Digul River-Ok

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

[under construction]

The Digul River-Ok family is comprised of perhaps 32 or more languages spoken …

Subclassification

The internal classification of Digul RIver-Ok is as follows:

Digul River-Ok

Ok
Ngalum

Kopkaka-Kwer

Nakai-Tangko

Lowland Ok

Mountain Ok

Digul River

Sawuy

Central Digul River

Awyu

Ndeiram River

Dumut

North Digul River

Awbono-Bayono

Becking and Dawi Rivers

It is not clear that Oksapmin belongs with Ok, as is argued by Loughnane and Fedden (2011,) or if the similarities reflect mutual influence between Oksapmin and Mountain Ok, especially Bimin (Healey 1964: 115) alongside a core of common inheritence from Trans New Guinea (i.e. personal pronouns and gender.)

History of classification

[under construction]

Drabbe (1950, 1957, 1059) Awju group

Healey (1964) Proto-Mountain Ok, Proto Lowland Ok and Proto-Ok

Voorhoeve (1968: 3-5) Asmat-Awyu-Ok Family in proposed Central and South New Guinea Stock.

Healey (1970) proto-Awyu-Dumut with some comparisons to his (1964) Mountain Ok reconstructions.

Voorhoeve (1971) adds Sawuj.

Greenberg (1971: 825-829) Ok and Awju subgroups of Southwest New Guinea alonside Marind, Tirio and Kukukuku (Angan) subgroups. Greenberg's Ok group wrongly includes Dumut.

Voorhoeve (2000) adds Kombai

Voorhoeve (2005) compares his (1980) proto-Asmat-Kamoro to Healey's proto-Awyu-Dumut and proto-Mountain Ok. Despite his equivocal conclusions, the data presented show Awyu-Dumut and Ok to be much more similar to one another than either is to Asmat.

Loughnane and Fedden (2011) Oksapmin and Ok

de Vries (2012) …

van den Heuvel, de Vries et al. (CITE) independently propose the inclusion of Becking-Dawi with Awyu-Dumut in a Greater Awyu family upon the basis of shared morphology.

Historical phonology

The following presentation is necessarily greatly indebted to Healey's (1964) proto-Ok, Lowland Ok and Mountain Ok and (1970) Awyu-Dumut. Many of the comparisons presented below are also found in Voorhoeve (2005: 154-158,) with some differences in their details.

[under construction]

Digul River-Ok had 15 consonants and … vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *s *k *kʷ
*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg *ŋgʷ
*w *j
*i *u
*… *…
*… *…
*a

Any consonant and any vowel can occur initially, medially or finally. Consonant clusters occur only in compounds.

Initially and medially, consonant values are generally unchanged:

Digul-Ok Digul Ok
*m *m *m
*n *n *n
*p *p *p
*t *t *t
*s ? *s
*k *k *k
*kʷ *kʷ *kʷ
*mb *mb *mb
*nd *nd *nd
*ndz *ndz *ndz
*ŋg- *ŋg *k
*-ŋg- *ŋg *ŋg
*ŋgʷ
*j *j *j
*w *w *w

The contrast between final plain and prenasalized stops is neutralized in Digul River:

Digul-Ok Digul Ok
*-m *m *m
*-n *n *n
*-p *p *p
*-t *t *t
*-s ? *s
*-k *k *k
*-mb *p *mb
*-nd *t *nd
*-ndz ? *ndz
*-ŋg *n *ŋg
*-ɾ

These correspondences are exemplified as follows:

[under construction]

[vowels undergoing major revision]

Initial and medial nasals /*m *n/ are retained as such in both families:

Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
*m *m *m
star *min *min *min-
hot *mam[y]n *mam[y]n *mam[y]n
mouth/tooth *maŋgot *maŋgot *maŋgot
dog *majaːn *m[a]jan *majaːn
mother's br.*moːm *mom *moːm
gall/bile *muːŋg *mun *muːŋg
*n *n *n
rattan/rope *n[aː/oː]ŋg *nan *n[aː/oː]ŋg

Initial voiceless stops /*p *t *k/ are retained as such in both families:

Digul River-Ok Digul River Ok
*p- *p *p
tongue *poːŋg *pon-kat *poːŋg
blow
good *ja[:]p[i/eː] *jap[i/e] *ja[:]p
*t- *t *t
dog *t[i/eː]nd *t[i/e]t *tind
hole *t[eː/oː]mb *top *teːmb
armpit *taŋgon *taŋgon *taŋgon
fat/grease *tukur *tukur *tukur
*k- *k *k
eye *kiːn(-roːp) *kin-rop *kiːn(-roːp)
flower *keːt *ket *keːt
blood/m's house*kaim *kaim *kaim
hornbill *kaweːr *kawer *kaweːr
bitter *k[aː/oː]k *k[a/o]k *k[aː/oː]k
die *k[oː/y]m[i] *k[o/y]m[i]
side of neck *kum[a] *kum[a] *kum
goura pigeon *k[oː/u]t[i/eː]m*k[o/u]t[i/e]m*k[u]t[i]m
bone *kundoːR *kundor *kundoːR

Laminal /*s/ is rare:

Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
*s *s
far*… *… *samaːn

Initial anterior prenasalized stops /*mb *nd *ndz/ are retained as such in both families:

Digul River-OkDigul River Ok
*mb- *mb *mb
wing
not *mb[eː/a] *mb[e] *mba
elbow *mbVn-[k/ŋg]up*mb[o]n-[k/ŋg]up*mb[a/o]ŋgup
mouth/lip(s)*mboːn(-kaːnd)*mbon(-kat) *mboːn(-kaːnd)
*nd- *nd *nd
heart *nd[y]mb-roːp *… *nd[y[mb-roːp
*ndz- *ndz *ndz
banana *ndzuːmb *ndzup *ndzuːmb

There is conflicting evidence in regard to the disposition of initial velar /*ŋg/. The bases of the second-person pronouns are reflected as /*ŋg/ in Digul River but as /*k/ in Ok, where comparison to other subfamilies of Trans New Guinea shows /*ŋg/ to be original:

Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
*ŋg- *ŋg *k
2 sg. m.*ŋge(-p) *ke(-p)
2 sg. f.*ŋgu(-p) *ŋgup *ku(-p)
2 pl. *ŋgi(-p) *ŋgip *ki(-p)

Digul River-OkDigul River Ok
*ŋg- *ŋg *ŋg
kidney*ŋg[ai][nd/r] *ŋg[ai][nd/r]*ŋg[ai][nd/r]

Medial nasals /*m *n/ are retained as such in both families:

Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
*-m- *m *m
die *k[oː/y]m[i] *k[o/y]m[i]
side of neck*kum[a] *kum[a] *kum
*-n- *n *n
Digul River-Ok Digul River Ok
*-p- *p *p
good *ja[:]p[i/eː] *jap[i/e] *ja[:]p
*-t- *t *t
goura pigeon*k[oː/u]t[i/eː]m*k[oː/u]t[i/eː]m*k[u]t[i]m
*-k- *k *k
fat/grease *tukur *tukur *tukur
Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
*-mb- *mb *mb
buttocks *[eː]mbVm *mbVm *[eː]mbim
laugh *ambiVn *amb[e]n *ambiVn
*-nd- *nd *nd
bone *kundoːR *kundor *kundoːR
egg *w[ai]ndin *w[ai]ndin *windin
*-ŋg- *ŋg *ŋg
mouth/tooth*maŋgoːt *maŋgot *maŋgoːt

The medial reflex of /*ndz/, if one existed, is not known.

Apical non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in both families:

Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
*r *r *r
boil (n.)*[i]r[y:]n *ryn *[i]r[y:]n
seed *[i]roːp *rop *[i]roːp
thorn *[a]ruk *[a]ruk *ruk
wing

/*j *w/:

Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
*j *j *j
breadfruit*jawoːt *jawoːt *jawoːt
good *ja[:]p[i/eː] *jap[i/e] *ja[:]p
*w *w *w
egg *w[ai]ndin *w[ai]ndin *windin
left *wakan *wakan *wakan
moon *wakoːr *wakor *wakoːr
drum *woːsV *… *woːs
hornbill *kaweːr *kawer *kaweːr
breadfruit*jawoːt *jawot *jawoːt

FInal nasals /*m *n/ are retained as such in both families:

Digul River-OkDigul River Ok
*-m *-m *-m
buttocks *[eː]mbVm *mbVm *[eː]mbim
breast *[aː/oː]m *[a/o]m
mother's br. *moːm *mom *moːm
blood/m's house*kaim *kaim *kaim
goura pigeon *kVtVm *k[o/u]t[i/e]m*k[o/u]t[i]m
liver *wVm *wVm *wVm
*-n *-n *-n
laugh *ambiVn *amb[e]n *ambiVn
star *min *min
hot *mam[y]n *mam[y]n *mam[y]n
dog *majaːn *m[a]jan *majaːn
breast *noːn *non
armpit *taŋgoːn *taŋgon *taŋgoːn
eye *kiːn *kiːn
lime/gourd *kameːn *kamen *kameːn
sweat *koːtin *kotin *k[oː]tin
boil (n.) *[i]r[y:]n *r[y]n *[i]ir[y:]n
egg *w[ai]ndin *w[ai]ndin *windin

Final voiceless stops /*p *t *k/ are retained as such in both families:

Digul River-OkDigul River Ok
*-p *-p *-p
level ground*ip *ip *ip
sun/day *[a]taːp *[a]ta[:]p *[a]taːp
wind *p[oːwu]p *p[owu]p *puːp
elbow/wrist *mbVn[k/ŋg]up *mb[o]n[k/ŋg]up*mb[a/o]ŋgup
tail *ka[:]ndi[:]p *kandip
seed *[i]roːp *rop *[i]roːp
*-t *-t *-t
mouth/tooth *maŋgot *maŋgot *maŋgot
flower *keːt *ket *keːt
breadfruit *jawoːt *jawot *jawoːt
*-k *-k *-k
thorn *[a]ɾuk *[a]ɾuk *ɾuk
water *[aː/oː]k *[a/o][:]k *oːk
shoulder *maːk *ma[:]k *maːk
white *kajoːk *kajok *kaj[oː]k
bitter *k[aː/oː]k *k[a/o]k *k[aː/oː]k

Final prenasalized stops /*mb *nd/ are merged with voiceless stops /*p *t/ in Digul River:

Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
*-mb *-p *-mb
house *amb *ap *amb
hole *t[eː/oː]mb *to[:]p *teːmb
banana *ndzuːmb *ndzuːp *ndzuːmb
heavy *[i]ɾu[:]mb *ɾup *[i]ɾuːmb
*-nd *-t *-nd
vein/tendon*mend *met *mend
dog *tind *tit *tind
skin/bark *kaːnd *ka[:]t *kaːnd
bandicoot *kajaːnd *kaja[:]t *kajaːnd

Final prenasalized stop /*ŋg/ is merged with nasal /*n/ in Digul RIver:

Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
*-ŋg [ŋ] *-n *-ŋg [ŋ]
gall/bile *muːŋg *muːn *muːŋg
rattan/rope*n[aː/oː]ŋg *na[:]n *n[aː/oː]ŋg

The difference between this Digul Reflex reflex and those of /*mb *nd/ requires that the allophonic expression of final /*ŋg/ as [*ŋ] predates Digul River's loss of contrastive voice and prenasalization in final stops.

Final apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is retained as such in both families:

Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
*-ɾ *-ɾ *-ɾ
excrement *[ɒ/o]ɾ *[ɒ/o]ɾ *oːɾ
fat/grease*tukuɾ *tukuɾ *tukuɾ
hornbill *kaweːɾ *kaweːɾ *kaweːɾ
moon *wakoɾ *wakoɾ *wakoɾ
Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
* * *

Pronouns

[under construction]

Digul River-Ok free pronouns are reconstructed as follows:

Digul River-OkDigul RiverOk
1 sg. *ne *nup *ne
2 sg. m. *ŋge-p *ke-p
2 sg. f. *ŋgu-p *ŋgup *ku-p
3 sg. m. *eː *eː
3 sg. f. *u *u
1 pl. excl.*nu *nu
1 pl. incl.*nu-p *nu-p
2 pl. *ŋgi-p *ŋgip *ki-p
3 pl. *i *i

Digul River no longer distinguishes masculine from feminine gender in the second person singular.

It was originally considered, based upon analogy with the vowel alternations which distinguish genders in the second and third persons, that Digul River first person singular /*nup/ might reflect a feminine form which had been generalized in Digul River and lost in Ok. There are two reasons why this was rejected. The first is that the first person plural does not observe the expected ablaut to /*ni/. Further, the pronominal augment /*-p/ is found to have a meaning in Ngalum (Hylkema 1996,) where it distinguishes inclusive /nu-p/ from exclusive /nu/. It seems then that /*-p/ was specifically identified with the second person, such that its appearance upon a first singular feminine base would make little sense. Instead, we posit that the first person plural inclusive was generalized to include the exclusive, as it has been in Lowland Ok, and was then further generalized to include the singular, motivating subsequent disambiguation by the addition of a suffix to the plural.

Comparison with Fly River base forms confirms the originality of gender vocalism:

Digul River-OkFly River
3 sg. m.*e *e
3 sg. f.*u *u
3 pl. *i *i