑ:ɾɐ
ginger sp. *isɑ:ji isɐi hɑ:kɐ
plural *-[i]jɐ -ijɐ- -kɐ -sɐ
sweet *iʔjiᵄj[ɑ:] kie:jɐ- hiᵄkɑ:
all *e:jɑ: e:jɑ: ekɑ:
song sp. *ɐⁱjo:nɐ ɐⁱjo:ᵰɐ ɐⁱkoɾɐ
woman *ɐnɑ:je: ᵰɑ:je: nɑ:ke: ɐnɑ:se:
old woman *ɐjo:[ʔn/Nt]ɐjo:nɐ kontɐ ɐso:ʔɐ
call/shout *ɑ:jɐnɐ ɑ:jɐᵰɐ ɑ:kɐɾɐ
stem/clan *o:jɐni ojɐi okɐɾɐ o:sɐnɐ
wood grub *uNpɐjɐ ŋgʷɐjɐ uŋkɐkɐ uk:ɐsi
tail *me:jɐ ᵯe:jɐ βekɐ ɐ-me:sɐ
possum sp. *mɐne:jɐ ᵯɐᵰe:jɐ βɐɾekɐ
village *mɐtujɐ ᵯɐtu:jɐ βɐtukɐ maʔusa [ac]
message/news *mɐjɑ:jɐ ᵯɐjɑ:jɐ βɐkɑ:kɐ
haze *muno:jɐ ᵯuᵰo:jɐ muɾokɐ [k.]
heart *muNtujɐ ᵯundu:jɐ muntukɐ muʔusɐ
grass/grassland*mujɐᵘ ᵯujɐᵘ ukɐᵘ
bandicoot sp. *[p]iɾo:jɐ iɾo:jɐ ʔiɾokɐ
penis *p₂ɐje: pe: ʔɐke:
kidney *pɐjɑ:… kɐjɑ:tɐ ʔɐkɑ:βɐ
pandanus sp. *p₂ɐjɑ:nɐ pɐjɑ:ᵰɐ ʔɐkɑ:ɾɐ
tree sp. *pɐNj[o:]jɐ kɐŋgʲɐ ʔɐntokɐ
cuscus sp. *po:tɐjɐ ko:tɐjɐ otɐkɐ
wild *pɑ:jɐᵘ kɑ:jɐᵘ ʔɑ:kɐᵘ
older sister *nɐjɑ:(-wɐ) ᵰɐjɑ:-βɐ nɐkɑ:-(βɐ) nɐsɑ:-ɸɐ
casuarina sp. *tɑ:jɐ tɑ:jɐ tɑ:kɐ
edge/boundary *to:jɑ: to:jɐ tokɑ:
disappear *tupɑ:jɐ tukɐ(i)- tuʔɑ:kɐ
orchid sp. *sɐwɐɾijɐ sɐβɐɾi:jɐhɐβɐɾikɐ
star *wɐjɐᵘ mɐkɐᵘ ɸɐsɐᵘ
older brother *wɐjɑ:(-wɐ) βɐjɑ:-βɐ βɐkɑ:(-βɐ) ɐ-ɸɐsɑ:-ɸɐ
king parrot *wuᵄjɑ:ɾɐ βuᵄjɑ: βuᵄkɑ:ɾɐ
cassowary *wuje:nɐ βukeɾɐ ɸuse:nɐ
bush/mountain *jɐwɐjɐ jɐβɐjɐ kɐβɐkɐ
rolling string *jɑ:jɐ[m/w]u jɑ:jɐu kɑ:kɐβu
mother's sib *jɑ:jo: jɑ:jo kɑ:ko

… /*j/ …:

East Kainantu Waffa VaanturaAfaqina
*-j-/i ɐⁱ_k
day/midday*ijɐnɐ ikʲɐᵰɐikɐɾɐ
woven band*ijo:tɐ kotɐ
ladder *[h]ɐⁱjɐ hɑ:kʲɐɐⁱkɐ

… /*j/ … /j₂/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*-j₂- s k
raw/new*pɐɾɑ:j₂ɐ kɐɾɑ:sɐʔɐɾɑ:kɐ

… medial consonant clusters with syllable-final /*N/ …:

… /*Nm/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-Nm- m m m:
overcast *ɑ:NmɐNjɐᵘ ɑ:mɐŋgʲɐᵘɑ:mɐntɐᵘ-
chest *m₂iNmiɾɐ mimiɾɐ
owl sp. *m₂ɐno:Nmɐni mɐɾomɐɾi
dirty *p₄ɐⁱNɑ:Nmɐ kɐⁱnɑ:mɐ pɐⁱnɑ:mɐ
yam sp. *pɐNmiNnɐ kɐminɐ ʔɐminɐ
join/extend*to:Nmɐpɐ- to:mɐkɐ- tomɐʔe

… /*Nm/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*-Nm- m m:
breast*nɑ:Nmɐ ᵰɑ:ᵯɐnɑ:mɐ nɑ:m:ɐ

… /*Nn/ …:

East Kainantu Waffa VaanturaAfaqina
*-Nn- n n n:
indicative *-Nno: -no:
to *-[i]Nni -ni -ni -ni
pinkie *e:ɾɐ-Nnɐ[n/ɾ]ɐe:ɾɐ-nɐ eɾɐ-nɐɾɐ
breath *ɑ:Nnɐ ɑ:nɐ
cave *o:Nn[ɑ:]mu o:nɐu onɐβu
real/true *utɐNnɐɾɐ tʷɐnɐɐ tɐnɐɾɐ uʔɐn:ɐ
banana sp. *NmuᵄNnɑ: monɑ: muᵄnɑ:
dirty *p₄ɐⁱNnɑ:Nmɐ kɐⁱnɑ:mɐ pɐⁱnɑ:mɐ
yam sp. *pɐNmiNnɐ kɐminɐ ʔɐminɐ
thumb *p₅o:Nnɐn[ɑ:] po:nɐnɑ: ponɐɾɐ
older sister *nɑ:Nno:(-wɐ) nɑ:no(:)-βɐ
tree kangaroo*tɐwe:Nnɐnɐ tɐβenɐɾɐ
cloud *to:Nnɐmu tonɐβu o:nɐmu (?)
rattan sp. *tuNnɑ:nɐ tunɑ:ᵰɐ tunɑ:ɾɐ
greens sp. *so:Nni so:ni
singular *-wɐNno: -βɐno -ɸɐn:o:
ghost *wɑ:Nnɐ βɑ:nɐ fana [ac]
in valley *-ɾuNnɐ -ɾunɐ -ɾun:ɐ
python sp. *juNnɐ ju:nɐ kunɐ

… /*Np/ … The Kuvaira dialect of North Tairora merges Tairora prenasalized /*ŋk/ with plain stop /k/ as does Omwunra (not shown here;) since these Kuvaira variants are generally given in Vincent (2010 ibid.) where they are known, they are presented here in their own column:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Kuvaira Afaqina
*-Np- ŋg ŋk k k:
steep/ravine *o:Npɐⁱ o:ŋgɐⁱ oŋkɐⁱ okɐⁱ
wood grub *uNpɐjɐ ŋgʷɐjɐ uŋkɐkɐ nukɐkɐ uk:ɐsi
flying fox *tɑ:Npɑ:nɐ kɑ:ŋgɑ:ɾɐkɑ:ŋkɑ:ɾɐkɑ:kɑ:ɾɐkɑ:k:ɑ:nɐ
Job's tears *tuNpuɾɐ kuŋgu:ɾɐ kuŋkuɾɐ kukuɾɐ kuk:uɾɐ
chip/splinter*sɐNpɐ sɐŋgɐɾe: hɐŋkɐ hɐkɐ

… /*Nt/ … The Kuvaira dialect of North Tairora merges Tairora prenasalized /*nt/ with plain stop /t/ as does Omwunra (not shown here;) since these Kuvaira variants are generally given in Vincent (2010 ibid.) where they are known, they are presented here in their own column. This does not occur with the reflexes of /*ʔn/ (above) which remain /nt/ in Kuvaira:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaKuvairaAfaqina
*-Nt- nd nt t ʔ
be cold *ɐNtɐ- ɐndɐ- ɐnte
stink/rotten *uNtɐ u:ndɐ untɐ
down/lean *muNtu muntu mutu
heart *muNtujɐ ᵯundu:jɐmuntukɐ mutukɐ muʔusɐ
nettle sp. *pɐNtipɐ kɐndikɐ ʔɐtiʔɐ
grandchild *n[ɐⁱ]-Nti ᵰe:ndi nɐⁱnti nɐⁱti
sister's child *nɐᵘ-Nti ᵰɐᵘndi nɐᵘ/td> nɐᵘti nɐᵘʔi [hk]
duck sp. *no:Ntumu nontuβu notuβu
headdress sp. *tiNtiɾɐ tindi:ɾɐtintiɾɐ titiɾɐ
stump of tree *tiNtunɐ tinduᵰɐ tintuɾɐ tituɾɐ
trading partner*to:Nti to:ndi tonti
striped pig *to:Ntɐⁱ to:ndɐⁱ tontɐⁱ
smell/stink *suNtɐ su:ndɐ huntɐ
man *wɐⁱ-iNti βɐⁱndi βɐⁱnti βɐⁱti ɸɐⁱʔi
at/place *-jɐNtɐ -kɐntɐ -kɐtɐ -sɐʔɐ
fallow *jɐNtu jɐndu kɐntu

… /*Nt/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaKuvairaAfaqina
*-N-t- ndnt t t:
elbow*jɑ:N-tɑ: jɐndɑ:kɑ:ntɑ: kɑ:tɑ: sɑ:t:ɑ:

… /*Ns/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*-Ns-
*…

… /*Nw/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*-Nw-
*…

… /*Nj/ …:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-Nj- ŋgʲ nt nt [nd]
overcast *ɑ:NmɐNjɐᵘ ɑ:mɐŋgʲɐᵘ ɑ:mɐntɐᵘ-
animal/game *ɑ:Njɐᵘ ɑ:ntɐᵘ ɑ:ntɐᵘ
doorway *pe:Njɐ ke:ŋgʲɐ ʔe:nti ≈ ʔe:ntɐ
tree sp. *pɐNj[o:]jɐ kɐŋgʲɐ ʔɐntokɐ
behind/later *nɑ:Njiᵄ[n/ɾ]iᵰɑ:ŋgʲɐi nɑ:ntiɐɾɐ
turn *tupɐNj[ɑ:] tukɐŋgʲɐ- tuʔɐntɑ: uʔɐntɐ
poker stick *tunɑ:Nj[ɑ:] tuᵰɑ:ŋgʲɑ: tuɾɑ:ntɐ
fence/palisade*wɑ:Njɑ:munɐ βɐŋgʲɑ:muᵰɐβɑ:ntɑ:βuɾɐ
tree sp. *jo:Njɑ:… jo:ŋgʲauɾɐ kontɑ:βuɾɐ

… medial consonant clusters with syllable-final /*ʔ/ …:

There has not yet been found direct confirmation of the quality of … /*ʔm/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-ʔm- mb mp mp [mb]
old man *inɑ:ʔmɐⁱ ŋʲɑ:mbɐⁱ nɑ:mpɐⁱ
embers/ashes*p₃ɐɾɐʔmɑ: kɐɾɐmbɑ:jɐkɐɾɐmpɑ:
notched post*puᵄʔmɐⁱ kuᵄmbɐⁱ ʔuᵄmpɐⁱ
firefly *tɐʔmu tɐmbu tɐmpumpu [k.]
fly (n.) *s[i/u]ʔmɐᵘ simbɐᵘ humpɐᵘ [k.]
aimless *sɐʔmi sɐmbi hɐmpi
parcel *sɑ:ʔmɐ sɑ:mbɐ hɑ:mpɐ
cool *suʔmɐ- su:mbɐ- humpe

… /*ʔn/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-ʔn- n nt [< *ʔn]nt [nd]
night *[h]e:ʔnɐ he:nɐ entɐ e:ntɐ
fenced area *[h]ɐʔniʔjɐ hɐnikʲɐɐntihɐ
saliva *puwɐ-ɑ:ʔnu kuɑ:nu:ɐ-uβɑ:ntu [k.]
neck/throat *uʔnɐ ᵰ-u:nɐ ɐ-untɐ
brain *piʔn[o:]nɐ pinɑ:ɾɐ
tuber of s.p. *nɐⁱʔnɐ ᵰɐⁱnɐ nɐⁱntɐ
bush/forest *nɐʔnɐ nɐntɐ nɐntɐ
vine/rope *nɑ:puʔnɐ nɑ:ʔuntɐ nɑ:k:untɐ
platform/shelf *tɐⁱʔnɐ tɐⁱnɐ tɐⁱntɐ ɐⁱntɐ
dual *-tɐʔnɐ -tɐnɐ -tɐntɐ -ʔɐntɐ
bowstring *siʔnɐ si:nɐ hintɐ
frog sp. *wisɐᵘʔnɐ βisɐᵘnɐβisɐᵘntɐ
thigh *wuʔnɐnɐ (ɐ)-βunteɾɐ fundona [ac]
shell nosepiece*jɐᵘʔnɐnɐ jɐᵘnɐᵰɐkɐᵘntɐɾɐ
rope/string *j[ɑ:]ʔnɐ je:nɐ kɑ:ntɐ

… /*ʔp/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*-ʔp-
*…

… /*ʔt/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*-ʔt-
*…

… /*ʔs/ …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-ʔs- s h [< *ʔj] ʔt [ʔd]
dry *ɑ:ʔsɐnɐ ɑ:sɐᵰɐ ɐhɐɾɐ ≈ ɑ:hɐɾɐɑ:ʔtɐnɐ
fat/grease*wɐʔsɐme:nɐ βɐhɐβeɾɐ ɸɐʔtɐme:nɐ
nail/claw *jɐpɐʔsi jɐkɐsi ≈ jɐkʷɐsikɐkɐhi ɐ-sɐkɐʔti

… /*ʔw/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*-ʔw-
*…

… /*ʔj/ …:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*-ʔj- j h [< *ʔj]ʔt [ʔd]
mud *[ɐ/u]ʔjo:n[ɐ]jo:ᵰɐ hoɾɐ
fuzz of plant*[h]ɑ:ʔjɐ hɑ:jɐ ɑ:hɐ [k.]
rat sp. *e:tɐʔji etɐhi e:t:ɐʔti
one *mo:ʔjɑ: ᵯuɑ: (?)βohɑ: mo:ʔtɑ:
bone *muʔjɑ:ni ᵯujɐi βuhɑ:ɾi muʔtɑ:ni
mushroom sp. *[N]muʔjɑ:ni ᵯujɑ:ᵰi muhɑ:ɾi
earthworm *pɐʔjiᵄ… ʔɐhiᵄʔu kɐʔtiᵄɾu
bark skirt *p₅ɐʔjɑ:nɐ pɐjɑ:ᵰɐ pɐhɑ:ɾɐ
fish *no:ʔjɐnɐ no:ʔtɐnɐ
shin *we:ʔjɐ βe:jɐ βehɐ ɸe:ʔtɐ

… /*ʔj/ …:

East Kainantu Waffa VaanturaAfaqina
*-ʔj-/i ɐⁱ_ h ʔt
brush turkey *iʔjiᵄnu kiᵄᵰu hiᵄɾu
sweet *iʔjiᵄj[ɑ:] kie:jɐ-hiᵄkɑ:
fire/firewood*iʔjɐ ikʲɐ ihɐ iʔtɐ
fenced area *[h]ɐʔniʔjɐ hɐnikʲɐɐntihɐ

While the realizations of consonants (above) vary a great deal, the vowels, three short vowels /*i *u *ɐ/, three long vowels /*e: *o: *ɑ:/ and four diphthongs /*iᵄ *uᵄ *ɐⁱ *ɐᵘ/, are carried forward with very little modification in all descendants. The most significant change is the loss of unstressed initial short vowels in Waffa and Tairora (below.)

High front vowel /*i/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*i i i i
3 pl. *i- i-
do/make *i- i- i
calf *imɑ:pu ᵰ-iᵯɑ:ku ɐ-iβɑ:ʔu
nose *ipi ᵰ-iki ɐ-iʔi ɐ-ik:i
weeping/crying *ipi iʔi
foot/leg *ipu juku ɐ-iʔu ik:u
to *-[i]Nni -ni -ni -ni
s.'s husband *ituᵄ(-wɐ) (ᵰ)-ituo:-βɐ ɐ-ituᵄ(-βɐ)iʔuᵄ(-ɸɐ) [hk]
areca nut *isu isu ihu
eel *iwɑ:ɾi iβɑ:ɾi
bridge *iɾi iɾi iɾi
bear fruit *iɾɐ- iɾe
wife's parents *iɾɑ: -iɾɑ:- -iɾɑ:- -iɾɑ:-
day/midday *ijɐnɐ ikʲɐᵰɐ ikɐɾɐ
fire/firewood *iʔjɐ ikʲɐ ihɐ iʔtɐ
cassowary quill*e:ɾimɐ e:ɾiᵯɐ eɾiβɐ
come *ɐ[N]ni- ᵰi- ɐni ɐni-
fenced area *[h]ɐʔniʔjɐ hɐnikʲɐ ɐntihɐ
slime of eel *ɐɾiɾi ɾiɾi ɾiɾi
tail of bird *ɐɾɐt₃iɾɐ ɾɐtiɾɐ ɐɾɐt:iɾɐ
thorn/barb *uwi o:βi ɐ-uβi
bird *uwini uβiɾi uɸini
3 sg. *mi βi-(βɐ) mi-ɸɐ
that/there *mi mi-ni
give *m₂i- ᵯi- -mi mi
maggot *mimi ᵯiᵯi
chest *m₂iNmiɾɐ mimiɾɐ
edge/end *miti ᵯiti βiti
ancestors *mɐnip[ɑ:] ᵯɐᵰikɑ: βɐɾiʔɐ
be *mɐɾi- βɐɾ(i)- βɐɾi mɐɾi
tongue *m₂ɑ:piɾi ᵯɑ:kiɾi mɑ:ʔiɾi ɐ-mɑ:k:iɾi
chin *m₂ɑ:tini mɑ:tiɾi mɑ:ʔini
grub sp. *Nmɐni mɐᵰi mɐɾi
in *-pi -ki- -ʔi -k:i-
hook *pipo:[n/ɾ]ɐ ki:ko: ʔiʔoɾɐ
short *pipu kiku ʔiʔu
brain *piʔn[o:]nɐ pinɑ:ɾɐ
pith/quid *pit[ɐ/ɑ:] kitɐ ʔitɑ: ≈ itɐ
bandicoot sp. *[p]iɾo:jɐ iɾo:jɐ ʔiɾokɐ
yam sp. *pɐNmiNnɐ kɐminɐ ʔɐminɐ
nettle sp. *pɐNtipɐ kɐndikɐ ʔɐtiʔɐ [k.]
banana sp. *puᵄɾisɑ:p₂ɐ kuᵄɾisɑ:pɐ ʔuᵄɾihɑ:ʔɐ
walk *ni- ᵰi- ni ni-
old *nisi ᵰisi: nihi
sister's child *nɐᵘ-Nti ᵰɐᵘndi nɐᵘnti nɐᵘʔi [hk]
speak/say *ti- ti- ti ʔi-
forehead *tini tiᵰi tiɾi ʔini
headdress sp. *tiNtiɾɐ tindi:ɾɐ tintiɾɐ
stump of tree *tiNtunɐ tinduᵰɐ tintuɾɐ
fireplace *tɐp₂i tɐpi tɐʔi
squeeze/wring *tɐti- tɐti- tɐti
P. alberti *tɐɾi[n/ɾ]ɐ tɐɾiɾɐ tɐɾiɾɐ
with *-Nti[ɾi] -ndiɾi ≈ -ndi-nti -ndiɾi
bowstring *siʔnɐ si:nɐ hintɐ
sew *sɐp₂iɾV- sɐpiɾɐ- hɐʔiɾi
orchid sp. *sɐwɐɾijɐ sɐβɐɾi:jɐ hɐβɐɾikɐ
hang up *[s/h]iɾi- hiɾi- hiɾi
owl sp. *so:wiɾi so:βiɾi hoβiɾoɾoɾɐ
get (person) *witɐ- βitɐ- βite
blood *wi[ʔt]ipɐ βiti:kɐ ɸiʔtik:ɐ
spit *wis[i/u]- βis(i)- βisi
frog sp. *wisɐᵘʔnɐ βisɐᵘnɐ βisɐᵘntɐ
face *wiɾi βiɾi βiɾi
adopt/care for *wiɾi- wiɾ(i)- wiɾi
woman's bro. *jo:pi(-wɐ) koʔi-(βɐ)

Unstressed initial /*i/ …:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*i/_n ø ø i
far *iniᵄnɐ ŋʲe:ᵰɐ ≈ ŋʲe:ɾɐniᵄɾɐ
bird *inɑ:mɐ ŋʲɑ:ᵯɐ ≈ ŋʲɑ:
women's house*inɑ:muni ŋʲɐuᵰi nɑ:muɾɐ
old man *inɑ:ʔmɐⁱ ŋʲɑ:mbɐⁱ nɑ:mpɐⁱ
sky *inɑ:ɾu[m/w]V ŋʲɐu nɑ:ɾuβɐ inaru [ac]
thunder *inɑ:ɾunɐ ŋʲɑ:ɾuᵰɐ nɑ:ɾuɾɐ
stone file *inumi ŋʲuᵯi numi [k.]
*i/_Nn ø ø i
2 pl. emph. *iNne: ŋʲe(:) ne in:e:
2 pl. *iNnɐ ŋʲɐ
*i/_j ø ø i
woven band *ijo:tɐ kotɐ
*i/_ʔj ø ø i
brush turkey *iʔjiᵄnu kiᵄᵰu hiᵄɾu
sweet *iʔjiᵄj[ɑ:] kie:jɐ- hiᵄkɑ:
mud *[ɐ/u]ʔjo:n[ɐ]jo:ᵰɐ hoɾɐ

… /*i/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*i/_n ø i
ask/ask for *in[ɑ:]- ŋʲɑ:- iɾe
*i/_ɾ ø i i
hear *iɾi- ɾikʲɐ-iɾi iɾi-
tie on skirt*iɾɐ- ɾi- iɾe

… /*i/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*i iø
ginger sp.*isɑ:ji isɐi hɑ:kɐ

In a number of examples, final /*i/ is neutralized to /ɐ/ in Afaqina and Tairora:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*i i ɐ ɐ
women's house*inɑ:muni ŋʲɐuᵰi nɑ:muɾɐ
ginger sp. *isɑ:ji isɐi hɑ:kɐ
path/road *ɑ:ni ɑ:ɾɐ ɑ:nɐ
ditch *o:ni (?) o:ni oɾɐ
stem/clan *o:jɐni ojɐi okɐɾɐ o:sɐnɐ
behind/later *nɑ:Njiᵄ[n/ɾ]iᵰɑ:ŋgʲɐinɑ:ntiɐɾɐ
water *no:ni ᵰo:ɾi noɾɐ
sugarcane *jɑ:pi jɑ:ki kɑ:ʔɐ sɑ:k:ɐ

There are many more examples in which final /*i/ is retained in this position …:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*i i i i
rat sp. *e:tɐʔji etɐhi e:t:ɐʔti
grass sp. *e:w[ɐ]ni eβe:ᵰi eβɐɾi
“hmm…” *ɑ:ɾi ɑ:ɾi ɑ:ɾi
stone *o:ni oɾi o:ni
stone file *umi uβi
husk/peel *upɐmɑ:si kʷɐᵯɑ:si ʔɐβɐhi
bird *uwini uβiɾi uɸini
meat/flesh *m₂ɐti ᵯɐti mɐti ɐ-mɐʔi
tongue *m₂ɑ:piɾi ᵯɑ:kiɾi mɑ:ʔiɾi ɐ-mɑ:k:iɾi
chin *m₂ɑ:tini mɑ:tiɾi mɑ:ʔini
old garden *muti ᵯuti muti
wart/mole *muɾi ᵯiɾi βuɾi muɾi
bone *muʔjɑ:ni ᵯujɐi βuhɑ:ɾi muʔtɑ:ni
mushroom sp. *[N]muʔjɑ:ni ᵯujɑ:ᵰi muhɑ:ɾi
sister-in-law *Nmɑ:ti(-wɐ) mɑ:ti-βɐ mɑ:ti-(βɐ) mɑ:ʔi-ɸɐ
co-wife *piᵄ[n/ɾ]i kie:- ʔiᵄɾi
just/merely *pɐt₂i kɐti ʔɐʔi
comb *pɑ:si ʔɑ:hi
grandchild *n[ɐⁱ]-Nti ᵰe:ndi nɐⁱnti
cicada *n[ɐᵘ]si ᵰo:si nɐᵘhi
kunai grass *nɐmusi tɐusi nɐβuhi
grease/water *nɐ[N]mɐɾi ᵰɐᵯɐɾi nɐmɐɾi nɐm:ɐɾi
baby *nɑ:ti nɑ:ti nɑ:ʔi
yam sp. *no:mɐ[n/ɾ]i ᵰo:ᵯɐɾi noβɐɾi
tree sp. *Nno:ɾi no:ɾi noɾi
stillbirth *tɐⁱɾi tɐⁱɾi- tɐⁱɾi
stubborn *tɐmi tumi tɐᵯi-tu:- tɐβi tuβi
mountain/ridge *tɑ:p₂i tɑ:pi tɑ:ʔi
pandanus mat *tɑ:ɾi tɑ:ɾi tɑ:ɾi
trading partner*to:Nti to:ndi tonti
knee *to:ɾi to:ɾi-βu toɾi ɐ-ʔo:ɾi
magic sp. *se:p₅i se:pi hepi
aimless *sɐʔmi sɐmbi hɐmpi
greens sp. *so:Nni so:ni
stone axe/adze *[hʲ]ɐni hɐi kɐɾi sɐni
face *wiɾi βiɾi βiɾi
poverty *we:si βe:si βehi
man *wɐⁱ-iNti βɐⁱndi βɐⁱnti ɸɐⁱʔi
husband *wɑ:ti βɑ:ti βɑ:ti ɸɑ:ʔi
legend/story *[w]uɾi uɾi βuɾi
hair/feather *jɐᵘsi jɑ:si: ≈ jɐᵘsi kɐᵘhi ≈ kɑ:hisɐᵘsi
snake *jɐp₂ɐni jɐpɐi sɐk:ɐni
tree *jɐtɐɾi jɐtɐɾi ≈ jɐtiɾikɐtɐɾi sɐʔɐɾi
tree kangaroo *jɐwɑ:si jɐβɑ:sɐ kɐβɑ:hi
woman's bro. *jo:pi(-wɐ) koʔi-(βɐ)
sun *j₂uᵄni suᵄi kuᵄɾi suᵄni

High back vowel /*u/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*u u [u u:]u u
calf *imɑ:pu ᵰ-iᵯɑ:ku ɐ-iβɑ:ʔu
foot/leg *ipu juku ɐ-iʔu ik:u
women's house *inɑ:muni ŋʲɐuᵰi nɑ:muɾɐ
sky *inɑ:ɾu[m/w]u ŋʲɐu nɑ:ɾuβɐ inaru [ac]
thunder *inɑ:ɾunɐ ŋʲɑ:ɾuᵰɐ nɑ:ɾuɾɐ
stone file *inumi ŋʲuᵯi numi [k.]
areca nut *isu isu ihu
son-in-law *iɾɑ:-m[ɑ:]p₂u iɾɑ:-pu iɾɑ:-mɐʔu iɾɑ:-mɐk:u
daughter *iɾɑ:-munɐ ɾɐuɾɐ ɾɑ:βuɾɐ ɾɑ:munɐ
brush turkey *iʔjiᵄnu kiᵄᵰu hiᵄɾu
plug of leaves *e:sɐ[Nw]u e:sɐŋu ehɐmpu
hip *ɐmuN-jɑ:ni ᵯundɐᵰɐ
handle *ɐp₂u ɐpu ɐʔu
ripe *ɐp₂u ɐpu- ɐʔu
hit *ɐɾu- ɾi- ≈ ɾu- ɐɾi aɾu-
rain *ɑ:pu ɑ:ʔu ɑ:k:u
saliva *puwɐ-ɑ:ʔnu kuɑ:nu: ɐ-uβɑ:ntu [k.]
fear *ɑ:tu ɑ:tu:- ɑ:tu
point *ɑ:ɾu ɑ:ɾu
sit *o:[ʔp]um- oʔuβ- o:ʔum-
cave *o:Nn[ɑ:]mu o:nɐu onɐβu
stone file *umi uβi
echidna sp. *uNmɑ:ɾu[m/w]u ᵯʷɑ:ɾu mɑ:ɾuβu
smoke *uNmunɐ muᵰɐ muɾɐ munɐ
needle *upɐ uʔɐ
wood grub *uNpɐjɐ ŋgʷɐjɐ uŋkɐkɐ uk:ɐsi
younger sister *unɐ (ᵰ)-uᵰɐ ɐ-uɾɐ unɐ
chew *u[N]n[u]- uᵰ- uni
tendon/vein *[u]nu[N]n[ɐ/u]ᵰ-iᵰu:nɐ ɐ-uɾuɾɐ
lie/false *u[N]nɐ uᵰɐ-kuɐ unɐ
neck/throat *uʔnɐ ᵰ-u:nɐ ɐ-untɐ
netbag *utɐ utʷɐ utɐ uʔɐ
moon *[u]to:nɐ toɾɐ uʔo:nɐ
name *utu ᵰ-utu (ɐ)-utu ɐ-uʔu
hold *utu- ut- uti
plant (v.) *utu- ut- uti
real/true *utɐNnɐɾɐ tʷɐnɐɐ tɐnɐɾɐ uʔɐn:ɐ
stink/rotten *uNtɐ u:ndɐ untɐ
bird *uwini uβiɾi uɸini
wind *uwɐⁱ uβɐⁱ uɸɐⁱ
egg/seed *uɾu uɾu ɐ-uɾu
come up/grow *uɾu- uɾi- uɾi
earthquake *mɐtuɾɐ βɐtuɾɐ
village *mɐtujɐ ᵯɐtu:jɐ βɐtukɐ maʔusa [ac]
son *m₂ɑ:p₂u ᵯɑ:pu mɑ:ʔu mɑ:k:u
vulva/vagina *mɑ:[m/w]u ᵯɐu βɑ:βu
dust/refuse *mumu ᵯuᵯu βuβu
haze *muno:jɐ ᵯuᵰo:jɐ muɾokɐ [k.]
old garden *muti ᵯuti muti
down/lean *muNtu muntu
heart *muNtujɐ ᵯundu:jɐ muntukɐ muʔusɐ
grass/grassland*mujɐᵘ ᵯujɐᵘ ukɐᵘ
wart/mole *muɾi ᵯiɾi βuɾi muɾi
vomit *muɾu ᵯuɾu βuɾu
bone *muʔjɑ:ni ᵯujɐi βuhɑ:ɾi muʔtɑ:ni
mushroom sp. *[N]muʔjɑ:ni ᵯujɑ:ᵰi muhɑ:ɾi
father's sister*Nmɑ:mu(-wɐ) mɑ:mu-βɐ mɑ:βu-(βɐ) mɑ:mu-ɸɐ
short *pipu kiku ʔiʔu
earthworm *pɐʔjiᵄ… ʔɐhiᵄʔu kɐʔtiᵄɾu
woman's bro. *po:ɾutɐ ko:ɾutɐ ʔoɾutɐ
initiate *p₂umɑ:ɾɑ: puɑ:ɾɑ: ʔuβɑ:ɾɑ:
shoulder *pumu ʔuβu [k.] ɐ-kumu
cough *pu[ʔn/Nt]u kundu: ʔuntu kuntu
wet *p₅utɐ pu:tɐ putɐ
true *put₂ɑ: kutɑ: ʔuʔɑ:
die *p₂utu- put- ʔuti kuʔ-
speech *puwɐ kuɐ uβɐ
enemy *nɐmutɑ:(-wɐ) ᵰɐᵯutʷɑ: nɐβutɑ:-(βɐ)
kunai grass *nɐmusi tɐusi nɐβuhi
shiver *nɐɾu nɐɾu ᵰɐɾu-ᵰɐɾu- nɐɾu nɐɾu
house *nɑ:mu ᵰɐu nɑ:βu
headband sp. *nɑ:mu ᵰɑ:ᵯu nɑ:βu
grandfather *nɑ:pu(-wɐ) ᵰɑ:ku-βɐ nɑ:ʔu-(βɐ) nɑ:k:u-ɸɐ
son's wife *nɑ:p₂utu ᵰɑ:putu nɑ:ʔutu nɑ:k:uʔu
vine/rope *nɑ:puʔnɐ nɑ:ʔuntɐ nɑ:k:untɐ
tuber *nɑ:tupɐ ᵰɑ:tukɐ nɑ:tuʔɐ
long ago/old *nɑ:ɾu ᵰɑ:ɾu nɑ:ɾu nɑ:ɾu
duck sp. *no:Ntumu nontuβu
louse *numɐ ᵰuᵯʷɐ numɐ
sand *nupɐ ᵰukɐ nuʔɐ
forget *tɐᵘnu- tɐᵘᵰ- tɐᵘɾu-
stubborn *tɐmi tumi tɐᵯi-tu:- tɐβi tuβi
bark cloak *t₂ɐ[N]mu[N]nɐ ʔɐβunɐ ɐm:unɐ
firefly *tɐʔmu tɐmbu tɐmpumpu [k.]
bamboo *tɐp₂u tɐpu tɐʔu
flea *tɐɾu tɐɾu tɐɾu ɐɾu
ginger sp. *tɑ:tu tɑ:tu tɑ:tu
betel pepper *tɑ:ɾut₂ɑ: tɐɾutɑ: tɑ:ɾuʔɑ:
cloud *to:Nnɐmu tonɐβu o:nɐmu
liver *tumu ɐ-tu tuβu a-ʔumu [ac]
come down *tumu tumɐ tuβi
rat *tumunɐ tuβuɾɐ ʔumunɐ
root *t₃upɐ tu:kɐ tuʔɐ ɐ-t:uk:ɐ
poison vine sp.*tupɐ tukɐ tuʔɐ
turn *tupɐNj[ɑ:] tukɐŋgʲɐ- tuʔɐntɑ: uʔɐntɐ
disappear *tupɑ:jɐ tukɐ(i)- tuʔɑ:kɐ
Job's tears *tuNpuɾɐ kuŋgu:ɾɐ kuŋkuɾɐ kuk:uɾɐ
house post *tunɐ tu:ᵰɐ tuɾɐ
poker stick *tunɑ:Nj[ɑ:] tuᵰɑ:ŋgʲɑ: tuɾɑ:ntɐ
headrest *tunu tuɾu
rattan sp. *tuNnɑ:nɐ tunɑ:ᵰɐ tunɑ:ɾɐ
fence *tutujɐ tutukɐ ʔuʔusɐ
top of tree *tuɾu tuɾu tuɾu
cool *suʔmɐ- su:mbɐ- humpe
smell/stink *suNtɐ su:ndɐ huntɐ
blackpalm/bow *suɾu suɾu huɾu
food packet *we:mu βeβu ɸe:mu
strong wind *wɐᵘɾuɾu βɐᵘɾuɾu βɐᵘɾuɾu
dew *w₂ɐɾɐ[m/w]u ɸɐɾɐu βɐɾɐβu
lake/pool *wɐɾumɐ βɐɾuβɐ
fence/palisade *wɑ:Njɑ:munɐ βɐŋgʲɑ:muᵰɐ βɑ:ntɑ:βuɾɐ
eye *wu ɐ-βu (ɐ)-βu ɐ-ɸu
go *wu- βi fu- [ac]
king parrot *wuᵄjɑ:ɾɐ βuᵄjɑ: βuᵄkɑ:ɾɐ
thigh *wuʔnɐnɐ (ɐ)-βunteɾɐ fundona [ac]
legend/story *[w]uɾi uɾi βuɾi
cassowary *wuje:nɐ βukeɾɐ ɸuse:nɐ
in valley *-ɾuNnɐ -ɾunɐ -ɾun:ɐ
pandanus sp. *jɐⁱmu jɐⁱᵯu kɐⁱβu
hand *jɐᵘpu jɑ:ku kɐᵘʔu ɐ-sɐᵘk:u
digging stick *jɐᵘnu jɐᵘ kɐᵘɾu
fallow *jɐNtu jɐndu kɐntu
rolling string *jɑ:jɐ[m/w]u jɑ:jɐu kɑ:kɐβu
tree sp. *jo:Njɑ:… jo:ŋgʲauɾɐ kontɑ:βuɾɐ
seed *jumu kuβu ɐ-sumu
python sp. *juNnɐ ju:nɐ kunɐ

… unstressed initial /*u/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*uC C uC C [uCʷ]
heavy *umɑ:ɾɐ ᵯʷɑ:ɾɐ mɑ:ɾɐ ʔumɑ:ɾɐ
echidna sp.*umɑ:ɾu[m/w]uᵯʷɑ:ɾu mɑ:ɾuβu
husk/peel *upɐmɑ:si kʷɐᵯɑ:siʔɐβɐhi
real/true *utɐNnɐɾɐ tʷɐnɐɐ tɐnɐɾɐ uʔɐn:ɐ
smoke *uNmunɐ muᵰɐ muɾɐ munɐ

In one example, …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*ɐ-u
thorn/barb*ɐ-uwi o:βi ɐ-uβi

Mid central vowel /*ɐ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*…

Unstressed initial /*ɐ/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
ø ø ɐ
underneath *ɐme:mɐ βeβɐ
underneath *ɐme:mɑ:nɐ ᵯe:mɑ: βeβɑ:ɾɐ ɐme:mɑ:nɐ
hip *ɐmuN-jɑ:ni ᵯundɐᵰɐ
woman *ɐnɑ:je: ᵰɑ:je: nɑ:ke: ɐnɑ:se:
slime of eel*ɐɾiɾi ɾiɾi ɾiɾi
tail of bird*ɐɾɐt₃iɾɐ ɾɐtiɾɐ ɐɾɐt:iɾɐ
old woman *ɐjo:[ʔn/Nt]ɐjo:nɐ kontɐ ɐso:ʔɐ

… initial /*ɐ/ …:

East KainantuWaffaVaanturaAfaqina
*…

Long mid front vowel /*e:/ is retained as such in all descendants:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*e: e: [e: e]e e:
white cockatoo *e:pɐɾɐ e:kɐɾɐ eʔɐɾɐ e:k:ɐɾɐ
rat sp. *e:tɐʔji etɐhi e:t:ɐʔti
banana *e:tɐ etɐ e:ʔɐ
plug of leaves *e:sɐ[Nw]u e:sɐŋu ehɐmpu
grass sp. *e:w[ɐ]ni eβe:ᵰi eβɐɾi
cassowary quill*e:ɾimɐ e:ɾiᵯɐ eɾiβɐ
pinkie *e:ɾɐ(-Nnɐ[n/ɾ]ɐ)e:ɾɐ-(nɐ) eɾɐ-nɐɾɐ
all *e:jɑ: e:jɑ: ekɑ:
afternoon *[h]e:nɐⁱni haᵰɐⁱ- eɾɐⁱɾikɐ
night *[h]e:ʔnɐ he:nɐ entɐ e:ntɐ
underneath *ɐme:mɐ βeβɐ
underneath *ɐme:mɑ:nɐ ᵯe:mɑ: βeβɑ:ɾɐ ɐme:mɑ:nɐ
woman *ɐnɑ:je: ᵰɑ:je: nɑ:ke: ɐnɑ:se:
armpit *ɑ:ʔpe: jɑ:pe: ɑ:kɐ
orchid sp. *o:te:nɐ ote:ᵰɐ oteɾɐ
tail *me:jɐ ᵯe:jɐ βekɐ ɐ-me:sɐ
possum sp. *mɐne:jɐ ᵯɐᵰe:jɐ βɐɾekɐ
black kite *[N]me:Nmo:nɐ hemo:ᵰɐ memoɾɐ
now/today *[N]mɐte: mɐte: βɐte mɐʔe:
leaf *Nmɐne: mɐɾe mɐne:
narrow space *Nmuᵄpe: muᵄke: muᵄʔe
doorway *pe:Njɐ ke:ŋgʲɐ ʔe:nti ≈ ʔe:ntɐ
afraid *pe:tɐ- ʔete
go inside *pe:tɐ- ke:tɐ-
penis *p₂ɐje: pe: ʔɐke:
butterfly *p₄… keŋgenɑ: pempenɑ:ɾu
blood/red *nɑ:ɾe: nɑ:ɾe
casuarina sp. *nɑ:ɾe:[Np]ɑ: ɐɾe:mbɑ: nɑ:ɾempɑ:
tree kangaroo *tɐwe:Nnɐnɐ tɐβenɐɾɐ
magic sp. *se:p₅i se:pi hepi
nit(s) *se:pɐ se:kɐ he:ʔɐ
indicative *-we: -βe: -βe -ɸe:
food packet *we:mu βeβu ɸe:mu
whirlwind *we:to:ɾɐ βe:to:ɾɐ βetoɾɐ
poverty *we:si βe:si βehi
shin *we:ʔjɐ βe:jɐ βehɐ ɸe:ʔtɐ
widow *wɐte:pɐ βɐteʔɐ
fat/grease *wɐʔsɐme:nɐ βɐhɐβeɾɐ ɸɐʔtɐme:nɐ
nape *wɑ:we: βɑ:βe: βɑ:βe
cassowary *wuje:nɐ βukeɾɐ ɸuse:nɐ
smoking rack *jɐⁱ[s]e:[n/ɾ]ɐ jɐⁱhe:ɾɐ kɐⁱhe:ɾɐ
good *jo:pe: joketɐ- koʔe

Long mid back vowel /*o:/ is retained as such in all descendants:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*o: o: [o: o]o o:
woven band *ijo:tɐ kotɐ
song sp. *ɐⁱjo:nɐ ɐⁱjo:ᵰɐ ɐⁱkoɾɐ
old woman *ɐjo:[ʔn/Nt]ɐ jo:nɐ kontɐ ɐso:ʔɐ
mud *[ɐ/u]ʔjo:n[ɐ]jo:ᵰɐ hoɾɐ
ear *ɑ:to: ɑ:to ɑ:ʔo:
mouth *o: n-o o:
vocative *-o: -o
steep/ravine *o:Npɐⁱ o:ŋgɐⁱ oŋkɐⁱ
sit *o:[ʔp]um- oʔuβ- o:ʔum-
stone *o:ni oɾi o:ni
ditch *o:ni (?) o:ni oɾɐ
cave *o:Nn[ɑ:]mu o:nɐu onɐβu
orchid sp. *o:te:nɐ ote:ᵰɐ oteɾɐ
(going) up *o:t[u] oto otu
yam sp. *o:wɐ o:βɐ oβɐ
face *o:ɾi o:ɾi
(going) down *o:ɾ[u] oɾo oɾu
stem/clan *o:jɐni ojɐi okɐɾɐ o:sɐnɐ
moon *[u]to:nɐ toɾɐ uʔo:nɐ
owl sp. *m₂ɐno:Nmɐni mɐɾomɐɾi
bird arrow *mɐto:ɾu ᵯɐtoɾu
back *m₂o:pɐ- ᵯo:kɐ- moʔɐ
day after tom. *m₂o:nɐ βo:ᵰɐ moɾɐ mo:nɐ
kiss *mo:t₂ɐ- ᵯo:tɐ- moʔe
one *mo:ʔjɑ: ᵯuɑ: βohɑ: mo:ʔtɑ:
haze *muno:jɐ ᵯuᵰo:jɐ muɾokɐ [k.]
hook *pipo:[n/ɾ]ɐ ki:ko: ʔiʔoɾɐ
bandicoot sp. *[p]iɾo:jɐ iɾo:jɐ ʔiɾokɐ
father *po:(-wɐ) ko:-βɐ ʔo-(βɐ) ɐ-k:o:-ɸɐ-
thumb *p₅o:Nnɐn[ɑ:] po:nɐnɑ: ponɐɾɐ
cuscus sp. *po:tɐjɐ ko:tɐjɐ otɐkɐ
nose ornament *p₂o:ɾɑ: po:ɾɑ:
wall sp. *p₅o:ɾo:mɑ: poɾoβɑ:
woman's bro. *po:ɾutɐ ko:ɾutɐ ʔoɾutɐ
older sister *nɑ:Nno: nɑ:no(:)-βɐ
mother *no:(-wɐ) no:-βɐ no-(βɐ) ɐ-no:-ɸɐ-
yam sp. *no:mɐ[n/ɾ]i ᵰo:ᵯɐɾi noβɐɾi
water *no:ni ᵰo:ɾi noɾɐ
big *no:nɐ ᵰo:ᵰɐ noɾɐ
duck sp. *no:Ntumu nontuβu
fish *no:ʔjɐnɐ no:ʔtɐnɐ
indicative *-Nno: -no:
trumpet *Nno:mɐ no:mɐ nomɐ
tree sp. *Nno:ɾi no:ɾi noɾi
nettle *tɐɾo:p₂ɐ tɐɾo:pɐ tɐɾoʔɐ
grandmother *t₃ɑ:t₃o:(-wɐ)tɑ:to(:)-βɐ tɑ:to-(βɐ) tɑ:t:o:-ɸɐ
torch *t₂o:mɐ to:mbɐ oβɐ ʔo:mɐ
hair net *to:m[e:]pɐ toᵯe:kɐ toβɐʔɐ
join/extend *to:Nmɐpɐ- to:mɐkɐ- tomɐʔe
cloud *to:Nnɐmu tonɐβu o:nɐmu
trading partner*to:Nti to:ndi tonti
striped pig *to:Ntɐⁱ to:ndɐⁱ tontɐⁱ
heat/hot *to:to:pɐ toto:kɐ totoʔe
fence post *t₂o:sɑ: to:sɑ: ohɑ:
knee *to:ɾi to:ɾi-βu toɾi ɐ-ʔo:ɾi
edge/boundary *to:jɑ: to:jɐ tokɑ:
leech *tumo:pɐ ᵯo:kɐ tuβoʔɐ
greens sp. *so:Nni so:ni
owl sp. *so:wiɾi so:βiɾi hoβiɾoɾoɾɐ
whirlwind *we:to:ɾɐ βe:to:ɾɐ βetoɾɐ
patella *wɐᵘɾo:ɾɐ βɐᵘɾo: βɐᵘɾoɾɐ
singular *-wɐNno: -βɐno -ɸɐn:o:
older brother *wɑ:wo:(-wɐ) βɑ:βo-βɐ
tree sp. *jɑ:no:nɐ jɑ:ᵰo:ᵰɐ kɑ:ɾoɾɐ
mother's sib *jɑ:jo: jɑ:jo kɑ:ko
woman's bro. *jo:pi(-wɐ) koʔi-(βɐ)
good *jo:pe: joketɐ- koʔe
payment/price *jo:pɑ: jo:kɐ- koʔɑ:
brideprice *jo:tɐ jo:tɐ kotɐ
swell *jo:tɐ- jo:tɐ-
tree sp./salt *[j]o:ɾo:pu joɾoku oɾoʔu

Long low central vowel /*ɑ:/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*ɑ: ɑ: ɑ: ɑ:
calf *imɑ:pu ᵰ-iᵯɑ:ku ɐ-iβɑ:ʔu
bird *inɑ:mɐ ŋʲɑ:ᵯɐ ≈ ŋʲɑ:
old man *inɑ:ʔmɐⁱ ŋʲɑ:mbɐⁱ nɑ:mpɐⁱ
women's house *inɑ:muni ŋʲɐuᵰi
sky *inɑ:ɾu[m/w]u ŋʲɐu nɑ:ɾuβɐ inaru [ac]
thunder *inɑ:ɾunɐ ŋʲɑ:ɾuᵰɐ nɑ:ɾuɾɐ
ginger sp. *isɑ:ji isɐi hɑ:kɐ
eel *iwɑ:ɾi iβɑ:ɾi
wife's parents *iɾɑ: -iɾɑ:- -iɾɑ:- -iɾɑ:-
all *e:jɑ: e:jɑ: ekɑ:
underneath *ɐme:mɑ:nɐ ᵯe:mɑ: βeβɑ:ɾɐ ɐme:mɑ:nɐ
woman *ɐnɑ:je: ᵰɑ:je: nɑ:ke: ɐnɑ:se:
overcast *ɑ:NmɐNjɐᵘ ɑ:mɐŋgʲɐᵘ ɑ:mɐntɐᵘ-
white clay *ɑ:p₂ɐtɐⁱ ɑ:pɐtɐⁱ ɑ:ʔɐtɐⁱ
rain *ɑ:pu ɑ:ʔu ɑ:k:u
armpit *ɑ:ʔpe: jɑ:pe: ɑ:kɐ
path/road *ɑ:ni ɑ:ɾɐ ɑ:nɐ
tusk *ɑ:nɐⁱ ɑ:ᵰɐⁱ ɑ:ɾɐⁱ
breath *ɑ:Nnɐ ɑ:nɐ
saliva *puwɐ-ɑ:ʔnu kuɑ:nu: ɐ-uβɑ:ntu [k.]
surpass *ɑ:tɐɾɐ- j-ɑ:tɐɾɐ- ɑ:tɐɾe
ear *ɑ:to: ɑ:to ɑ:ʔo:
fear *ɑ:tu ɑ:tu:- ɑ:tu
dry *ɑ:ʔsɐnɐ ɑ:sɐᵰɐ ɐhɐɾɐ ≈ ɑ:hɐɾɐɑ:ʔtɐnɐ
“hmm…” *ɑ:ɾi ɑ:ɾi ɑ:ɾi
call/call out *ɑ:ɾɐ- ɑ:ɾe a:ɾa [ac]
point *ɑ:ɾu ɑ:ɾu
call/shout *ɑ:jɐnɐ ɑ:jɐᵰɐ ɑ:kɐɾɐ
animal/game *ɑ:Njɐᵘ ɑ:ntɐᵘ ɑ:ntɐᵘ
fuzz of plant *[h]ɑ:ʔjɐ hɑ:jɐ ɑ:hɐ [k.]
heavy *umɑ:ɾɐ ᵯʷɑ:ɾɐ mɑ:ɾɐ ʔumɑ:ɾɐ
echidna sp. *umɑ:ɾu[m/w]u ᵯʷɑ:ɾu mɑ:ɾuβu
girl *mɐnɑ:tɐ ᵯɐᵰɑ:tɐ βɐɾɑ:tɐ mɐnɑ:ʔɐ
message/news *mɐjɑ:jɐ ᵯɐjɑ:jɐ βɐkɑ:kɐ
this/here *m₂ɑ: mɑ: mɑ:
vulva/vagina *mɑ:[m/w]u ᵯɐu βɑ:βu
tongue *m₂ɑ:piɾi ᵯɑ:kiɾi mɑ:ʔiɾi ɐ-mɑ:k:iɾi
place *m₂ɑ:pɐ mɑ:ʔɐ
son *m₂ɑ:p₂u ᵯɑ:pu mɑ:ʔu mɑ:k:u
law/instruction*m₂ɑ:nɐ ᵯɑ:ᵰɐ mɑ:ɾɐ
chin *m₂ɑ:tini mɑ:tiɾi mɑ:ʔini
mat/house *m₂ɑ:tɐ ᵯɑ:tɐ mɑ:tɐ mɑ:ʔɐ
ambush/trap *mɑ:ɾɐ ᵯɑ:ɾɐ βɑ:ɾɐ
one *mo:ʔjɑ: ᵯuɑ: βohɑ: mo:ʔtɑ:
bone *muʔjɑ:ni ᵯujɐi βuhɑ:ɾi muʔtɑ:ni
mushroom sp. *[N]muʔjɑ:ni ᵯujɑ:ᵰi muhɑ:ɾi
father's sister*Nmɑ:mu(-wɐ) mɑ:mu-βɐ mɑ:βu-(βɐ) mɑ:mu-ɸɐ
sister-in-law *Nmɑ:ti(-wɐ) mɑ:ti-βɐ mɑ:ti-(βɐ) mɑ:ʔi-ɸɐ
coconut *Nmɑ:su mu:sɐ (?) mɑ:hu
banana sp. *NmuᵄNnɑ: monɑ: muᵄnɑ:
again *pɐⁱpɑ: kɐⁱkɑ: ʔɐⁱʔɑ:
embers/ashes *p₃ɐɾɐʔmɑ: kɐɾɐmbɑ:jɐ kɐɾɐmpɑ:
raw/new *pɐɾɑ:j₂ɐ kɐɾɑ:sɐ ʔɐɾɑ:kɐ
kidney *pɐjɑ:… kɐjɑ:tɐ ʔɐkɑ:βɐ
pandanus sp. *p₂ɐjɑ:nɐ pɐjɑ:ᵰɐ ʔɐkɑ:ɾɐ
comb *pɑ:si ʔɑ:hi
wild *pɑ:jɐᵘ kɑ:jɐᵘ ʔɑ:kɐᵘ
nose ornament *p₂o:ɾɑ: po:ɾɑ:
banana sp. *puᵄɾisɑ:p₂ɐ kuᵄɾisɑ:pɐ ʔuᵄɾihɑ:ʔɐ
initiate *p₂umɑ:ɾɑ: puɑ:ɾɑ: ʔuβɑ:ɾɑ:
true *put₂ɑ: kutɑ: ʔuʔɑ:
butterfly *p₄… keŋgenɑ: pempenɑ:ɾu
dirty *p₄ɐⁱNɑ:Nmɐ kɐⁱnɑ:mɐ pɐⁱnɑ:mɐ
bark skirt *p₅ɐʔjɑ:nɐ pɐjɑ:ᵰɐ pɐhɑ:ɾɐ
wall sp. *p₅o:ɾo:mɑ: poɾoβɑ:
enemy *nɐmutɑ:(-wɐ) ᵰɐᵯutʷɑ: nɐβutɑ:-(βɐ)
older sister *nɐjɑ:(-wɐ) ᵰɐjɑ:-βɐ nɐkɑ:-(βɐ) nɐsɑ:-ɸɐ
house *nɑ:mu ᵰɐu nɑ:βu
headband sp. *nɑ:mu ᵰɑ:ᵯu nɑ:βu
breast *nɑ:Nmɐ ᵰɑ:ᵯɐ nɑ:mɐ nɑ:m:ɐ
grandfather *nɑ:pu(-wɐ) ᵰɑ:ku-βɐ nɑ:ʔu-(βɐ) nɑ:k:u-ɸɐ
son's wife *nɑ:p₂utu ᵰɑ:putu nɑ:ʔutu nɑ:k:uʔu
vine/rope *nɑ:puʔnɐ nɑ:ʔuntɐ nɑ:k:untɐ
older sister *nɑ:Nno:(-wɐ) nɑ:no(:)-βɐ
baby *nɑ:ti nɑ:ti nɑ:ʔi
wife *nɑ:tɐ ᵰɑ:tɐ nɑ:tɐ nɑ:ʔɐ
tuber *nɑ:tupɐ ᵰɑ:tukɐ nɑ:tuʔɐ
blood/red *nɑ:ɾe: nɑ:ɾe
casuarina sp. *nɑ:ɾe:[Np]ɑ: ɐɾe:mbɑ: nɑ:ɾempɑ:
long ago/old *nɑ:ɾu ᵰɑ:ɾu nɑ:ɾu nɑ:ɾu
behind/later *nɑ:Njiᵄ[n/ɾ]i ᵰɑ:ŋgʲɐi nɑ:ntiɐɾɐ
waist/middle *tɐmɑ:[n/ɾ]ɐ tɐᵯɑ: tɐβɑ:ɾɐ
joint/node *tɑ: ɐ-tɑ: ɐ-tɑ:
mountain/ridge *tɑ:p₂i tɑ:pi tɑ:ʔi
flying fox *tɑ:Npɑ:nɐ kɑ:ŋgɑ:ɾɐ kɑ:ŋkɑ:ɾɐ kɑ:k:ɑ:nɐ
bush garden *tɑ:nɑ: tɑ:ᵰɐ tɑ:ɾɑ:
grandmother *t₃ɑ:t₃o:(-wɐ) tɑ:to(:)-βɐ tɑ:to-(βɐ) tɑ:t:o:-ɸɐ
ginger sp. *tɑ:tu tɑ:tu tɑ:tu
pandanus mat *tɑ:ɾi tɑ:ɾi tɑ:ɾi
two *tɑ:ɾɐ tɑ:ɾɐ- tɑ:ɾɐ ʔɑ:ɾɐ
spittle *tɑ:ɾɐ tɑ:ɾɐ tɑ:ɾɐ
betel pepper *tɑ:ɾut₂ɑ: tɐɾutɑ: tɑ:ɾuʔɑ:
casuarina sp. *tɑ:jɐ tɑ:jɐ tɑ:kɐ
fence post *t₂o:sɑ: to:sɑ: ohɑ:
edge/boundary *to:jɑ: to:jɐ tokɑ:
poker stick *tunɑ:Nj[ɑ:] tuᵰɑ:ŋgʲɑ: tuɾɑ:ntɐ
rattan sp. *tuNnɑ:nɐ tunɑ:ᵰɐ tunɑ:ɾɐ
sorcery *sijɑ:pɐ sɑ:kɐ hikɑ:ʔɐ
shelter sp. *sɐɾɑ:nɐ sɐɾɑ:ᵰɐ hɐɾɑ:ɾɐ
parcel *sɑ:ʔmɐ sɑ:mbɐ hɑ:mpɐ
older brother *wɐjɑ:(-wɐ) βɐjɑ:-βɐ βɐkɑ:(-βɐ) ɐ-ɸɐsɑ:-ɸɐ
ghost *wɑ:Nnɐ βɑ:nɐ fana [ac]
husband *wɑ:ti βɑ:ti βɑ:ti ɸɑ:ʔi
nape *wɑ:we: βɑ:βe: βɑ:βe
older brother *wɑ:wo:(-wɐ) βɑ:βo-βɐ
fence/palisade *wɑ:Njɑ:munɐ βɐŋgʲɑ:muᵰɐ βɑ:ntɑ:βuɾɐ
king parrot *wuᵄjɑ:ɾɐ βuᵄjɑ: βuᵄkɑ:ɾɐ
tree kangaroo *jɐwɑ:si jɐβɑ:sɐ kɐβɑ:hi
on *-jɑ: -jɑ: -kɑ: -sɑ:
sugarcane *jɑ:pi jɑ:ki kɑ:ʔɐ sɑ:k:ɐ
branch *jɑ:nɐ kɑ:ɾɐ
tree sp. *jɑ:no:nɐ jɑ:ᵰo:ᵰɐ kɑ:ɾoɾɐ
elbow *jɑ:Ntɑ: jɐndɑ: kɑ:ntɑ: sɑ:t:ɑ:
centipede *j[ɑ:][s]ɑ:[n/ɾ]ɐjɐhɑ:ɾɐ kɑ:hɑ:ɾɐ
crest *jɑ:wɐ jɑ:βɐ kɑ:βɐ
count *jɑ:ɾ[ɐ]- jɑ:ɾ- kɑ:ɾɐ
because *-jɑ:ɾɐ -kɑ:ɾɐ -sɑ:ɾɐ
rolling string *jɑ:jɐ[m/w]u jɑ:jɐu kɑ:kɐβu
mother's sib *jɑ:jo: jɑ:jo kɑ:ko
payment/price *jo:pɑ: jo:kɐ- koʔɑ:

… /*ɑ:/ …:

East KainantuWaffa VaanturaAfaqina
*ɑ: ɐ ɑ: ɑ:
disappear *tupɑ:jɐ tukɐ(i)-tuʔɑ:kɐ
*ɑ: ɑ: ɐ ɑ:
husk/peel *upɐmɑ:si kʷɐᵯɑ:siʔɐβɐhi
laugh/smile*nɑ:nɐⁱ nɐɾɐⁱ-hinɑ:nɐⁱ-ʔtɐɾɐ

Diphthong /*iᵄ/ is fronted to [ie:] in Waffa and to [ia] in Afaqina:

East Kainantu Waffa Vaantura Afaqina
*iᵄ ie: iᵄ iᵄ [ia]
far *iniᵄnɐ ŋʲe:ᵰɐ ≈ ŋʲe:ɾɐniᵄɾɐ
sweet *iʔjiᵄj[ɑ:] kie:jɐ- hiᵄkɑ:
down (near) *Nmiᵄ miɑ: miᵄ-
co-wife *piᵄ[n/ɾ]i kie:- ʔiᵄɾi
head *piᵄtɐ kie:tɐ ʔiᵄtɐ ɐ-kiᵄʔɐ
earthworm *pɐʔjiᵄ… ʔɐhiᵄʔu kɐʔtiᵄɾu
behind/later*nɑ:Njiᵄ[n/ɾ]iᵰɑ:ŋgʲɐi nɑ:ntiɐɾɐ
not *jiᵄ kiᵄ siᵄ

Diphthong /*uᵄ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*uᵄ uᵄ [uᵄ uo: o]uᵄ uᵄ
s.'s husband *ituᵄ(-wɐ) (ᵰ)-ituo:-βɐ ɐ-ituᵄ(-βɐ)iʔuᵄ(-ɸɐ) [hk]
theft/adultery*umuᵄɾɐ ᵯuᵄɾɐ muᵄɾɐ
narrow space *Nmuᵄpe: muᵄke: muᵄʔe
banana sp. *NmuᵄNnɑ: monɑ: muᵄnɑ:
notched post *puᵄʔmɐⁱ kuᵄmbɐⁱ ʔuᵄmpɐⁱ
white magic *puᵄsɐ kuᵄsɐ ʔuᵄhɐ
banana sp. *puᵄɾisɑ:p₂ɐ kuᵄɾisɑ:pɐ ʔuᵄɾihɑ:ʔɐ
pig *p₂uᵄɾɐ puᵄɾɐ ʔuᵄɾɐ kuᵄɾɐ
sore (n.) *n[ɐ]Nmuᵄnɐ numuᵄɾɐ
P. raggiana *tɐpuᵄnɐ tɐkuᵄᵰɐ tɐβuᵄɾɐ
king parrot *wuᵄjɑ:ɾɐ βuᵄjɑ: βuᵄkɑ:ɾɐ
sun *j₂uᵄni suᵄi kuᵄɾi suᵄni

Diphthong /*ɐⁱ/ is retained as such in all descendants:

East Kainantu Waffa VaanturaAfaqina
*ɐⁱ ɐⁱ ɐⁱ ɐⁱ
old man *inɑ:ʔmɐⁱ ŋʲɑ:mbɐⁱnɑ:mpɐⁱ
afternoon *[h]e:nɐⁱni haᵰɐⁱ- eɾɐⁱɾikɐ
ladder *[h]ɐⁱjɐ hɑ:kʲɐ ɐⁱkɐ
song sp. *ɐⁱjo:nɐ ɐⁱjo:ᵰɐ ɐⁱkoɾɐ
edge/end *ɐɾɐⁱ ɐɾɐⁱ
white clay *ɑ:p₂ɐtɐⁱ ɑ:pɐtɐⁱ ɑ:ʔɐtɐⁱ
tusk *ɑ:nɐⁱ ɑ:ᵰɐⁱ ɑ:ɾɐⁱ
steep/ravine *o:Npɐⁱ o:ŋgɐⁱ oŋkɐⁱ
wind *uwɐⁱ uβɐⁱ uɸɐⁱ
hole *[N]mɐⁱpɐ mɐⁱʔɐ
again *pɐⁱpɑ: kɐⁱkɑ: ʔɐⁱʔɑ:
dirty *p₄ɐⁱNnɑ:Nmɐ kɐⁱnɑ:mɐpɐⁱnɑ:mɐ
notched post *puᵄʔmɐⁱ kuᵄmbɐⁱ ʔuᵄmpɐⁱ
tuber of s.p. *nɐⁱʔnɐ ᵰɐⁱnɐ nɐⁱntɐ
laugh/smile *nɑ:nɐⁱ nɐɾɐⁱ-hinɑ:nɐⁱ-ʔtɐɾɐ
finish *t₃ɐⁱpɐ- tɐⁱkɐ- tɐⁱʔe tɐⁱk:ɐ-
dream *tɐⁱnɐ tɐⁱɾɐ
platform/shelf*tɐⁱʔnɐ tɐⁱnɐ tɐⁱntɐ ɐⁱntɐ
stillbirth *tɐⁱɾi tɐⁱɾi- tɐⁱɾi
striped pig *to:Ntɐⁱ to:ndɐⁱ tontɐⁱ
tree sp. *sɐɾɐⁱ sɐɾɐⁱ hɐɾɐⁱ
near *wɐⁱ βɐⁱ-ni βɐⁱ
tooth *wɐⁱ ɐ-βɐⁱ ɐ-βɐⁱ ɐ-ɸɐⁱ
lie down/sleep*wɐⁱ- βɐⁱ- βɐⁱ
man *wɐⁱ-iNti βɐⁱndi βɐⁱnti ɸɐⁱʔi
dog *w₂ɐⁱni ɸɐⁱ βɐⁱɾi ɸɐⁱni
men's house *wɐⁱnɐ βɐⁱŋʲɐ βɐⁱɾɐ
lie down/sleep*wɐⁱtɐ- βɐⁱte ɸɐⁱʔɐ-
pandanus sp. *jɐⁱmu jɐⁱᵯu kɐⁱβu
smoking rack *jɐⁱ[s]e:[n/ɾ]ɐjɐⁱhe:ɾɐkɐⁱhe:ɾɐ
birth feast *jɐⁱsɐ jɐⁱsɐ kɐⁱhɐ

Diphthong /*ɐᵘ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
*ɐᵘ ɐᵘ [ɐᵘ ɑ:]ɐᵘ ɐᵘ
overcast *ɑ:NmɐNjɐᵘ ɑ:mɐŋgʲɐᵘ ɑ:mɐntɐᵘ-
animal/game *ɑ:Njɐᵘ ɑ:ntɐᵘ ɑ:ntɐᵘ
over/along *-mɐᵘ -βɐᵘ -mɐᵘ
grass/grassland *mujɐᵘ ᵯujɐᵘ ukɐᵘ
navel/umbilicus *[N]mɐᵘN- βɐᵘ-kɐnɐ mɐᵘn-tɐβɐ
≈ βɐᵘn-tɐ
leaves sp. *Nmɐᵘnɐ mɐᵘɾɐ mɐᵘɾɐ
sweat *pɐᵘsɐ kɐᵘsɐ
wild *pɑ:jɐᵘ kɑ:jɐᵘ ʔɑ:kɐᵘ
mother's br. *nɐᵘ(-wɐ) ᵰɐᵘ-βɐ nɐᵘ(-βɐ)
sister's child *nɐᵘNti ᵰɐᵘndi nɐᵘnti nɐᵘʔi [hk]
forget *tɐᵘnu tɐᵘᵰ- tɐᵘɾu-
spine *t₃ɐᵘwɐpɐ tɐᵘβɐʔɐ tɐᵘɸɐk:ɐ
fly (n.) *s[i/u]ʔmɐᵘ simbɐᵘ humpɐᵘ [k.]
frog sp. *wisɐᵘʔnɐ βisɐᵘnɐ βisɐᵘntɐ
not *-wɐᵘ -ɸɐᵘ
patella *wɐᵘɾo:ɾɐ βɐᵘɾo: βɐᵘɾoɾɐ
strong wind *wɐᵘɾuɾu βɐᵘɾuɾu βɐᵘɾuɾu
star *wɐjɐᵘ mɐkɐᵘ ɸɐsɐᵘ
cowrie shell sp.*jɐᵘ jɐᵘ kɐᵘ
limbless tree *jɐᵘpɐ jɐᵘkɐ- kɐᵘʔɐ
hand *jɐᵘpu jɑ:ku kɐᵘʔu ɐ-sɐᵘk:u
digging stick *jɐᵘnu jɐᵘ kɐᵘɾu
shell nosepiece *jɐᵘʔnɐnɐ jɐᵘnɐᵰɐ kɐᵘntɐɾɐ
hair/feather *jɐᵘsi jɑ:si: ≈ jɐᵘsikɐᵘhi ≈ kɑ:hi sɐᵘsi

Pronouns

[under construction]

East Kainantu nominative pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with Waffa attestations drawn from Stringer and Hotz (1973: 555, 1979 ibid.,) North Tairora of Vaantura from Vincent (1973: 531-532, 563, CITE, cf. Capell 1948-1949:111-114) and Afaqina (Binumarien) from Oatridge and Oatridge (1965: 13, Bee 1966: 3-4, 8) … areal grammatical trend …:

East KainantuWaffaVaantura Afaqina
1 sg.*nɐ
2 sg.*ɐ(-ne:) ɐ ɐ-ɾe ɐ-ne:
3 sg.*[i]βɐ iβɐ [βi-(βɐ)][mi-ɸɐ]
1 pl.*tɐ
2 pl.*iNnɐ ŋʲɐ
3 pl.*[i]jɐ ijɐ

Emphatic pronouns are reconstructed as follows:

East KainantuWaffa Vaantura Afaqina
1 sg. emph.*ne:(-ne:) ne: [te(-ɾe)] [ʔi-ne:]
2 sg. emph.*e: e(:)
3 sg. emph.*…
1 pl. emph.*te: te te(-ɾe)(-nɐβu)[mɑ:-sɐ]
2 pl. emph.*iNne: ŋʲe(:)ne(-nɐβu) in:e:
3 pl. emph.*…

Free object pronouns are reconstructed as follows:

East KainantuWaffaVaantura Afaqina
1 sg. obj.*… ti-ɾi/ti-øʔi-ni
2 sg. obj.*ɐ-ni ɐ-ɾi/ɐ-i ɐ-ni
3 sg. obj.*… i-ᵰɐ
1 pl. obj.*…
2 pl. obj.*…
3 pl. obj.*… ijɐ

… inalienable possessors and verbal objects …:

East KainantuWaffaVaantura Afaqina
_C _V _C _V
1 sg. poss./obj.*… ni- [ti-] [h-][ʔi-]- [ʔt]-
2 sg. poss./obj.*ɐ- i- ɐ- ø- ɐ- ø-
3 sg. poss./obj.*ɐ- ɐ- ɐ- ø- ɐ- ø-
1 pl. poss./obj.*ti- ti- ti- h- ʔi– ʔt-
2 pl. poss./obj.*iNni- ŋi:- ni- n- ni- n-
3 pl. poss./obj.*… ni- n- ni- n-

Verbal morphology

[under construction]

Verbal subject desinences are reconstructed as follows, with Waffa drawn from Stringer and Hotz (1969: 11-15,) Vaantura from Vincent (1973: CITE,) Omwunra (Obura) from Kerr (1973: CITE) and Afaqina (Binumarien) from Oatridge and Oatridge (1965: CITE.) …:

East KainantuWaffaVaantura Omwunra Afaqina
1 sg. sbj.*-u -u- [-unɐ-/-uɾɐ-]-u-
2 sg. sbj.*-ɐnɐ -ᵰɐ- -ɐnɐ-/-ɐɾɐ- -ɐnɐ-/-ɐᵰɐ-
3 sg. sbj.*-i -i- -i- -i-
1 pl. sbj.*-unɐ -uᵰɐ--unɐ-/-uɾɐ- -unɐ-/-uᵰɐ-
2 pl. sbj.*-ɐ -ɐ- -ɐ- -ɐ-
3 pl. sbj.*-ɐ -ɐ- -ɐ- -ɐ-

(n.b. Kerr (1973) gives Omwunra /ᵰ/ as /ɾ/)