Wambon
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
Wambon, also known as Dumut, consists of anywhere from three to nine closely-related languages spoken mostly east of the Digul river and west of the Kao river in Indonesia's Papua province, somewhat to the west of the the Papua New Guinea border, with a small enclave just across the Fly River in Papua New Guinea's Western province.
There are several reasons why we use the term Wambon rather than Dumut to refer to this family. Dumut is the native word for the Mandobo river, which isn't geographically representative of the region as a whole. Drabbe (1959) called all of these Awyu languages in distinction to Kati (i.e. Muyu of the Lowland Ok family,) using Dumut to refer only to varieties of Mandobo. The designation Dumut was extended northward by Healey (1970) to include Drabbe's Wambon of Waniktit village (i.e. Agayop) in contrast to the Awyu languages west of the Digul, and then by Voorhoeve (2000) to include de Vries' (1986, 1989, 1992) Digul Wambon (North Wambon,) becoming less and less appropriate with each extension. In contrast, the term Wambon has been used to refer to at least some portions of all three languages, and according to Jang (2003: 24 after Farneubun 2002) “people in Mandobo language region insist that their language is part of the Wambon languages.” As the name of an ethnic group, the use of Wambon is parallel to the use of Awyu.
The southern Wambon languages have been significantly influenced by the languages of the Lowland Ok family immediately to the east, while North Wambon has borrowed a number of terms from the Central Ok languages to the north.
Subclassification
The internal classification of Wambon is as follows:
Wambon
North Wambon
Ketum
Kenon-Kenyam
Kenon
Kenyam
South and East Wambon
East Wambon
Agayop
Kokenop
Mandobo
Upper Mandobo
Central Mandobo
Mariam Mandobo
As no Kenyam or Mariam Mandobo data is currently available to us, their independence and placement are based upon the lexical similarity figures presented in Jang (2003: 19-27.)
De Vries and de Vries-Wiersma (1992: 79) assert that North Wambon and Yonggom Wambon (i.e. East Wambon) are viewed by their speakers as dialects of a single language, but the lexicostatistical figure presented at 47% does not support this, nor does Voorhoeve's (2000: 362) figure of 50% vs. 62% for Yonggom Wambon and Mandobo (below.)
Voorhoeve (2000: 362) provides lexicostatistical figures for Dumut as follows:
Digul | Yonggom | Mandobo | |
Digul | — | 50 | 51 |
Yonggom | 50 | — | 62 |
Mandobo | 51 | 62 | — |
(Digul = Kenon, Yonggom = Agayop, Mandobo = Kaeti)
Healey (1970: 1009) :provides a substantially higher figure of 77% between Yonggom Wambon and Mandobo.
Sources
Drabbe (1954: 211- 214) grammar sketch of Oàmbon of Anggimòp village and Runggoanjàp and (pp. 214-229) 419 comparative terms and (pp. 231-255) 100 comparative terms for Oàmbon Dumùt (Upper Mandobo)
Drabbe (1959) grammar and (pp. 162-181) 430 comparative terms for Kaeti (Central Mandobo) and Wambon (Agayop) of Waniktit village
Healey (1970) proto Awyu-Dumut
Stokhof ed. (1982) Holle vocabularies with (pp. 120-121) 71 comparative terms for Upper Uwimerah [sic]/Upper Digul (North Wambon, possibly Kenyam,) (pp. 129-130) 44 comparative terms for Uwimerah (observation post) (Kokenop) and (pp. 141-150) 429 comparative terms for Digul Mandobo (Upper Mandobo) after van Doorn
de Vries (1986) Wambon relators
de Vries (1989) Wambon and Korowai (unobtained)
de Vries and de Vries-Wiersma (1992) grammar of Digul Wambon (Kenon) of Sawagit village
de Vries (1994) Awyu (i.e. Central Digul River) number systems
de Vries (2010) Dumut conjoined clauses
de Vries, Wester and van den Heuvel (2012) Greater Awyu (Digul River) comparative pronouns and verbal morphology
Voorhoeve (2000) revision of Healey's (1970) Awyu-Dumut, including (pp. 372-381) 108 reconstructed terms
Farneubun (2002) Central Digul survey (unobtained)
Farneubun (2002) Mandobo survey (unobtained)
Jang (2003: 39-47) 239 comparative terms for Ketum of Ater village, Kenon of Klofkamp and Kokenop of Bukit
Jang (2007) phonology of Kenon-Wambon of Manggelum village
Jang (2008) grammar of (Kenon) Wambon of Klopkam (Klofkamp) and Manggelum villages
Jang and Jang (2008) dictionary of (Kenon) Wambon
Jang and Jang (2009) orthography of (Kenon) Wambon
Hughes (2009: 27-37) 239 comparative terms for (Kenon) Wambon of Manggelum
Lebold, Kriens and Susanto (2013: 36-47) 239 comparative terms for (Central) Mandobo of Kaisah village and (pp. 48-50) 60 comparative terms for Subur and Aiwat
Wester (2014) Awyu-Dumut comparative morphology including (pp. 195-210) 430 comparative terms for (Kaeti) Mandobo, and Yonggom Wambon (Agayop) after Drabbe (1959: 162-181) and for Digul Wambon (Kenon) after Jang (p.c.)
History of classification
[under construction]
Historical phonology
[under construction]
The presentation which follows is inevitably deeply indebted to the reconstruction presented in Healey (1970.)
Proto-Wambon had 15 consonants and 9 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | |||
*p | *t | *s | *k | *kʷ |
*mb | *nd | *ndz | *ŋg | *ŋgʷ |
*w | *ɾ | *j |
*i | *u | |
*e̝ | *ɵ̝ | *o̝ |
*ɛ | *ɔ | |
*a | *ɒ |
…
Only a restricted subset of consonants occurs finally:
*m | *n | |||
*p | *t | *k | [*kʷ] | |
*ɾ | *j |
…
The most intractable uncertainty in the reconstruction of vowels is the distinction between low back /*ɒ/, which yields low central [a] in Mandobo, and low mid back rounded /*ɔ/ which is retained as such. That these were distinct is mandated by the contrast between /*ɔk/ “water” on the one hand and /*ɒm/ “breast”, /*ɒɾ/ “excrement” on the other. However there are many examples in which reflexes differ between Mandobo varieties, as well as some which lack attestations in Mandobo, thus are ambiguous between /*ɒ *ɔ/.
…
Healey (1970: 1002-1005) gives 12 consonants and 8 vowels for proto-Dumut in original transcription as follows:
*m | *n | ||
*p | *t | *s | *k |
*b | *d | *g | |
*w | *r | *y |
*i | *ü | *u |
*e | *ö | *o |
*ɔ | ||
*a |
Healey specifies <ü ö> as high front rounded and mid central rounded vowels respectively.
Voorhoeve (2000: 366-369) expands Healey's inventory to 13 consonants to account for de Vries' Digul Wambon, confirming the existence of Wambon /*p/ in non-final position and tentatively adding laminal voiced affricate /*dʒ/, but the reconstrution is otherwise basically identical save for a few added comparisons and the inclusion of North Wambon reflexes.
The most significant differences between these reconstructions and that presented here are, first, the recognition of rounded velar stops /*kʷ *ŋgʷ/, which are uncommon and sometimes discernible only through their effects upon neighboring vowels but correspond to rounded velars in other families, and, more sweepingly, the rearrangement of Healey's vowel qualities, which deserves further explanation: The first difference is that front mid-vowels /*e̝ *ɛ/ are distinguished, as they are in Awyu as well as North Digul River and Mountain Ok; this distinction is neutralized in most descendants, so would not have been obvious to either Healey or Voorhoeve, but is visible in the details of Mandobo dialect reflexes and supported by outcomparison to the aformentioned groups. The second is the reinterpretation of Healey's high central rounded vowel <ü> as high back rounded /*u/, which undergoes fronting across a very large portion of southwest New Guinea, excepting only the margins of the fronting region, namely Mandobo and South Awyu. Concomitantly, Healey's <u> are reinterpreted as high mid, low mid and low back rounded /*o̝ *ɔ *ɒ/ respectively.
To Healey's (1970: 1003) inventory of finals we add /*ɾ/, of which the North Wambon reflex is /t/ rather than /j/. Healey had no way of discerning this because finals /*ɾ *j/ have merged in East Wambon and Mandobo, upon which his reconstruction was based. It's not clear why Voorhoeve overlooked the North Wambon distinction; for example Voorhoeve's (2000: 377) /*wakot/ “moon” is inexplicably reconstructed with final /*t/ in contravention of Voorhoeve's own correspondences (p. 367.)
…. Healey's values (1970: 1002-1005, 1007-1008) …
Initial consonants correspond as follows:
Wambon | N. Wambon | E. Wambon | Mandobo | Healey |
*m- | m | m | *m | *m |
*n- | n | n | *n | *n |
*p- | h | ø | *w | *w |
*p-/_… | h | ø | *ø | *ø |
*t- | t | t | *t | *t |
*t-/_i e̝ u | s | t | *t | *t |
*s- | s | t | *t | *s |
*k- | k | k | *k | *k |
*kʷ- | k | k | *kʷ | *k |
*mb- | mb | mb | *mb | *b |
*nd- | nd | nd | *nd | *d |
*ndz- | dʒ | *t | — | |
*ŋg- | ŋg | ŋg | *ŋg | *g |
*ŋgʷ- | ŋg | ŋg | *ŋgʷ | *gw |
*w- | w | w | *w | *w |
*w-/_i | w | w | *ø | *w |
*ɾ- | ɾ | ɾ | *ɾ | *r |
*j- | j | j | *j | *y |
*j-/_e̝ | ø | j | *ø | *y |
Medial consonants correspond as follows:
Wambon | N. Wambon | E. Wambon | Mandobo | Healey |
*-m- | m | m | *m | *m |
*-n- | n | n | *n | *n |
*-p- | *j | — | ||
*-p- | *ø | — | ||
*-p- | *w | *w | ||
*-t- | t | t | *t | *t |
*t-/_i u | s | t | *t | *t |
*-s- | s | s | *t | *s |
*-k- | k | k | *k | *k |
*-kʷ- | *kʷ | *k | ||
*-mb- | mb | mb | *mb | *b |
*-nd- | nd | nd | *nd | *d |
*-ndz- | dʒ | ɾ | *r | *r |
*-ndz-/_u | dʒ | j | *ɾ | *r/*y |
*-ŋg- | ŋg | ŋg | *ŋg | *g |
*-ŋgʷ- | ŋg | ŋg | *ŋgʷ | *g |
*-w- | *w | |||
*-w- | ||||
*-ɾ- | l | r | *ɾ | *r |
*-j- | *j | *y | ||
*-j- |
Final consonants correspond as follows:
Wambon | N. Wambon | E. Wambon | Mandobo | Healey |
*-m | m | m | *m | *m |
*-n | n | n | *n | *n |
*-p | p | p | *p | *p |
*-t | t | t | *t | *t |
*-k | k | k | *k | *k |
*-kʷ | k | p | *p | *p |
*-ɾ | t | j | *j | *y |
*-j | j | j | *j | *y |
Vowels correspond as follows:
Wambon | N. Wambon | E. Wambon | Mandobo | Healey |
*i | i | i | *i | *i |
*u | i | i | *u | *ü |
*e̝ | e | e | *e̝ | *e |
*ɵ̝ | u | u | *ɵ̝ | *ö |
*o̝ | u | u | *o̝ | *o |
*ɛ | e | e | *ɛ | *e |
*ɔ | o | o | *ɔ | *o |
*ɒ | o | o | *a | *ɔ |
*a | a | a | *a | *a |
*… |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows. Kenon attestations are drawn from de Vries and de Vries-Wiersma (1992,) Voorhoeve (2000) quoting de Vries (p.c.,) from Jang (2008,) from Hughes (2009: 27-37,) or from a digitalized vocabulary provided by Dekker and Jang (2013,) in which instances it is indicated [hj], [jh] and [rw] respectively. Ketum Wambon is drawn from Jang (2003: 39-47.) Agayop forms are drawn from Drabbe's (1959: 162-181, ibid) Wambon. While Drabbe's vocabularies are intended to be phonemic, as is de Vries' and Jang's Kenon, materials from the surveys of Jang (2003,) Hughes (2009) and Lebold et al. (2013) are phonetic.
Any consonant can occur initially.
Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*m- | m | m | m | *m | *m | |
drink | *mi- | mi- | mi- | mi- | *mi- | *mi- |
swallow | *mi[m/n]-kɵ̝m- | *mi[m/n]-kɵ̝m- | **mi köm- | |||
star/firefly | *min(-ɔp) | min-op [rw] | ˈmin-ɔp̚ | minduⁱ | *min-ɔp | — |
bone | *mit | mit | mir | mit | *mit-ɔp | *mit |
thigh/upper arm | *mindin | mindin [rw] | *mindin | — | ||
come | *m[ɛ]- | mɛ- | *m[ɛ]- | *me- | ||
gall/bile | *mɛn | mɛn | *mɛn | *men | ||
this | *mɛnɛ | mɛnɛ | *mɛnɛ | *mene | ||
tendon/vein | *mɛt | met | mɛt | *tɛmɛt | *met | |
side | *mɛɾɛn | mɛrɛŋ | — | |||
hair/skull | *mɵ̝k | muk | muk̚ | muk | *mɵ̝k | — |
hot | *mamun | mamin | mɐmin | mamin | — | |
daughter | *matip | matip | *matip | *matip | ||
beard | *matut | matit | *matut | *matit | ||
get up/stand up | *matɵ̝ɾ- | matut [hj] | moˈtɛr- | matigo (?) | *matɵ̝ɾɵ̝- | — |
story/tradition | *matɔm | matom | *matɔm | *maatom | ||
son | *mandɵ̝p | maːndup | *mandɵ̝p | *maadöp | ||
shoulder/ten | *mak | mak | *mak | *mak | ||
grandchild | *mak-ɔp | maɣop [rw] | ˈmɐɢob̚ | magop | *mak-ɔp | *maakop |
young woman | *m[a]ŋg[ajɛ]t | maŋgat [rw] | maŋgat | *mɛŋg[ajɛ]t | *magat/*megeet | |
mouth/jaw | *maŋgɔt | maŋgot | maŋgot | *maŋgɔt | *magot | |
afraid | *m[ɒ/ɔ]p | mop [hj] | mop̚ | — | ||
behind | *m[ɒ/ɔ]t | mot [hj] | — | |||
mother's br. | *mɔm | mom | *mɔm | — | ||
roof | *mɔndɔm | *mɔndɔm | — | |||
child | *mo̝n | mun | *mo̝n | *mun | ||
rain | *mo̝ɾup | mirip | *mo̝ɾup | *mürüp | ||
back | *mum | miːm | — |
Initial apical nasal /*n/ is much less common than initial bilabial /*m/ (above.) It is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*n- | n | n | n | *n | *n | |
1 sg. | *nɵ̝kʷ | nuk | nuk̚ | nup | *nɵ̝p | *nöp |
do (imperative) | *-n[ɵ̝/o̝] | -nu [hj] | — | |||
eat (imperative) | *na | na | — | |||
1 sg. poss. | *na- | na- | na | *na | ||
go (imperative) | *na-kɔj | naɣoⁱ | — | |||
1 pl. | *naŋgVp | noɣop | nɛˈɢip̚ | naŋgup | *naŋgup | *nagüp |
knowledge | *n[ɔ]pam | *nɔwam | — |
Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ [ɸ] is fricated and deoccluded to /h/ in Kenon and dropped in Ketum and in East Wambon. In the dialects of Mandobo, it is either reflected as [w] or dropped under unknown conditions:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*p- | h | ø | ø | *w *ø | *w *ø | |
thought | *pin(-pin) | hin-opko | *imbin-mɔ- | — | ||
thick | *pinim | hinim [rw] | — | |||
earthquake | *p[i]nd[ɵ̝]m | hendem [rw] | indum | *windɵ̝m | *idöm/*odöm | |
see | *pe̝t[a]k- | hetak- | sɛg- | ɛtag- | *[i/e̝]t[i/e̝]k-jɔ- | *eto-/*iti- |
bamboo | *pe̝kɔp | heɣop [rw] | ɛːˈɢop | ɛgop | — | |
skinny | *pɛt-pɛt | helewet [rw] | *ɛt-ɛt | — | ||
blow | *p[ɵ̝/o̝]-mɔ- | ˈhumɔ- [jh] | umɐ- | — | ||
bird of paradise | *pandɔ[ɾ/j] | andoⁱ | *wandɔj | *wadoy | ||
tongue | *pa[wɔ]n | han-op [rw] | ɐŋ-ˈkɐr | an-op | *wa[wɔ]n(-kat) | — |
stairs/ladder | *paɾik | halik [rw] | *waɾik | — | ||
put down | *paɾɔ- | halo- | — | |||
stab/kill (fut.) | *pu- | hi- [hj] | i- | *u- | — | |
name | *pup | hit [rw] | iː | ip | *up | *üp |
smell | *pup-(mɔ)- | hip | ip-mo | *u-mɔ- | *üp-mo- |
These developments are shared with Nakai to the north and Lowland Ok to the east, with Ninggirum reflecting initial /*p/ as [h] while Tangko, Iwur and Muyu drop it altogether. The Marind-Yaqay family to the south likewise deoccludes Fly River /*ɸ/ to /*h/. We can identify this change as part of a broader phenomenon affecting all the families of the Digul River corridor.
Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ followed by vowels /*ɵ̝ *ɛ *ɔ *a *ɒ/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*t-/_ɵ̝ | t | t | t | *t | *t | |
corpse | *tɵ̝k | tuk [rw] | — | |||
fat/grease | *tɵ̝kɵ̝ɾ | tuɣut [rw] | tuguⁱ | *tɵ̝kɵ̝ | *tököy | |
go up | *tɵ̝ɾ- | tut [hj] | turu- | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝- | *törö- | |
hide | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝k-mɔ- | suluk-mo- [rw] | turuk-oa | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝k-mɔ- | *turuk-mo- | |
*t-/_ɛ | t | t | t | *t | *t | |
rat | *t[ɛ]mɔn | tɛmon | *t[ɔ]mɔn | *temon | ||
penis | *tɛŋgɛt | teŋget [rw] | tɛŋgɛt | *tɛŋgɛt | *teget | |
shy | *tɛɾɛŋgɛt | tɛrɛŋgɛt | *tɛɾɛŋgɛt | *tereget | ||
*t-/_ɔ | t | t | t | *t | *t | |
hole | *tɔp | top | top | *-tɔp | *top | |
termite | *tɔmaj | tomae | tomaᵉ | *tɔmaj | *tomay | |
daughter | *t[ɒ/ɔ]mba-ɾan | tombalan [hj] | — | |||
*t-/_a | t | t | t | *t | *t | |
cuscus | *takip | tɑʁip̚ [jh] | tɐˈɢip̚ | *takip | — | |
cowrie shell | *tak[e̝]t | taɣet | *tak[e̝]t | — | ||
armpit | *taŋgɔn (tɔp) | taŋgo-top [rw] | taŋgo top | *taŋgɔn (tɔp) | *taagon top | |
nose | *taŋgo̝t | toŋgot | *taŋgo̝t | *togut | ||
flying fox | *tawɔɾ | tawot [rw] | towoⁱ | — | ||
finger | *taɾɔn | talon [rw] | — | |||
shoot | *taje̝m- | tem/tamdʒ- | ˈtɐmd͜ʒ- | taᵉm- | *t[a]je̝m- | *taem- |
yellow | *t[a]jan | tɐjɐn | — |
When followed by high and high mid front vowels /*i *e̝/ or high back tounded /*u/, apical voiceless stop /*t/ is merged with laminal /s/ [ts s] in North Wambon:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*t-/_i | s [ts] | s | t | *t | *t | |
plait | *ti- | si- | ti- | *ti- | *ti- | |
dog | *tit | sɪ:ʀ | *tit | — | ||
rattan/rope | *tik | sik | tik | *tik | *tik | |
reason | *tikin | siɣi | tigin | — | ||
afterbirth | *t[i]ŋgɔ-ɾɔp | *tiŋgɔ-ɾɔp | — | |||
*t-/_u | s [ts] | s | t | *t | *t | |
expel from body | *tu- | si- [rw] | ti- | *tu- | *tü- | |
banana | *tut | sit | siːʀ | tit | *tut | *tüt |
ear | *t[u]ɾɵ̝n(-tɔp) | silu-top | siˈrun | turu-top | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝n-tɔp | *turu=top |
*t-/_e̝ | s [ts] | s | t | *t | *t | |
red | *te̝n-ɔp | tɛnop | *te̝n-ɔp | *tenop | ||
leech | *te̝ɾe̝n | selen | sɛˈrɛn | tɛrɛn | *te̝ɾe̝n | *teren |
Initial laminal voiceless /*s/ is merged with apical stop /t/ in Mandobo, a development shared with Muyu of the Lowland Ok family to the east:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*s- | s [ts] | s | s | *t | *s | |
beak | *sim | sim [hj] | — | |||
take/marry | *si-mɔ- | su-mo- | *ti-mɔ- | — | ||
near | *s[i/e̝]nd[i/e̝]k | ˈsɛndɛq [jh] | sindik | — | ||
mouse/rat | *s[e̝]k[o̝]nap | sɛɢˈnɑp [jh] | sogonap | *to̝ko̝n-ɔp | *sukunaap | |
sun/day | *sajat | sat | sat | *t[e̝jɛ]t | *seat | |
throw away | *sa-(mɔ)- | samo- [rw] | somo- | *ta-(mɔ)- | — | |
widow/wife | *saɾip | salip [rw] | saˈrip̚ | sarip | *taɾip | *sarip |
cold | *saɾo̝[ɾ/j] | saruⁱ | *taɾo̝j | — | ||
mosquito | *sɒpe̝n | sowɛn | *taje̝n-ɔp | *sɔwen | ||
dig | *sɔ- | a-so | so- | *tɔ- | *so- | |
dry | *sɔk | sok | so̚g- | — |
The following loan is likewise affected:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*s- | s | *t | — | |||
tobacco | *sapo̝k | sapuk | *taho̝k | — |
Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*k- | k [k q] | k [k q g] | k | *k | *k | |
bathe | *kim- | kim- [rw] | kɛm- | kim- | *kim- | *kim- |
sleep (n.) | *kino̝m | kinum | kiˈnum | kinum | *kino̝m | *kinum |
flesh | *kit | qit̚ [jh] | kiʀ | -git | — | |
wind | *kijapo̝j | kiwi | kiwuⁱ | *kijawo̝j | *kiwuy | |
be | *ke̝- | kɛ- | *ke̝- | *ke- | ||
foot | *ke̝nɔp | kenop [rw] | kɛˈnɔp̚ | — | ||
flower | *ke̝t | kɛt | *ke̝t | *ket | ||
bandicoot | *k[e̝]sɔ[t/ɾ] | kosot [rw] | — | |||
eye | *ke̝-ɾɔp | kelop | ˈkenoː | kɛrop | *ke̝-ɾɔp | *kerop |
make fire | *kɵ̝m- | ugum- | *kɵ̝m- | — | ||
swallow | *kɵ̝m- | a-gumo | *kɵ̝m- | **köm- | ||
and/also | *kɵ̝p | -kup | -ɢup̚ | -kup | *-kɵ̝p | *köp |
fence/wall | *kɵ̝k | kuk | *kɵ̝k | *kök | ||
walk/go (n.p.) | *ka- | ka- | ɐ- ~ -gɐ- | *ka- | — | |
widow | *kamɔk | *kamɔk | — | |||
head | *kambijan | *kambijan | — | |||
theft | *kamb[i/u]ɾ | kambit [rw] | kambir | — | ||
friend | *kambe̝n | kambe [hj] | *kambe̝n | — | ||
worm | *kambɔt | kɐmboˈtɐj [hj] | *kambɔt | — | ||
palate | *kana[m/n] | kanaŋ-git | *kana[m/n] | — | ||
skin/bark | *kat | kat | gɐɾ ~ qɐʀ | *-kat | — | |
outside | *kat | kat | *kat | *kat | ||
saliva/spittle | *kate̝t | katɛt | *kate̝t | *katet | ||
flesh | *kandɵ̝ | kandu | *kandɵ̝ | — | ||
heavy | *kakɵ̝n | kuɣun [hj] | kagun | *kakɵ̝n | *kaakön | |
man/old man | *kako̝p | kagup | *kako̝p | — | ||
ghost | *kako̝j | kaguⁱ | *ko̝ko̝ | *kakuy | ||
enough | *kaɾe̝ | karɛ | *kaɾe̝- | *kare | ||
break/crush | *kaɾɔ- | karo-ndɛ | *kaɾɔ-nde̝- | *karo=ne- | ||
inside | *k[a]ɾo̝p | *k[a]ɾo̝p | — | |||
friend | *kaj | na-ɣaⁱ [hj] | ˈqɐjɛn | kaᵉ | — | |
crocodile | *kajambo̝t | *ke̝jambo̝t | — | |||
walk/go (pres.) | *kɔ- | ko- | ko- | *kɔ- | *ko- | |
die (non-pres.) | *kɔm- | kom- [hj] | — | |||
far | *kɔmam | komam [rw] | qɐmː | kamam | *kɔmam | *komam |
neck | *k[ɔ]man | *kɔman | — | |||
lie/falsehood | *kɔjap | kojap [rw] | kojap | — | ||
wrist/six | *kɔmo̝k | kumuk | ˈkumuɢ- | *kɔmo̝k | — | |
thunder | *kɔmɵ̝t | kumut [rw] | kumut | *kɔmɵ̝t | *kumöt | |
bark/skin | *kɔtaj | kotaⁱ | kotaᵉ | *kɔtaj | *kotay | |
foot/leg | *kɔndɔk | kondok | *kɔndɔk | *kodok | ||
white | *kɔwat | kowat | qɐˈwɐʀ | *kɔwat | — | |
now/today | *kɔwandɵ̝t | kowandut | *kɔwandɵ̝t | — | ||
stone axe | *kɔɾu | kori | *kɔɾu | *korü | ||
milk | *ko̝n | kun | *am-ko̝n | *kun | ||
sky | *ko̝t | kut | kuʀ | *ko̝t | — | |
index finger/4 | *ko̝ɾo̝ko̝t | kurugut | *ko̝ɾo̝ko̝t | *kurukut-köp | ||
sharp/evil | *kVjɔm | kojom [hj] | koˈjom | kujom | *ko̝jɔm | *kuyom |
sugarcane | *kum | kyn | *kum | *küm | ||
die (pres.) | *kum- | kim- | kɛm- | kim- | *kum- | *küm- |
man/person | *kuwap | kap | qɐp̚ | kop | *kuwap | *kop |
Initial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ is merged with velar /*k/ in North Wambon and in East Wambon:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*kʷ- | ? | ? | k | *kʷ | *k | |
sweat | *kʷate̝n | kotɛn | *kʷate̝n | *koten | ||
ashes | *kʷase̝p | kosɛp | *kʷate̝p | *kosep | ||
frog | *kʷak | kak | *kʷak | *koak |
Initial bilabial voiced prenasalized stop /*mb/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*mb- | mb [mb b] | mb [b] | mb | *mb | *b | |
shin | *mbin | mbi-mit [rw] | mbin | *mbitɔn | **bin | |
turtle | *mbiɾip | mbilip [rw] | *mbiɾip | — | ||
coconut | *mbijan | ˈbijɑn [jh] | mbian | *mbijan | *bian | |
small | *mbe̝ɾɔn | mbɛron | *mbe̝ɾɔn | *beron | ||
chest | *mbɛ[m/n] (-man) | mbɛ-mit | *mbɛ[m/n]-man | — | ||
forearm/seven | *mbɛn | mben | bɛŋ- | mbɛn | *mbɛn | — |
kunai grass | *mbɵ̝p | mbup [rw] | mbup | *mbɵ̝p | *böp | |
sit/stay | *mba- | mba- | mba- | *mba- | *ba- | |
father | *mbap | mbap [hj] | *mbap | — | ||
male | *mbatim | mbatim | *mbatim | *batim | ||
claw/nail | *mb[a][t/s]it | mbisit | biˈtir | *mbatit | — | |
spirit | *mbake̝t | mbaɣet [hj] | — | |||
sago palm stem | *mbaŋgi | mbaŋgi | *mbaŋgi | *bagi | ||
old (person) | *mbaɾi | mbari | *mbaɾi | *bari | ||
lip(s) | *mbaɾa[m/n]-kat | mbaŋgat | bɐŋˈkɐr | mbaraŋgat | *mbaŋgaj | — |
mouth/chin | *mb[ɒ/ɔ]nɔp | mbonop [rw] | mbonop | — | ||
lightning | *mbɔmban | *mbɔmban | — | |||
wing | *mbɔɾɵ̝ɾ | mbuluk ko- [rw] | mburuⁱ | *mbɔɾɵ̝ | *buruy | |
house/village | *mbo̝tup | mbisip | mbitip | *mbo̝tup | *bütüp | |
knee | *mbuwɔm | *mbuwɔm | — |
In one apparently irregular example, initial bilabial voiced prenasalized stop /*mb/ is reflected as nasal /m/ in North Wambon:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*mb- | m | m | *mb | — | ||
bow | *mbandit | mandit [rw] | mɐˈdiʀ | *mbandit | — |
Initial apical voiced prenasalized stop /*nd/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*nd- | nd [nd d d̪] | nd [d t] | nd | *nd | *d | |
root | *ndit | ndit | — | |||
hear | *ndat- | ndat- | dɐɾ- | ndat- | *ndat | **dat- |
slippery | *ndaɾa[t/ɾ]- | ndalat-ke [rw] | ndara-gaᵉ | — | ||
fence | *ndaɾak | ndɑrɑq [jh] | *ndaɾak | — | ||
not/nothing | *ndɒj | ndoⁱ | dɔː | ndoⁱ | *nd[a/ɔ]j | *dɔy |
burn (intr.) | *(a-)ndɔ- | do- | (u-)ndo | *andɔ- | *do- | |
nail | *ndɔk | -ˈtok̚ | *ndɔk | — | ||
island | *ndo̝m | ndum [rw] | ndum | *ndo̝m | *dum | |
sago | *ndo̝[j] | ndu | du | ndun | *ndo̝j | *du(n) |
cook/burn | *(a-)ndu- | *andu- | — | |||
heart | *ndum-ɾɔp | ndim-lop [rw] | ndim-ndop | *ndum-ɾɔp | *dümrop | |
bamboo vessel | *nduwam | *nduwam | — |
Initial laminal voiced prenasalized /*ndz/, found clearly in only a single example, is like laminal voiceless /*s/ merged with apical voiceless stop /t/ in Mandobo:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*ndz- | dʒ [dʒ ʝ] | *t | — | |||
upper arm/nine | *ndzape̝t | dʒaβet | jɐˈβɛt | *taje̝t | — |
In another example …:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*[ndz/j]- | dʒ [dʒ ndʒ] | *j | — | |||
path | *[ndz/j]andit | dʒandit | *jandit | — |
Initial velar voiced prenasalized stop /*ŋg/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*ŋg- | ŋg [ŋg g ɢ] | ŋg [g ɢ] | ŋg | *ŋg | *g | |
cold | *ŋgit | giʀ | *ŋgit | — | ||
sand | *ŋgiɾim | *ŋgiɾim | — | |||
2 sg. | *ŋgɵ̝p | ŋgup | ɢup̚ | ŋgup | *ŋgɵ̝p | *göp |
elbow/eight | *ŋgambum | ŋgambim [rw] | ŋgambin | *ŋgambum | *gabün | |
cough/phlegm | *ŋganɵ̝m | *ŋganɵ̝m | — | |||
chin/jaw | *ŋgandɵ̝m | *ŋgandɵ̝m | — | |||
blood | *ŋgɔm | ŋgom | rom | ŋgom | *ŋgɔm | *gom |
song | *ŋgɔm | ŋgom | ŋgom | *ŋgɔm | *gom | |
arrow | *ŋgɔp | ŋgop | *ŋgɔp | *gop | ||
nape | *ŋgɔmbɛn | ŋgombɛn | *ŋgɛmbɛn | — | ||
incorrect | *ŋgɔmbam | ŋgombam [rw] | ŋgamban | *ŋgɔmbam | *gobam | |
long/deep | *ŋg[ɔ/o̝]ɾo̝(-ɔp) | gɔˈlɯ- [jh] | ŋguru(p) | *ŋgo̝ɾo̝-ɔp | *guruop | |
crooked | *ŋg[ɔ/o̝]j | ŋguⁱ [rw] | ŋgoⁱ | — | ||
navel/umbilicus | *ŋgo̝m | ŋgum | *ŋgo̝m | *gum | ||
root | *ŋgo̝mbut | *ŋgo̝mbut | — | |||
black | *ŋgo̝num | *ŋgo̝num | — | |||
louse | *ŋgo̝t | ŋgut | ɢut̚ | ŋgut | *ŋgo̝t | *gut |
brain | *ŋgun | ŋgin | — |
One example …:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*[k/ŋg]- | k | ŋg | *ŋg | *g | ||
sharp | *[k/ŋg]e̝te̝n | keten [rw] | ŋgɛt | *ŋge̝te̝n | *get |
Initial rounded velar prenasalized stop /*ŋgʷ/ is merged with velar /*ŋg/ in North Wambon and in East Wambon:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*ŋgʷ- | ŋg | ŋg | *ŋgʷ | *gw | ||
break/snap | *ŋgʷa- | ŋgande [rw] | ŋgandɛ | *ŋgʷa-nde̝- | *gwa=ne- | |
snake | *ŋgʷati | *ŋgʷati | — |
Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*w- | w | w | w | *w | *w | |
crippled/lame | *wa | *wa | — | |||
night/dark | *wamin | wamin | *wamin | *wamin | ||
inside | *wamup | wamip | — | |||
testicle | *wamb[u](-ɾɔp) | wambi-lin [rw] | *wambi-ɾɔp | — | ||
tail | *wambut | wambit [rw] | wɐ:mbir | wambit | *wambut | *wabüt |
calf | *wan | wan | *wan | *wan | ||
sick/dead | *watɵ̝k | *watɵ̝k | — | |||
egg | *wandin | wandin | -ɪndin | wandin | *wandin | — |
belly | *wandin | wandin | *wandin | *wadin | ||
left | *wak | ɥɑq̚ [jh] | wɐɣ- | *wak | — | |
bamboo knife | *waki | waɣi | wɐgi | wagi | *waki | *waki |
moon | *wakɔɾ | waɣot | wɐˈɢoʀ | wogoⁱ | *wɔkɔj | *wokoy |
mucus | *wakuɾa[ɾ/j] | warigaᵉ | *wakuɾaj | — | ||
watch/guard | *wɔ-mɔ- | womo- | *wɔmɔ- | *womo- |
When followed by high front vowel /*i/, initial /*w/ is dropped in Mandobo:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*w-/_i | w | *ø | *w | |||
hand/arm | *wit | wit | *it | *wit | ||
taro | *wiɾɔp | wirop | *i-ɾɔp | — |
Initial apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is retained in all decendants. In Kenon, its realization in all positions varies between lateral and rhotic [l l̪ ɺ ɾ] (de Vries and de Vries-Wiersma 1992: 6):
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*ɾ- | l [l l̪ ɺ ɾ] | ɾ [ɾ r] | ɾ | *ɾ | *r | |
rib(s) | *ɾin | lin [rw] | rin | *[a]ɾin-man | *rin | |
voice/speech | *ɾɵ̝k | luk | ʀuk ~ ruk | ruk | *[a]ɾɵ̝k | *rök |
take/hold | *ɾap- | lap- | rap- | *ɾap- | — | |
woman | *ɾan | lan | ɾɐŋ | ran | *ɾan | *ran |
fish | *ɾakʷaj | laɣaⁱ | ragaᵉ | *ɾakʷaj | **rokay | |
female | *ɾaŋgo̝j | laŋguⁱ | raŋguⁱ | *ɾaŋgo̝j | — | |
breadfruit | *ɾawɔt | lawot [rw] | rɐˈbɔʀ | rawot | *ɾawɔt | *rawot |
plant (v.) | *ɾɔ- | lo- [hj] | *ɾɔ- | *ro- | ||
weep/cry | *ɾɔm- | lom- [hj] | rom- | rom- | *ɾɔm- | *rom-/*rum- |
fruit/seed | *ɾɔp | lop | rop | *ɾɔp | *rop | |
hair/leaf/feather | *ɾɔn | lon | ron | *ɾɔn | *ron | |
say/speak | *ɾɔk- | lok- | rogo- | — | ||
chop down | *ɾu- | ri- | *(a-)ɾu- | *rü- | ||
go down | *ɾu- | ri- | *-ɾu- (?) | — | ||
sing | *ɾu- | li- | ri- | *ɾu- | *rü- |
Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*j- | j | ? | j | *j- | *y | |
3 sg. | *jɵ̝p | jup | *jɵ̝p | — | ||
canoe | *ja[p]un | *jahun | — | |||
sick/ill | *jambɔɾɔ | jambolo-k- | *jambɔɾɔ | — | ||
tomorrow | *jane̝n | jan ŋga | *jane̝n | — | ||
garden | *jakup | jagip | *jakup | *yaküp | ||
gather | *jaŋg[ɵ̝/o̝]-mɔ- | jaŋgumo- [rw] | jaŋgumo- | — | ||
call | *jɔ- | jo- | jo- | *jɔ- | *yo- | |
mat | *jɔm | jom | *jɔm | *yom | ||
mother | *jɔp | -jop [hj] | *jɔp | — |
When followed by high mid front vowel /*e̝/, /*j/ is dropped in North Wambon and in Mandobo:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*j-/_e̝ | ø | ø | j | *ø | *y | |
bird | *je̝t | et | ˈɛʀ | jɛt | *e̝t | *yet |
urine | *je̝t-ɔk | et-ok [rw] | ɛt-ˈok̚ | jɛt-ok | *e̝t-ɔk | *yet=ok |
…:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*j-/_ | ||||||
fire/tree | *[je̝]n(-ɔp) | en(-op) | ɛn(-op̚) | ɛn-op | *[i/e̝]n(-ɔp) | *in |
In one example, initial /*j/ followed by low central vowel /*a/ is unexpectedly lost in Mandobo, with concomitant fronting and raising of /*a/ to high mid /*e̝/:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*j- | j | ? | j | *ø | *y | |
torch | *jaŋgɔt | jaŋgot [rw] | jaŋgot | *e̝ŋgɔt | *yagot |
In another example …:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*j- | ø | i | ø | *j | *ø | |
smoke | *jVɾo̝k | uruk | ˈiruk | uruk | *jaɾo̝k | *uruk |
… medial consonants …
Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-m- | m | m | m | *m | *m | |
do/make | *-mɔ- | -mo- | -mo- | *-mɔ- | *mo- | |
two | *[i]ɾo̝mɔ | ilumo | ɛˈrumːo | irumo | *ɾo̝mɔ | *rumo |
fly (n.) | *umɔn-ɔp | imonop | *umɔn-ɔp | *ümonop | ||
child | *amut | amit [hj] | — | |||
ripe/yellow | *amo̝[ɾ/j] | amuⁱ | *amo̝j | — | ||
one | *ɔm[a/ɔ][ɾ/j] | omaᵉ | *ɔm[ɔ]j | *omay | ||
hot | *mamun | mamin | mɐmin | mamin | — | |
rat | *t[ɛ]mɔn | tɛmon | *t[ɔ]mɔn | *temon | ||
termite | *tɔmaj | tomae [rw] | tomaᵉ | *tɔmaj | *tomay | |
throw away | *sa-mɔ- | samo- [rw] | somo- | *ta-mɔ- | — | |
widow | *kamɔk | *kamɔk | — | |||
far | *kɔmam | komam [rw] | qɐmː | kamam | *kɔmam | *komam |
neck | *k[ɔ]man | *kɔman | — | |||
wrist/six | *kɔmo̝k | kumuk | ˈkumuɢ- | *kɔmo̝k | — | |
thunder | *kɔmɵ̝t | kumut [rw] | kumut | *kɔmɵ̝t | *kumöt | |
night/dark | *wamin | wamin | *wamin | — | ||
inside | *wamup | wamip | — | |||
watch/guard | *wɔ-mɔ- | womo- | *wɔmɔ- | *womo- |
Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-n- | n | n | n | *n | *n | |
older sister | *-ni | -ni | *-ni | — | ||
net bag | *e̝nɔ[j] | *e̝nɔ[j] | — | |||
fly (n.) | *umɔn-ɔp | imonop | *umɔn-ɔp | *ümonop | ||
star/firefly | *min-ɔp | min-op [rw] | ˈmin-ɔp̚ | *min-ɔp | — | |
this | *mɛnɛ | mɛnɛ | *mɛnɛ | *mene | ||
thick | *pinim | hinim [rw] | — | |||
tongue | *pa[wɔ]n | han-op [rw] | ɐŋ-ˈkɐr | an-op | *wa[wɔ]n(-kat) | — |
mouth/chin | *mb[ɒ/ɔ]nɔp | mbonop [rw] | mbonop | — | ||
red | *te̝n-ɔp | tɛnop | *te̝n-ɔp | *tenop | ||
sleep (n.) | *kino̝m | kinum | kiˈnum | kinum | *kino̝m | *kinum |
foot | *ke̝nɔp | kenop [rw] | kɛˈnɔp̚ | — | ||
palate | *kana[m/n] | kanaŋ-git | *kana[m/n] | — | ||
cough/phlegm | *ŋganɵ̝m | *ŋganɵ̝m | — | |||
black | *ŋgo̝num | *ŋgo̝num | — | |||
tomorrow | *jane̝n | jan ŋga | *jane̝n | — |
Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is lenited to /β/ [β w] in Wambon, merged with non-stop /w/ in East Wambon and with either non-stops /*w *j/ or zero /*ø/ in Mandobo depending upon the qualities of adjacent vowels:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-p-/_e̝ | p [β] | p [β] | w [w ø] | *j | *w | |
mosquito | *sɒpe̝n | sowɛn | *taje̝n-ɔp | *sɔwen | ||
upper arm/nine | *ndzape̝t | dʒaβet | jɐˈβɛt | *taje̝t | — | |
*-p-/_ɛ | w | *ø | — | |||
skinny | *pɛt-pɛt | hele-wet [rw] | *ɛt-ɛt | — | ||
*-p-/_u o̝ a | p w | w ø | *w | *w | ||
cough | *[a]p[u]j-ɔk | apdʒok [rw] | ajak | *awujɔk | *aüak | |
wind | *kijapo̝j | kiwi | kiwuⁱ | *kijawo̝j | *kiwuy | |
knowledge | *n[ɔ]pam | *nɔwam | — |
An alternative analysis would hold that /*p/ has simply been dropped in Mandobo. This may be historically accurate, however synchronically there are otherwise no sequential vowels, so interpreting these contours as /*w *j/ avoids having to posit them.
In one example known to be a loan, /*p/ is preserved as /p/ in Agayop and as a phoneme /*h/ in Mandobo:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-p- | p | *h | — | |||
tobacco | *sapuk | sapuk | *taho̝k | — |
The term for “canoe” is a loan from Marind /*iawun/, as it is in Awyu:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-[p]- | *h | — | ||||
canoe | *ja[p]un | jahun | — |
Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ when followed by vowels other than high vowels /*i *u/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-t- | t | t | *t | *t | ||
scar | *at[e̝/ɛ][t/ɾ] | atet [rw] | atɛrɛm | — | ||
tail of bird | *ɒt[a]ɾɔn | *ataɾɔn | — | |||
get up/stand up | *matɵ̝ɾ- | matut [hj] | moˈtɛr- | matigo (?) | *matɵ̝ɾɵ̝- | — |
story/tradition | *matɔm | matom | *matɔm | *maatom | ||
see | *pe̝t[a]k- | hetak- | sɛg- | ɛtag- | *[i/e̝]t[i/e̝]k-jɔ- | *eto-/*iti- |
saliva/spittle | *kate̝t | katɛt | *kate̝t | *katet | ||
bark/skin | *kɔtaj | kotaⁱ | kotaᵉ | *kɔtaj | *kotay | |
sharp | *[k/ŋg]e̝te̝n | keten [rw] | ŋgɛt | *ŋge̝te̝n | *get | |
sweat | *kʷate̝n | kotɛn | *kʷate̝n | *koten | ||
sick/dead | *watɵ̝k | *watɵ̝k | — |
When followed by high front and central vowels /*i *u/, voiceless apical stop /*t/ is fricated to laminal /s/ in North Wambon:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-t-/_i | s | t | *t | *t | ||
father | *-ti | -ti | *-ti | — | ||
bite | *ati[k]- | asi- [rw] | atigo- | *ati[k-m]ɔ- | — | |
daughter | *matip | matip | *matip | *matip | ||
male | *mbatim | mbasin [rw] | mbatim | *mbatim | *batim | |
snake | *ŋgʷati | *ŋgʷati | — | |||
*-t-/_u | s | t | *t | *t | ||
beard | *matut | matit | *matut | *matit | ||
house/village | *mbo̝tup | mbisip | mbitip | *mbo̝tup | *bütüp |
Medial laminal voiceless /*s/ is uncommon. It is merged with apical /*t/ in Mandobo:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-s- | s | s | *t | *s | ||
sneeze | *asin | asiŋ-mo- [rw] | asi- | — | ||
spider | *at[o̝]wan | asowan [rw] | suwan | *ato̝wan | *sukan/*suwan | |
bandicoot | *k[e̝]sɔ[t/ɾ] | kosot [rw] | — | |||
ashes | *kʷase̝p | kosɛp | *kʷate̝p | *kosep |
Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is lenited to voiced [g] in East Wambon and Mandobo and fricated to [ɣ ʁ] in North Wambon:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-k- | k [ɣ ʁ ɢ] | k [g ] | k [g] | *k [k g ɢ] | *k | |
paddle | *ikɔ[ɾ/j] | *ikɔj | — | |||
vomit | *[a]kɵ̝[m/n] | *akɵ̝[m/n] | — | |||
grandchild | *mak-ɔp | maɣop [rw] | ˈmɐɢob̚ | magop | *mak-ɔp | *maakop |
bamboo | *pe̝kɔp | heɣop [rw] | ɛːˈɢop | ɛgop | — | |
spirit | *mbake̝t | mbaɣet [hj] | — | |||
go (imperative) | *na-kɔj | naɣoⁱ | — | |||
reason | *tikin | siɣi | tigin | — | ||
fat/grease | *tɵ̝kɵ̝ɾ | tuɣut [rw] | tugu | *tɵ̝kɵ̝ | *tököy | |
cuscus | *takip | tɑʁip̚ [jh] | tɐˈɢip̚ | *takip | — | |
cowrie shell | *tak[e̝]t | taɣet | *tak[e̝]t | — | ||
mouse/rat | *s[e̝]k[o̝]nap | sɛɢˈnɑp [jh] | sogonap | *to̝ko̝n-ɔp | *sukunaap | |
heavy | *kakɵ̝n | kuɣun [hj] | kagun | *kakɵ̝n | *kaakön | |
man/old man | *kako̝p | kagup | *kako̝p | — | ||
ghost | *kako̝j | kaguⁱ | *ko̝ko̝ | *kakuy | ||
index finger/4 | *ko̝ɾo̝ko̝t | kurugut | *ko̝ɾo̝ko̝t | *kurukut-köp | ||
garden | *jakup | jagip | *jakup | *yaküp | ||
track | *jVk[ɵ̝/o̝]t | iɣut [rw] | jugut | — | ||
bamboo knife | *waki | waɣi | wɐgi | wagi | *waki | *waki |
moon | *wakɔɾ | waɣot | wɐˈɢoʀ | wogoⁱ | *wɔkɔj | *wokoy |
North Wambon's frication of medial /*k/ is shared with the Central Ok languages, and is viewable as an intermediate stage preceding the loss of medial /*k/ in the Lowland Ok languages.
Medial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ is merged with velar /*k/ in North Wambon and in East Wambon:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-kʷ- | k [ɣ] | k [ɣ] | k [g] | *kʷ [kʷ gʷ] | *k | |
who? | *[a]kʷap | ɐˈɣɛp̚ | agap | *kʷap | — | |
fish | *ɾakʷaj | laɣaⁱ | ragaᵉ | *ɾakʷaj | **rokay |
Medial bilabial voiced prenasalized stop /*mb/ is retained as such in all decendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-mb- | mb | mb | mb | *mb | *b | |
tooth | *imban | *imban | — | |||
scabies/tinea | *iɾɔmbo̝t | irombut | *iɾɔmbo̝t | — | ||
younger sister | *[a]mbijat | mbiat | *ambijat | *biat | ||
laughter | *ambe̝n | amben [rw] | ɐnˈbɛn | *ambe̝n | — | |
lightning | *mbɔmban | *mbɔmban | — | |||
daughter | *t[o]mba-ɾan | tombalan [hj] | — | |||
head | *kambijan | *kambijan | — | |||
theft | *kamb[i/u]ɾ | kambit [rw] | kambir | — | ||
friend | *kambe̝n | kambe [hj] | *kambe̝n | — | ||
worm | *kambɔt | kɐmboˈtɐj [hj] | *kambɔt | — | ||
crocodile | *kajambo̝t | *ke̝jambo̝t | — | |||
elbow/eight | *ŋgambum | ŋgambim [rw] | ŋgambin | *ŋgambum | *gabün | |
nape | *ŋgɔmbɛn | ŋgombɛn | *ŋgɛmbɛn | — | ||
incorrect | *ŋgɔmbam | ŋgombam [rw] | ŋgamban | *ŋgɔmbam | *gobam | |
root | *ŋgo̝mbut | *ŋgo̝mbut | — | |||
testicle | *wamb[u](-ɾɔp) | wambi-lin [rw] | *wambi-ɾɔp | — | ||
tail | *wambut | wambit [rw] | wɐ:mbir | wambit | *wambut | *wabüt |
sick/ill | *jambɔɾɔ | jambolo-k- | *jambɔɾɔ | — |
Medial apical voiced prenasalized stop /*nd/ is retained as such in all decendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-nd- | nd | nd | *nd | *d | ||
enemy | *ɛndɔm | ɛnˈdom | ɛndom | *ɛndɔm | *edom | |
roof | *mɔndɔm | *mɔndɔm | — | |||
earthquake | *p[i]nd[ɵ̝]m | hendem [rw] | indum | *windɵ̝m | *idöm/*odöm | |
eat (future) | *ande̝- | ande- | ˈɐndɛ- | *ande̝- | — | |
tie/bind | *and[awɔ]p- | andop [hj] | ɐnˈdɐb- | andap- | — | |
body/trunk | *anduɾ | andit | *andu | — | ||
thigh/upper arm | *mindin | mindin [rw] | *mindin | — | ||
son | *mandɵ̝p | maːndup | *mandɵ̝p | *maadöp | ||
bird of paradise | *pandɔ[ɾ/j] | andoⁱ | *wandɔj | *wadoy | ||
bow | *mbandit | mandit [rw] | mɐˈdiʀ | *mbandit | — | |
near | *s[i/e]nd[i/e]k | ˈsɛndɛq [jh] | sindik | — | ||
path | *[ndz/j]andit | dʒandit | *jandit | — | ||
flesh | *kandɵ̝ | kandu | *kandɵ̝ | — | ||
foot/leg | *kɔndɔk | kondok | *kɔndɔk | *kodok | ||
now/today | *kɔwandɵ̝t | kowandut | *kɔwandɵ̝t | — | ||
chin/jaw | *ŋgandɵ̝m | *ŋgandɵ̝m | — | |||
egg | *wandin | wandin | -ɪndin | wandin | *wandin | — |
belly | *wandin | wandin | *wandin | *wadin |
There are only two known examples of medial laminal voiced prenasalized /*ndz/:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-ndz-/_u | dʒ | ? | j | *ɾ | *r/*y | |
boil/ulcer | *[a]ndz[o̝/u]n | dʒun-op | jun | *[a]ɾun | *rün/*yün | |
*-ndz-/_a | dʒ | ? | r | *ɾ | *r | |
light/clear | *[ɔ]ndzat | dʒat | rat | *ɔɾat | *rat |
Medial velar voied prenasalized stop /*ŋg/ is retained as such in all decendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-ŋg- | ŋg | ŋg | *ŋg | *g | ||
wife | *aŋge̝n | *aŋge̝n | — | |||
dog | *aŋgaj | aŋgaⁱ | aŋgaᵉ | *aŋgaj | *agay | |
young woman | *m[a]ŋg[ajɛ]t | maŋgat [rw] | maŋgat | *mɛŋg[ajɛ]t | *magat/*megeet | |
mouth/jaw | *maŋgɔt | maŋgot | maŋgot | *maŋgɔt | *magot | |
sago palm stem | *mbaŋgi | mbaŋgi | *mbaŋgi | *bagi | ||
afterbirth | *t[i]ŋgoɾop | *tiŋgɔ-ɾɔp | — | |||
penis | *tɛŋgɛt | teŋget [rw] | tɛŋgɛt | *tɛŋgɛt | *teget | |
shy | *tɛɾɛŋgɛt | tɛrɛŋgɛt | *tɛɾɛŋgɛt | *tereget | ||
armpit | *taŋgɔn | taŋgo-top [rw] | taŋgo top | *taŋgɔn(-tɔp) | *taagon top | |
nose | *taŋgo̝t | toŋgot | *taŋgo̝t | *togut | ||
female | *ɾaŋgo̝j | laŋguⁱ | raŋguⁱ | *ɾaŋgo̝j | — | |
gather | *jaŋg[ɵ̝/o̝]-mɔ- | jaŋgumo- [rw] | jaŋgumo- | — | ||
torch | *jaŋgɔt | jaŋgot [rw] | jaŋgot | *e̝ŋgɔt | *yagot |
Medial rounded velar voiced prenasalized stop /*ŋgʷ/ has been found in only one non-compound example:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-ŋgʷ- | ŋg | ŋg | ŋgʷ | *g *gw | ||
thumb/five | *aŋgʷo̝ | aŋgu | *aŋgʷo̝ | *agu | ||
break/snap (tr.) | *ɾap(-)ŋgʷa-mɔ- | lap ŋgamo- [rw] | ra ŋgao- | *ɾap-ŋgʷa-mɔ- | *ra-gwaa-mo- |
Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-w- | w | w | w | *w | *w | |
spider | *at[o̝]wan | asowan [rw] | suwan | *ato̝wan | *sukan/*suwan | |
flying fox | *tawɔɾ | tawot [rw] | towoⁱ | — | ||
white | *kɔwat | kowat | qɐˈwɐʀ | *kɔwat | — | |
now/today | *kɔwandɵ̝t | kowandut | *kɔwandɵ̝t | — | ||
breadfruit | *ɾawɔt | lawot [rw] | rɐˈbɔʀ (?) | rawot | *ɾawɔt | *rawot |
Medial apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is very common. It is realized as /l/ [l l̪ ɾ r] in Kenon:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-ɾ- | l [l l̪ r] | ɾ [r ʀ] | ɾ | *-ɾ- | *r | |
stone | *iɾɔp | iɾop̚ | irop | — | ||
scabies/tinea | *iɾɔmbo̝t | irombut | *iɾɔmbo̝t | — | ||
two | *[i]ɾo̝mɔ | ilumo | ɛˈrumːo | irumo | *ɾo̝mɔ | *rumo |
rainbow | *e̝ɾe̝n | ɛrɛnajop | — | |||
raw/new | *aɾɵ̝(-jɔk) | alujok/alun [rw] | ariok | *aɾɵ̝ | — | |
yesterday | *aɾup | alip | ariw amin | *aɾuwa | — | |
thorn | *aɾun | alin | ɐˈʀiŋ | arin | *aɾun | *arün |
thorn | *aɾuk | *aɾuk | — | |||
tail of bird | *ɒt[a]rɔn | *ataɾɔn | — | |||
side | *mɛɾɛn | mɛrɛŋ | — | |||
rain | *mo̝ɾup | mirip | *mo̝ɾup | *mürüp | ||
stairs/ladder | *paɾik | halik [rw] | *waɾik | — | ||
turtle | *mbiɾip | mbilip [rw] | *mbiɾip | — | ||
small | *mbe̝ɾɔn | mbɛron | *mbe̝ɾɔn | *beron | ||
old (person) | *mbaɾi | mbari | *mbaɾi | *bari | ||
wing | *mbɔɾɵ̝ɾ | mbuluk ko- [rw] | mburuⁱ | *mbɔɾɵ̝ | *buruy | |
afterbirth | *tiŋgɔ-ɾɔp | *tiŋgɔ-ɾɔp | — | |||
ear | *t[u]ɾɵ̝n(-tɔp) | silu-top | siˈrun | turu-top | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝n-tɔp | *turu=top |
leech | *te̝ɾe̝n | selen | sɛˈrɛn | tɛrɛn | *te̝ɾe̝n | *teren |
hide | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝k-mɔ- | suluk-mo- [rw] | turuk-oa | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝k-mɔ- | *turuk-mo- | |
finger | *taɾɔn | talon [rw] | — | |||
slippery | *ndaɾa[t/ɾ]- | ndalat-ke [rw] | ndara-gaᵉ | — | ||
fence | *ndaɾak | ndɑrɑq [jh] | *ndaɾak | — | ||
widow/wife | *saɾip | salip [rw] | saˈrip̚ | sarip | *taɾip | *sarip |
cold | *saɾo̝[ɾ/j] | saruⁱ | *taɾo̝j | — | ||
eye | *ke̝-ɾɔp | kelop | ˈkenoː (?) | kɛrop | *ke̝-ɾɔp | *kerop |
enough | *kaɾe̝ | karɛ | *kaɾe̝- | *kare | ||
break/crush | *kaɾɔ- | karo-ndɛ | *kaɾɔ-nde̝- | *karo=ne- | ||
inside | *k[a]ɾo̝p | *k[a]ɾo̝p | — | |||
stone axe | *kɔɾu | kori | *kɔɾu | *korü | ||
index finger/4 | *ko̝ɾo̝ko̝t | kurugut | *ko̝ɾo̝ko̝t | *kurukut-köp | ||
sand | *ŋgiɾim | *ŋgiɾim | — | |||
long/deep | *ŋg[ɔ/o̝]ɾo̝(-ɔp) | gɔˈlɯ- [jh] | ŋguru(p) | *ŋgo̝ɾo̝-ɔp | *guruop | |
sick/ill | *jambɔɾɔ | jambolo-k- | *jambɔɾɔ | — | ||
taro | *wiɾɔp | wirop | *i-ɾɔp | — | ||
mucus | *wakuɾa[ɾ/j] | warigaᵉ | *wakuɾaj | — | ||
smoke | *jVɾo̝k | uruk | ˈiruk | uruk | *jaɾo̝k | *uruk |
Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-j- | j | j | j | *j | *y | |
yellow | *t[a]jan | tɐjɐn | — | |||
lie/falsehood | *kɔjap | kojap [rw] | kojap | — | ||
sharp/evil | *kVjɔm | kojom [hj] | koˈjom | kujom | *ko̝jɔm | *kuyom |
…
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-j-/a_V | ø | ø | *j | *ø | ||
shoot | *tajem- | tem/tamdʒ- | ˈtɐmd͜ʒ- | taᵉm- | *t[a]je̝m- | *taem- |
sun/day | *sajat | sat | sat | *t[e̝jɛ]t | *seat | |
crocodile | *kajambo̝t | *ke̝jambo̝t | — |
We assume segments [ia ija] to be underlyingly /*ija/ because this allows us to state that there are no root-internal vowel sequences:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*ija | *ija | *ia | ||||
younger sister | *[a]mbijat | mbiat | *ambijat | *biat | ||
coconut | *mbijan | ˈbijɑn [jh] | mbian | *mbijan | *bian | |
head | *kambijan | *kambijan | — |
Due to mergers of Digul River-Ok final consonants in proto-Digul River, only a restricted subset of consonants occurs finally: nasals /*m *n/, voiceless stops /*p *t *k/, possibly also rounded velar voiceless /*kʷ/, and apical and palatal non-stops /*ɾ *j/. Finals /*p *t/ are significantly more common than final /*k/ because Digul River-Ok final anterior voiced prenasalized stops /*mb *nd/ were merged with /*p *t/ while velar /*ŋg/ was merged with apical nasal /*n/.
Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is sporadically merged with /n/ in Agayop and in varieties of Mandobo under unknown conditions:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-m | m | m | *m | *m | ||
enemy | *ɛndɔm | ɛnˈdom | ɛndom | *ɛndɔm | *edom | |
breast | *ɒm | om | ɔm | om | *am | *ɔm |
story/tradition | *matɔm | matom | *matɔm | *maatom | ||
mother's br. | *mɔm | mom | *mɔm | — | ||
roof | *mɔndɔm | *mɔndɔm | — | |||
back | *mum | miːm | — | |||
thick | *pinim | hinim [rw] | — | |||
earthquake | *p[i]nd[ɵ̝]m | hendem [rw] | indum | *windɵ̝m | *idöm/*odöm | |
male | *mbatim | mbasin [rw] | mbatim | *mbatim | *batim | |
knee | *mbuwɔm | *mbuwɔm | — | |||
knowledge | *n[ɔ]pam | *nɔwam | — | |||
island | *ndo̝m | ndum [rw] | ndum | *ndo̝m | *dum | |
bamboo vessel | *nduwam | *nduwam | — | |||
beak | *sim | sim [hj] | — | |||
sleep (n.) | *kino̝m | kinum | kiˈnum | kinum | *kino̝m | *kinum |
sugarcane | *kʉm | kyn | *kum | *küm | ||
make fire | *kɵ̝m | ugum- | *kɵ̝m- | — | ||
far | *kɔmam | komam [rw] | qɐmː | kamam | *kɔmam | *komam |
sharp/evil | *kVjɔm | kojom [hj] | koˈjom | kujom | *ko̝jɔm | *kuyom |
sand | *ŋgiɾim | *ŋgiɾim | — | |||
elbow/eight | *ŋgambum | ŋgambim [rw] | ŋgambin | *ŋgambum | *gabün | |
cough/phlegm | *ŋganɵ̝m | *ŋganɵ̝m | — | |||
chin/jaw | *ŋgandɵ̝m | *ŋgandɵ̝m | — | |||
blood | *ŋgɔm | ŋgom | rom | ŋgom | *ŋgɔm | *gom |
song | *ŋgɔm | ŋgom | ŋgom | *ŋgɔm | *gom | |
incorrect | *ŋgɔmbam | ŋgombam [rw] | ŋgamban | *ŋgɔmbam | *gobam | |
navel/umbilicus | *ŋgo̝m | ŋgum | *ŋgo̝m | *gum | ||
black | *ŋgo̝num | *ŋgo̝num | — | |||
mat | *jɔm | jom | *jɔm | *yom |
Accordingly, it's possible that some forms reconstructed with final apical nasal /*n/ (below) and based upon only Agayop and Mandobo really had final bilabial /*m/.
Voorhoeve (2000: 367) notes that “the appearance of n in the Kaeti forms is due to Drabbe's decision to give in his word list the primary stems' of the Kaeti verbs in which the /n/ seems to be an artifact of his analysis. The 'secondary stems' have /m/ instead of /n/. It should be noted that in Kaeti word-final /m/ and /n/ sometimes alternate (Drabbe 1959: 5.)”
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-m | m | m | m | *m | *m | |
shoot | *tajem- | tem/tamdʒ- | ˈtɐmd͜ʒ- | taᵉm- | *t[a]je̝m- | *taem- |
bathe | *kim- | kim- [rw] | kɛm- | kim- | *kim- | *kim- |
die (pres.) | *kum- | kim- | kɛm- | kim- | *kum- | *küm- |
weep/cry | *ɾɔm- | lom- [hj] | rom- | rom- | *ɾɔm- | *rom-/*rum- |
Final apical nasal /*n/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-n | n | n [n ŋ] | n [n ŋ] | *n | *n | |
tooth | *imban | *imban | — | |||
rainbow | *e̝ɾe̝n | ɛrɛnajop | — | |||
eat (present) | *ɛn- | en- | ɛn- | — | ||
spider | *at[o̝]wan | asowan [rw] | suwan | *ato̝wan | *sukan/*suwan | |
laughter | *ambe̝n | amben [rw] | ɐnˈbɛn | *ambe̝n | — | |
boil/ulcer | *[a]ndz[o̝/u]n | dʒun-op | jun | *[a]ɾun | *rün/*yün | |
wife | *aŋge̝n | *aŋge̝n | — | |||
thorn | *aɾun | alin | ɐˈʀiŋ | arin | *aɾun | *arün |
tail of bird | *ɒt[a]ɾɔn | *ataɾɔn | — | |||
hit/kill | *un- | in- | — | |||
thigh/upper arm | *mindin | mindin [rw] | *mindin | — | ||
gall/bile | *mɛn | mɛn | *mɛn | *men | ||
side | *mɛɾɛn | mɛrɛŋ | — | |||
hot | *mamun | mamin | mɐmin | mamin | — | |
child | *mo̝n | mun | *mo̝n | *mun | ||
coconut | *mbijan | ˈbijɑn [jh] | mbian | *mbijan | *bian | |
shin | *mbin | mbi-mit [rw] | mbin | *mbitɔn | **bin | |
forearm/seven | *mbɛn | mben | bɛŋ- | mbɛn | *mbɛn | — |
small | *mbe̝ɾɔn | mbɛron | *mbe̝ɾɔn | *beron | ||
leech | *te̝ɾe̝n | selen | sɛˈrɛn | tɛrɛn | *te̝ɾe̝n | *teren |
rat | *t[ɛ]mɔn | tɛmon | *t[ɔ]mɔn | *temon | ||
armpit | *taŋgɔn | taŋgo-top [rw] | taŋgo top | *taŋgɔn(-tɔp) | *taagon top | |
finger | *taɾon | talon [rw] | — | |||
yellow | *t[a]jan | tɐjɐn | — | |||
mosquito | *sɒpe̝n | sowɛn | *taje̝n-ɔp | *sɔwen | ||
head | *kambijan | *kambijan | — | |||
heavy | *kakɵ̝n | kuɣun [hj] | kagun | *kakɵ̝n | *kaakön | |
neck | *k[ɔ]man | *kɔman | — | |||
milk | *ko̝n | kun | *am-ko̝n | *kun | ||
sweat | *kʷate̝n | kotɛn | *kʷate̝n | *koten | ||
brain | *ŋgun | ŋgin | — | |||
nape | *ŋgɔmbɛn | ŋgombɛn | *ŋgɛmbɛn | — | ||
night/dark | *wamin | wamin | *wamin | — | ||
calf | *wan | wan | *wan | *wan | ||
egg | *wandin | wandin | -ɪndin | wandin | *wandin | — |
belly | *wandin | wandin | *wandin | *wadin | ||
rib(s) | *ɾin | lin [rw] | rin | *[a]ɾin-man | *rin | |
woman | *ɾan | lan | ɾɐŋ | ran | *ɾan | *ran |
hair/leaf/feather | *ɾɔn | lon | ron | *ɾɔn | *ron | |
fire/tree | *[je̝]n(-ɔp) | en(-op) | ɛn(-op̚) | ɛn-op | *[i/e̝]n(-ɔp) | *in |
canoe | *ja[p]un | *jahun | — | |||
tomorrow | *jane̝n | jan ŋga | *jane̝n | — |
In one example, …:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-n | n | ø | *n | *ø | ||
sharp | *[k/ŋg]e̝te̝n | keten [rw] | ŋgɛt | *ŋge̝te̝n | *get |
Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-p | p [p p̚] | p [p̚ b̚ ø] | p | *p | *p | |
earth/ground | *ip | ip | ip̚ | — | ||
stone | *iɾɔp | iɾop̚ | irop | — | ||
that | *ɛp | ep | — | |||
house/nest | *ap | ap | ɐp̚ | ap | *-ap (?) | — |
tie/bind | *and[awɔ]p- | andop [hj] | ɐnˈdɐb- | andap- | — | |
who? | *[a]kʷap | ɐˈɣɛp̚ | agap | *kʷap | — | |
fly (n.) | *umɔn-ɔp | imonop | *umɔn-ɔp | *ümonop | ||
right (side) | *up | ʔip̚ [jh] | ip̚ | *up (?) | — | |
star/firefly | *min-ɔp | min-op [rw] | ˈmin-ɔp̚ | *min-ɔp | — | |
daughter | *matip | matip | *matip | *matip | ||
son | *mandɵ̝p | maːndup | *mandɵ̝p | *maadöp | ||
grandchild | *mak-ɔp | maɣop [rw] | ˈmɐɢob̚ | magop | *mak-ɔp | *maakop |
afraid | *m[ɒ/ɔ]p | mop [hj] | mop̚ | — | ||
rain | *mo̝ɾup | mirip | *mo̝ɾup | *mürüp | ||
bamboo | *pe̝kɔp | heɣop [rw] | ɛːˈɢop | ɛgop | — | |
turtle | *mbiɾip | mbilip [rw] | *mbiɾip | — | ||
kunai grass | *mbɵ̝p | mbup [rw] | mbup | *mbɵ̝p | *böp | |
father | *mbap | mbap [hj] | *mbap | — | ||
mouth/chin | *mb[ɒ/ɔ]nɔp | mbonop [rw] | mbonop | — | ||
house/village | *mbo̝tup | mbisip | mbitip | *mbo̝tup | *bütüp | |
afterbirth | *t[i]ŋgoɾop | *tiŋgɔ-ɾɔp | — | |||
red | *te̝n-ɔp | tɛnop | *te̝n-ɔp | *tenop | ||
cuscus | *takip | tɑʁip̚ [jh] | tɐˈɢip̚ | *takip | — | |
hole | *tɔp | top | top | *-tɔp | *top | |
mouse/rat | *s[e̝]k[o̝]nap | sɛɢˈnɑp [jh] | sogonap | *to̝ko̝n-ɔp | *sukunaap | |
widow/wife | *saɾip | salip [rw] | saˈrip̚ | sarip | *taɾip | *sarip |
foot | *ke̝nɔp | kenop [rw] | kɛˈnɔp̚ | — | ||
eye | *ke̝-ɾɔp | kelop | ˈkenoː (?) | kɛrop | *ke̝-ɾɔp | *kerop |
and/also | *kɵ̝p | -kup | -ɢup̚ | -kup | *-kɵ̝p | *köp |
man/old man | *kako̝p | kagup | *kako̝p | — | ||
inside | *k[a]ɾo̝p | *k[a]ɾo̝p | — | |||
lie/falsehood | *kɔjap | kojap [rw] | kojap | — | ||
man/person | *kuwap | kap | qɐp̚ | kop | *kuwap | *kop |
index finger/4 | *ko̝ɾo̝ko̝t | kurugut | *ko̝ɾo̝ko̝t | *kurukut-köp | ||
ashes | *kʷase̝p | kosɛp | *kʷate̝p | *kosep | ||
2 sg. | *ŋgɵ̝p | ŋgup | ɢup̚ | ŋgup | *ŋgɵ̝p | *göp |
arrow | *ŋgɔp | ŋgop | *ŋgɔp | *gop | ||
long | *ŋgoɾu-op | ŋgurup | *ŋgo̝ɾo̝-ɔp | |||
take/hold | *ɾap- | lap- | rap- | *ɾap- | ||
fruit/seed | *ɾɔp | lop | rop | *ɾɔp | *rop | |
3 sg. | *jɵ̝p | jup | *jɵ̝p | — | ||
garden | *jakup | jagip | *jakup | *yaküp | ||
mother | *jɔp | -jop [hj] | *jɔp | — | ||
taro | *wiɾɔp | wirop | *i-ɾɔp | — |
One apparently irregular example cannot be solved by outcorrespondence, as besides Ndeiram River and Awyu which regularly drop final stops, no final stop is found in Becking and Dawi River or Sawuy cognates:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-p | t [t̚] | p | *p | |||
name | *pup | hit [rw] | iː | ip | *up | *üp |
Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-t | t [t t̚] | ɾ [r ʀ] | t | *t | *t | |
scabies/tinea | *iɾɔmbo̝t | irombut | *iɾɔmbo̝t | — | ||
child | *amut | amit [hj] | — | |||
younger sister | *[a]mbijat | mbiat | *ambijat | *biat | ||
older brother | *[a]ne̝t | -net | nɛt | *ane̝t | *net | |
light/clear | *[ɔ]ndzat | dʒat | rat | *ɔɾat | *rat | |
bone | *mit | mit | mir | mit | *mit-ɔp | *mit |
tendon/vein | *mɛt | met | mɛt | *tɛmɛt | *met | |
beard | *matut | matit | *matut | *matit | ||
young woman | *m[a]ŋg[ajɛ]t | maŋgat [rw] | maŋgat | *mɛŋg[ajɛ]t | *magat/*megeet | |
mouth/jaw | *maŋgɔt | maŋgot | maŋgot | *maŋgɔt | *magot | |
behind | *m[ɒ/ɔ]t | mot [hj] | — | |||
skinny | *pɛt-pɛt | hele-wet [rw] | *ɛt-ɛt | — | ||
claw/nail | *mb[a][t/s]it | mbisit | biˈtir | *mbatit | — | |
bow | *mbandit | mandit [rw] | mɐˈdiʀ | *mbandit | — | |
spirit | *mbake̝t | mbaɣet [hj] | — | |||
dog | *tit | sɪ:ʀ | *tit | — | ||
penis | *tɛŋgɛt | teŋget [rw] | tɛŋgɛt | *tɛŋgɛt | *teget | |
shy | *tɛɾɛŋgɛt | tɛrɛŋgɛt | *tɛɾɛŋgɛt | *tereget | ||
cowrie shell | *tak[e̝]t | taɣet | *tak[e̝]t | — | ||
nose | *taŋgo̝t | toŋgot | *taŋgo̝t | *togut | ||
banana | *tut | sit | siːʀ | tit | *tut | *tüt |
root | *ndit | ndit | — | |||
hear | *ndat- | ndat- | dɐɾ- | ndat- | *ndat | **dat- |
sun/day | *sajat | sat | sat | *t[e̝jɛ]t | *seat | |
upper arm/nine | *ndzape̝t | dʒaβet | jɐˈβɛt | *taje̝t | — | |
path | *[ndz/j]andit | dʒandit | *jandit | — | ||
flesh | *kit | qit̚ [jh] | kiʀ | -git | — | |
flower | *ke̝t | kɛt | *ke̝t | *ket | ||
worm | *kambɔt | kɐmboˈtɐj [hj] | *kambɔt | — | ||
skin/bark | *kat | kat | gɐɾ ~ qɐʀ | *-kat | — | |
outside | *kat | kat | *kat | *kat | ||
saliva/spittle | *kate̝t | katɛt | *kate̝t | *katet | ||
crocodile | *kajambo̝t | *ke̝jambo̝t | — | |||
thunder | *kɔmɵ̝t | kumut [rw] | kumut | *kɔmɵ̝t | *kumöt | |
white | *kɔwat | kowat | qɐˈwɐʀ | *kɔwat | — | |
sky | *ko̝t | kut | kuʀ | *ko̝t | — | |
cold | *ŋgit | giʀ | *ŋgit | — | ||
root | *ŋgo̝mbut | *ŋgo̝mbut | — | |||
louse | *ŋgo̝t | ŋgut | ɢut̚ | ŋgut | *ŋgo̝t | *gut |
hand/arm | *wit | wit | *it | *wit | ||
inside | *wamup | wamip | — | |||
tail | *wambut | wambit [rw] | wɐ:mbir | wambit | *wambut | *wabüt |
breadfruit | *ɾawɔt | lawot [rw] | rɐˈbɔʀ | rawot | *ɾawɔt | *rawot |
bird | *je̝t | et | ˈɛʀ | jɛt | *e̝t | *yet |
torch | *jaŋgɔt | jaŋgot [rw] | jaŋgot | *e̝ŋgɔt | *yagot | |
track | *jVk[ɵ̝/o̝]t | iɣut [rw] | jugut | — |
Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-k | k [k k̚ q q̚] | k [k̚ ] | k | *k | ||
cough | *[a]p[u]j-ɔk | apdʒok [rw] | ajak | *awujɔk | *aüak | |
water | *ɔk | ok | ɔg | ok | *ɔk | *ok |
hair/skull | *mɵ̝k | muk | muk̚ | muk | *mɵ̝k | — |
shoulder/ten | *mak | mak | *mak | *mak | ||
see | *pe̝t[a]k- | hetak- | sɛg- | ɛtag- | *[i/e̝]t[i/e̝]k-jɔ- | *eto-/*iti- |
stairs/ladder | *paɾik | halik [rw] | *waɾik | — | ||
rattan/rope | *tik | sik | tik | *tik | *tik | |
corpse | *tɵ̝k | tuk [rw] | — | |||
hide | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝k-mɔ- | suluk-mo- [rw] | turuk-oa | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝k-mɔ- | *turuk-mo- | |
fence | *ndaɾak | ndɑrɑq [jh] | *ndaɾak | — | ||
nail | *ndɔk | -ˈtok̚ | *ndɔk | — | ||
near | *s[i/e]nd[i/e]k | ˈsɛndɛq [jh] | sindik | — | ||
dry | *sɔk | sok | so̚g- | — | ||
fence/wall | *kɵ̝k | kuk | *kɵ̝k | *kök | ||
widow | *kamɔk | *kamɔk | — | |||
wrist/six | *kɔmo̝k | kumuk | ˈkumuɢ- | *kɔmo̝k | — | |
foot/leg | *kɔndɔk | kondok | *kɔndɔk | *kodok | ||
frog | *kʷak | kak | *kʷak | *koak | ||
sick/dead | *watɵ̝k | *watɵ̝k | — | |||
left | *wak | ɥɑq̚ [jh] | wɐɣ- | *wak | — | |
voice/speech | *ɾɵ̝k | luk | ʀuk ~ ruk | ruk | *[a]ɾɵ̝k | *rök |
say/speak | *ɾɔk- | lok- | rogo- | — | ||
smoke | *jVɾo̝k | uruk | ˈiruk | uruk | *jaɾo̝k | *uruk |
It may be seen that finals /*p *t/ are singificantly more frequent than final /*k/, while in Ok they are roughly equally frequent. This is likely attributable to Digul River's merger of Digul River-Ok finals /*mb *nd/ with /*p *t/, but /*ŋg/ with /*n/ rather than with /*k/.
There is only one known example of a possible final rounded velar voiceless stop /kʷ/, which both Healey and Voorhoeve reconstruct as /*p/ in parallel with the augments found on other pronouns:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-kʷ | k | k [k̚] | p | *p | *p | |
1 sg. | *nɵ̝kʷ | nuk | nuk̚ | nup | *nɵ̝p | *nöp |
Final apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is merged with the reflex of /*t/ in North Wambon and merged with the reflex of /*j/ in East Wambon and in Mandobo:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-ɾ | t [t̚] | r [ ] | j [ᵉ/a_, ⁱ/_o u] | *ɾ | *y | |
dream | *ɵ̝r | uⁱ | *ɵ̝ | *öy | ||
body/trunk | *anduɾ | andit | *andu | — | ||
excrement | *ɒɾ | ot | ɔ̃: | oⁱ | *aj | *ɔy |
get up/stand up | *matɵ̝ɾ- | matut [hj] | moˈtɛr- | matigo (?) | *matɵ̝ɾɵ̝- | — |
wing | *mbɔɾɵ̝ɾ | mbuluk ko- [rw] | mburuⁱ | *mbɔɾɵ̝ | *buruy | |
fat/grease | *tɵ̝kɵ̝ɾ | tuɣut [rw] | tuguⁱ | *tɵ̝kɵ̝ | *tököy | |
flying fox | *tawɔɾ | tawot [rw] | towoⁱ | — | ||
theft | *kamb[i/u]ɾ | kambit [rw] | kambir | — | ||
moon | *wakɔɾ | waɣot | wɐˈɢoʀ | wogoⁱ | *wɔkɔj | *wokoy |
Final palatal non-stop /*j/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-j | j | j [ᵉ/a_, ⁱ/_o u] | *j | *y | ||
father's father | *[a]mbaj | ambaⁱ [rw] | mbaᵉ | *ambaj | — | |
dog | *aŋgaj | aŋgaⁱ | aŋgaᵉ | *aŋgaj | *agay | |
pig | *[o̝]j | oⁱ [rw] | uⁱ | *o̝j | *uy | |
go (imperative) | *na-kɔj | naɣoⁱ | — | |||
termite | *tɔmaj | tomae [rw] | tomaᵉ | *tɔmaj | *tomay | |
not/nothing | *ndɒj | ndoⁱ | dɔː | ndoⁱ | *nd[a/ɔ]j | *dɔy |
wind | *kijapo̝j | kiwi | kiwuⁱ | *kijawo̝j | *kiwuy | |
friend | *kaj | naɣaⁱ [hj] | ˈqɐjɛn | kaᵉ | — | |
bark/skin | *kɔtaj | kotaⁱ | kotaᵉ | *kɔtaj | *kotay | |
crooked | *ŋg[ɔ/o̝]j | ŋguⁱ [rw] | ŋgoⁱ | — | ||
female | *ɾaŋgo̝j | laŋguⁱ | raŋguⁱ | *ɾaŋgo̝j | — | |
fish | *ɾakʷaj | laɣaⁱ | ragaᵉ | *ɾakʷaj | **rokay |
In one example …:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-j | j [ⁱ] | *ø | *y | |||
ghost | *kako̝j | kaguⁱ | *ko̝ko̝ | *kakuy |
Due to the merger of finals /*ɾ *j/ in East Wambon and Mandobo, the final qualities of several roots cannot be determined without more evidence:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*-[ɾ/j] | j [ᵉ/a_, ⁱ/_o u] | *j | — | |||
ripe/yellow | *amo̝[ɾ/j] | amuⁱ | *amo̝j | — | ||
cold | *saɾo̝[ɾ/j] | saruⁱ | *taɾo̝j | — | ||
mucus | *wakuɾa[ɾ/j] | warigaᵉ | *wakuɾaj | — |
Vowels ….
High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*i | i | i | i | *i | *i | |
drink | *mi- | mi- | mi- | mi- | *mi- | *mi- |
older sister | *-ni | -ni | *-ni | — | ||
father | *-ti | -ti | *-ti | — | ||
plait | *ti- | si- | ti- | *ti- | *ti- | |
earth/ground | *ip | ip | ip̚ | — | ||
star/firefly | *min(-ɔp) | min-op [rw] | ˈmin-ɔp̚ | minduⁱ | *min-ɔp | — |
bone | *mit | mit | mir | mit | *mit-ɔp | *mit |
thought | *pin | hin-opko | *imbin-mɔ- | — | ||
shin | *mbin | mbi-mit [rw] | mbin | *mbitɔn | **bin | |
dog | *tit | sɪ:ʀ | *tit | — | ||
rattan/rope | *tik | sik | tik | *tik | *tik | |
root | *ndit | ndit | — | |||
beak | *sim | sim [hj] | — | |||
bathe | *kim- | kim- [rw] | kɛm- | kim- | *kim- | *kim- |
flesh | *kit | qit̚ [jh] | kiʀ | -git | — | |
cold | *ŋgit | giʀ | *ŋgit | — | ||
hand/arm | *wit | wit | *it | *wit | ||
rib(s) | *ɾin | lin [rw] | rin | *[a]ɾin-man | *rin | |
thigh/upper arm | *mindin | mindin [rw] | *mindin | — | ||
thick | *pinim | hinim [rw] | — | |||
turtle | *mbiɾip | mbilip [rw] | *mbiɾip | — | ||
reason | *tikin | siɣi | tigin | — | ||
sand | *ŋgiɾim | *ŋgiɾim | — | |||
swallow | *mi[m/n] kɵ̝m- | *mi[m/n] kɵ̝m- | **mi köm- | |||
sleep (n.) | *kino̝m | kinum | kiˈnum | kinum | *kino̝m | *kinum |
two | *[i]ɾo̝mɔ | ilumo | ɛˈrumːo | irumo | *ɾo̝mɔ | *rumo |
take/marry | *si-mɔ- | su-mo- | *ti-mɔ- | — | ||
paddle | *ikɔ[ɾ/j] | *ikɔj | — | |||
stone | *iɾɔp | iɾop̚ | irop | — | ||
taro | *wiɾɔp | wirop | *i-ɾɔp | — | ||
scabies/tinea | *iɾɔmbo̝t | irombut | *iɾɔmbo̝t | — | ||
tooth | *imban | *imban | — | |||
coconut | *mbijan | ˈbijɑn [jh] | mbian | *mbijan | *bian | |
wind | *kijapo̝j | kiwi | kiwuⁱ | *kijawo̝j | *kiwuy | |
sago palm stem | *mbaŋgi | mbaŋgi | *mbaŋgi | *bagi | ||
old (person) | *mbaɾi | mbari | *mbaɾi | *bari | ||
snake | *ŋgʷati | *ŋgʷati | — | |||
bamboo knife | *waki | waɣi | wɐgi | wagi | *waki | *waki |
bite | *ati[k]- | asi- [rw] | atigo- | *ati[k-m]ɔ- | — | |
sneeze | *asin | asiŋ-mo- [rw] | asi- | — | ||
daughter | *matip | matip | *matip | *matip | ||
stairs/ladder | *paɾik | halik [rw] | *waɾik | — | ||
male | *mbatim | mbatim | *mbatim | *batim | ||
bow | *mbandit | mandit [rw] | mɐˈdiʀ | *mbandit | — | |
claw/nail | *mb[a][t/s]it | mbisit | biˈtir | *mbatit | — | |
cuscus | *takip | tɑʁip̚ [jh] | tɐˈɢip̚ | *takip | — | |
widow/wife | *saɾip | salip [rw] | saˈrip̚ | sarip | *taɾip | *sarip |
path | *[ndz/j]andit | dʒandit | *jandit | — | ||
night/dark | *wamin | wamin | *wamin | — | ||
egg | *wandin | wandin | -ɪndin | wandin | *wandin | — |
belly | *wandin | wandin | *wandin | *wadin | ||
younger sister | *[a]mbijat | mbiat | *ambijat | *biat | ||
head | *kambijan | *kambijan | — |
High back rounded vowel /*u/ is fronted and merged with high front /i/ in North Wambon and in East Wambon:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*u | i | i | i | *u | *ü | |
stab/kill (fut.) | *pu- | hi- [hj] | i- | *u- | ||
expel from body | *tu- | si- [rw] | ti- | *tu- | *tü- | |
cook/burn | *(a-)ndu- | *andu- | — | |||
chop down | *ɾu- | ri- | *(a-)ɾu- | *rü- | ||
go down | *ɾu- | ri- | *-ɾu- (?) | — | ||
sing | *ɾu- | li- | ri- | *ɾu- | *rü- | |
right (side) | *up | ʔip̚ [jh] | ip̚ | *up (?) | — | |
hit/kill | *un- | in- | — | |||
back | *mum | miːm | — | |||
name | *pup | hit [rw] | iː | ip | *up | *üp |
smell | *pup-(mo)- | hip | ip-mo | *u-mɔ- | *üp-mo- | |
banana | *tut | sit | siːʀ | tit | *tut | *tüt |
sugarcane | *kum | kin | *kum | *küm | ||
die (pres.) | *kum- | kim- | kɛm- | kim- | *kum- | *küm- |
brain | *ŋgun | ŋgin | — | |||
knee | *mbuwɔm | *mbuwɔm | — | |||
heart | *ndum-ɾɔp | ndim-lop [rw] | ndim-ndop | *ndum-ɾɔp | *dümrop | |
fly (n.) | *umɔn-ɔp | imonop | *umɔn-ɔp | *ümonop | ||
rain | *mo̝ɾup | mirip | *mo̝ɾup | *mürüp | ||
house/village | *mbo̝tup | mbisip | mbitip | *mbo̝tup | *bütüp | |
root | *ŋgo̝mbut | *ŋgo̝mbut | — | |||
black | *ŋgo̝num | *ŋgo̝num | — | |||
stone axe | *kɔɾu | kori | *kɔɾu | *korü | ||
child | *amut | amit [hj] | — | |||
body/trunk | *anduɾ | andit | *andu | — | ||
yesterday | *aɾup | alip | ariw amin | *aɾuwa | — | |
thorn | *aɾun | alin | ɐˈʀiŋ | arin | *aɾun | *arün |
thorn | *aɾuk | *aɾuk | — | |||
hot | *mamun | mamin | mɐmin | mamin | — | |
beard | *matut | matit | *matut | *matit | ||
elbow/eight | *ŋgambum | ŋgambim [rw] | ŋgambin | *ŋgambum | *gabün | |
inside | *wamup | wamip | — | |||
tail | *wambut | wambit [rw] | wɐ:mbir | wambit | *wambut | *wabüt |
canoe | *ja[p]un | *jahun | — | |||
garden | *jakup | jagip | *jakup | *yaküp | ||
mucus | *wakuɾa[ɾ/j] | warigaᵉ | *wakuɾaj | — |
High mid front vowel /*e̝/ …:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*e̝ | e [ɛ] | ɛ [ɛ e] | ɛ | *e̝ | *e | |
be | *ke̝- | kɛ- | *-ke̝- | *ke- | ||
flower | *ke̝t | kɛt | *ke̝t | *ket | ||
bird | *je̝t | et | ˈɛʀ | jɛt | *e̝t | *yet |
rainbow | *e̝ɾe̝n | ɛrɛnajop | — | |||
leech | *te̝ɾe̝n | selen | sɛˈrɛn | tɛrɛn | *te̝ɾe̝n | *teren |
sharp | *[k/ŋg]e̝te̝n | keten [rw] | ŋgɛt | *ŋge̝te̝n | *get | |
net bag | *e̝nɔ[j] | *e̝nɔ[j] | — | |||
bamboo | *pe̝kɔp | heɣop [rw] | ɛːˈɢop | ɛgop | — | |
small | *mbe̝ɾɔn | mbɛron | *mbe̝ɾɔn | *beron | ||
red | *te̝n-ɔp | tɛnop | *te̝n-ɔp | *tenop | ||
foot | *ke̝nɔp | kenop [rw] | kɛˈnɔp̚ | — | ||
eye | *ke̝-ɾɔp | kelop | ˈkenoː | kɛrop | *ke̝-ɾɔp | *kerop |
urine | *je̝t-ɔk | et-ok [rw] | ɛt-ˈok̚ | jɛt-ok | *e̝t-ɔk | *yet=ok |
see | *pe̝t[a]k- | hetak- | sɛg- | ɛtag- | *[i/e̝]t[i/e̝]k-jɔ- | *eto-/*iti- |
mosquito | *sɒpe̝n | sowɛn | *taje̝n-ɔp | *sɔwen | ||
eat (future) | *ande̝- | ande- | ˈɐndɛ- | *ande̝- | — | |
enough | *kaɾe̝ | karɛ | *kaɾe̝- | *kare | ||
laughter | *ambe̝n | amben [rw] | ɐnˈbɛn | *ambe̝n | — | |
older brother | *[a]ne̝t | -net | nɛt | *ane̝t | *net | |
wife | *aŋge̝n | *aŋge̝n | — | |||
spirit | *mbake̝t | mbaɣet [hj] | — | |||
cowrie shell | *tak[e̝]t | taɣet | *tak[e̝]t | — | ||
upper arm/nine | *ndzape̝t | dʒaβet | jɐˈβɛt | *taje̝t | — | |
friend | *kambe̝n | kambe [hj] | *kambe̝n | — | ||
saliva/spittle | *kate̝t | katɛt | *kate̝t | *katet | ||
sweat | *kʷate̝n | kotɛn | *kʷate̝n | *koten | ||
ashes | *kʷase̝p | kosɛp | *kʷate̝p | *kosep | ||
tomorrow | *jane̝n | jan ŋga | *jane̝n | — |
High mid central rounded vowel /*ɵ̝/ is merged with the reflexes of high mid back /*o̝/ (below) in North Wambon and in East Wambon:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*ɵ̝ | u | u | u | *ɵ̝ | *ö | |
dream | *ɵ̝ɾ | uⁱ | *ɵ̝ | *öy | ||
hair/skull | *mɵ̝k | muk | muk̚ | muk | *mɵ̝k | — |
kunai grass | *mbɵ̝p | mbup [rw] | mbup | *mbɵ̝p | *böp | |
1 sg. | *nɵ̝kʷ | nuk | nuk̚ | nup | *nɵ̝p | *nöp |
corpse | *tɵ̝k | tuk [rw] | — | |||
go up | *tɵ̝ɾ- | tut [hj] | turu- | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝- | *törö- | |
make fire | *kɵ̝m- | ugum- | *kɵ̝m- | — | ||
swallow | *kɵ̝m- | a-gumo | *kɵ̝m- | **köm- | ||
and/also | *kɵ̝p | -kup | -ɢup̚ | -kup | *-kɵ̝p | *köp |
fence/wall | *kɵ̝k | kuk | *kɵ̝k | *kök | ||
2 sg. | *ŋgɵ̝p | ŋgup | ɢup̚ | ŋgup | *ŋgɵ̝p | *göp |
voice/speech | *ɾɵ̝k | luk | ʀuk ~ ruk | ruk | *[a]ɾɵ̝k | *rök |
3 sg. | *jɵ̝p | jup | *jɵ̝p | — | ||
fat/grease | *tɵ̝kɵ̝ɾ | tuɣut [rw] | tuguⁱ | *tɵ̝kɵ̝ | *tököy | |
hide | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝k-mɔ- | suluk-mo- [rw] | turuk-oa | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝k-mɔ- | *turuk-mo- | |
ear | *t[u]ɾɵ̝n(-tɔp) | silu-top | siˈrun | turu-top | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝n-tɔp | *turu=top |
wing | *mbɔɾɵ̝ɾ | mbuluk ko- [rw] | mburuⁱ | *mbɔɾɵ̝ | *buruy | |
thunder | *kɔmɵ̝t | kumut [rw] | kumut | *kɔmɵ̝t | *kumöt | |
raw/new | *aɾɵ̝(-jɔk) | alujok/alun [rw] | ariok | *aɾɵ̝ | — | |
flesh | *kandɵ̝ | kandu | *kandɵ̝ | — | ||
vomit | *[a]kɵ̝[m/n] | *akɵ̝[m/n] | — | |||
get up/stand up | *matɵ̝ɾ- | matut [hj] | moˈtɛr- | matigo (?) | *matɵ̝ɾɵ̝- | — |
son | *mandɵ̝p | maːndup | *mandɵ̝p | *maadöp | ||
heavy | *kakɵ̝n | kuɣun [hj] | kagun | *kakɵ̝n | *kaakön | |
cough/phlegm | *ŋganɵ̝m | *ŋganɵ̝m | — | |||
chin/jaw | *ŋgandɵ̝m | *ŋgandɵ̝m | — | |||
sick/dead | *watɵ̝k | *watɵ̝k | — | |||
now/today | *kɔwandɵ̝t | kowandut | *kɔwandɵ̝t | — |
High mid back rounded vowel /*o̝/ is raised to /u/ in North Wambon and in East Wambon.
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*o̝ | u | u | u | *o̝ | *u | |
child | *mo̝n | mun | *mo̝n | *mun | ||
milk | *ko̝n | kun | *am-ko̝n | *kun | ||
sky | *ko̝t | kut | kuʀ | *ko̝t | — | |
navel/umbilicus | *ŋgo̝m | ŋgum | *ŋgo̝m | *gum | ||
louse | *ŋgo̝t | ŋgut | ɢut̚ | ŋgut | *ŋgo̝t | *gut |
island | *ndo̝m | ndum [rw] | ndum | *ndo̝m | *dum | |
index finger/4 | *ko̝ɾo̝ko̝t | kurugut | *ko̝ɾo̝ko̝t | *kurukut-köp | ||
sleep (n.) | *kino̝m | kinum | kiˈnum | kinum | *kino̝m | *kinum |
two | *[i]ɾo̝mɔ | ilumo | ɛˈrumːo | irumo | *ɾo̝mɔ | *rumo |
scabies/tinea | *iɾɔmbo̝t | irombut | *iɾɔmbo̝t | — | ||
wrist/six | *kɔmo̝k | kumuk | ˈkumuɢ- | *kɔmo̝k | — | |
smoke | *jVɾo̝k | uruk | ˈiruk | uruk | *jaɾo̝k | *uruk |
thumb/five | *aŋgʷo̝ | aŋgu | *aŋgʷo̝ | *agu | ||
ripe/yellow | *amo̝[ɾ/j] | amuⁱ | *amo̝j | — | ||
cold | *saɾo̝[ɾ/j] | saruⁱ | *taɾo̝j | — | ||
man/old man | *kako̝p | kagup | *kako̝p | — | ||
ghost | *kako̝j | kaguⁱ | *ko̝ko̝ | *kakuy | ||
inside | *k[a]ɾo̝p | *k[a]ɾo̝p | — | |||
female | *ɾaŋgo̝j | laŋguⁱ | raŋguⁱ | *ɾaŋgo̝j | — | |
crocodile | *kajambo̝t | *ke̝jambo̝t | — |
High mid back rounded /*o̝/ is fronted to /i/ in Kenon and in East Wambon when followed by high back /*u/ in the next syllable:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*o̝/_Cu | i | i | i | *o̝ | *ü | |
rain | *mo̝ɾup | mirip | *mo̝ɾup | *mürüp | ||
house/village | *mbo̝tup | mbisip | mbitip | *mbo̝tup | *bütüp | |
root | *ŋgo̝mbut | *ŋgo̝mbut | — | |||
black | *ŋgo̝num | *ŋgo̝num | — |
In one example …:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*o̝[j] | u | u | o̝j | *u | ||
sago | *ndo̝[j] | ndu | du | ndun | *ndo̝j | *du(n) |
Low mid front vowel /*ɛ/ …:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*ɛ | e [ɛ] | ɛ [ɛ e] | ɛ | *ɛ | *e | |
come | *m[ɛ]- | mɛ- | *m[ɛ]- | *me- | ||
that | *ɛp | ep | — | |||
eat (present) | *ɛn- | en- | ɛn- | — | ||
gall/bile | *mɛn | mɛn | *mɛn | *men | ||
tendon/vein | *mɛt | met | mɛt | *tɛmɛt | *met | |
chest | *mbɛ[m/n] | mbɛ-mit | *mbɛ[n]-man | — | ||
forearm/seven | *mbɛn | mben | bɛŋ- | mbɛn | *mbɛn | — |
this | *mɛnɛ | mɛnɛ | *mɛnɛ | *mene | ||
side | *mɛɾɛn | mɛrɛŋ | — | |||
penis | *tɛŋgɛt | teŋget [rw] | tɛŋgɛt | *tɛŋgɛt | *teget | |
shy | *tɛɾɛŋgɛt | tɛrɛŋgɛt | *tɛɾɛŋgɛt | *tereget | ||
skinny | *pɛt-pɛt | hele-wet [rw] | *ɛt-ɛt | — | ||
enemy | *ɛndɔm | ɛnˈdom | ɛndom | *ɛndɔm | *edom | |
rat | *t[ɛ]mɔn | tɛmon | *t[ɔ]mɔn | *temon | ||
nape | *ŋgɔmbɛn | ŋgombɛn | *ŋgɛmbɛn | — |
Low mid back rounded vowel /*ɔ/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*ɔ | o | o | o | ɔ | *o | |
do/make | *-mɔ- | -mo- | -mo- | *-mɔ- | *mo- | |
burn (intr.) | *(a-)ndɔ- | do- | (u-)ndo | *andɔ- | *do- | |
dig | *sɔ- | a-so | so- | *tɔ- | *so- | |
walk/go (pres.) | *kɔ- | ko- | ko- | *kɔ- | *ko- | |
plant (v.) | *ɾɔ- | lo- [hj] | *ɾɔ- | *ro- | ||
call | *jɔ- | jo- | jo- | *jɔ- | *yo- | |
water | *ɔk | ok | ɔg | ok | *ɔk | *ok |
mother's br. | *mɔm | mom | *mɔm | — | ||
hole | *tɔp | top | top | *-tɔp | *top | |
nail | *ndɔk | -ˈtok̚ | *ndɔk | — | ||
dry | *sɔk | sok | so̚g- | — | ||
die (non-pres.) | *kɔm- | kom- [hj] | — | |||
blood | *ŋgɔm | ŋgom | rom | ŋgom | *ŋgɔm | *gom |
song | *ŋgɔm | ŋgom | ŋgom | *ŋgɔm | *gom | |
arrow | *ŋgɔp | ŋgop | *ŋgɔp | *gop | ||
weep/cry | *ɾɔm- | lom- [hj] | rom- | rom- | *ɾɔm- | *rom-/*rum- |
fruit/seed | *ɾɔp | lop | rop | *ɾɔp | *rop | |
hair/leaf/feather | *ɾɔn | lon | ron | *ɾɔn | *ron | |
say/speak | *ɾɔk- | lok- | rogo- | — | ||
mat | *jɔm | jom | *jɔm | *yom | ||
mother | *jɔp | -jop [hj] | *jɔp | — | ||
watch/guard | *wɔ-mɔ- | womo- | *wɔmɔ- | *womo- | ||
roof | *mɔndɔm | *mɔndɔm | — | |||
foot/leg | *kɔndɔk | kondok | *kɔndɔk | *kodok | ||
stone axe | *kɔɾu | kori | *kɔɾu | *korü | ||
one | *ɔm[a/ɔ][ɾ/j] | omaᵉ | *ɔm[ɔ]j | *omay | ||
lightning | *mbɔmban | *mbɔmban | — | |||
termite | *tɔmaj | tomae | tomaᵉ | *tɔmaj | *tomay | |
bark/skin | *kɔtaj | kotaⁱ | kotaᵉ | *kɔtaj | *kotay | |
white | *kɔwat | kowat | qɐˈwɐʀ | *kɔwat | — | |
lie/falsehood | *kɔjap | kojap [rw] | kojap | — | ||
now/today | *kɔwandɵ̝t | kowandut | *kɔwandɵ̝t | — | ||
paddle | *ikɔ[ɾ/j] | *ikɔj | — | |||
stone | *iɾɔp | iɾop̚ | irop | — | ||
star/firefly | *min-ɔp | min-op [rw] | ˈmin-ɔp̚ | *min-ɔp | — | |
taro | *wiɾɔp | wirop | *i-ɾɔp | — | ||
heart | *ndum-ɾɔp | ndim-lop [rw] | ndim-ndop | *ndum-ɾɔp | *dümrop | |
fly (n.) | *umɔn-ɔp | imonop | *umɔn-ɔp | *ümonop | ||
net bag | *e̝nɔ[j] | *e̝nɔ[j] | — | |||
bamboo | *pe̝kɔp | heɣop [rw] | ɛːˈɢop | ɛgop | — | |
small | *mbe̝ɾɔn | mbɛron | *mbe̝ɾɔn | *beron | ||
red | *te̝n-ɔp | tɛnop | *te̝n-ɔp | *tenop | ||
foot | *ke̝nɔp | kenop [rw] | kɛˈnɔp̚ | — | ||
bandicoot | *k[e̝]sɔ[t/ɾ] | kosot [rw] | — | |||
two | *[i]ɾo̝mɔ | ilumo | ɛˈrumːo | irumo | *ɾo̝mɔ | *rumo |
enemy | *ɛndɔm | ɛnˈdom | ɛndom | *ɛndɔm | *edom | |
rat | *t[ɛ]mɔn | tɛmon | *t[ɔ]mɔn | *temon | ||
sharp/evil | *kVjɔm | kojom [hj] | koˈjom | kujom | *ko̝jɔm | *kuyom |
mouth/chin | *mb[ɒ/ɔ]nɔp | mbonop [rw] | mbonop | — | ||
put down | *paɾɔ- | halo- | — | |||
break/crush | *kaɾɔ- | karo-ndɛ | *kaɾɔ-nde̝- | *karo=ne- | ||
vagina | *a-tɔp | a-top [rw] | a-top | *a-tɔp | *atop | |
story/tradition | *matɔm | matom | *matɔm | *maatom | ||
grandchild | *mak-ɔp | maɣop [rw] | ˈmɐɢob̚ | magop | *mak-ɔp | *maakop |
mouth/jaw | *maŋgɔt | maŋgot | maŋgot | *maŋgɔt | *magot | |
bird of paradise | *pandɔ[ɾ/j] | andoⁱ | *wandɔj | *wadoy | ||
go (imperative) | *na-kɔj | naɣoⁱ | — | |||
armpit | *taŋgɔn | taŋgo-top [rw] | taŋgo top | *taŋgɔn(-tɔp) | *taagon top | |
flying fox | *tawɔɾ | tawot [rw] | towoⁱ | — | ||
finger | *taɾɔn | talon [rw] | — | |||
widow | *kamɔk | *kamɔk | — | |||
worm | *kambɔt | kɐmboˈtɐj [hj] | *kambɔt | — | ||
moon | *wakɔɾ | waɣot | wɐˈɢoʀ | wogoⁱ | *wɔkɔj | *wokoy |
breadfruit | *ɾawɔt | lawot [rw] | rɐˈbɔʀ | rawot | *ɾawɔt | *rawot |
torch | *jaŋgɔt | jaŋgot [rw] | jaŋgot | *e̝ŋgɔt | *yagot | |
sick/ill | *jambɔɾɔ | jambolo-k- | *jambɔɾɔ | — | ||
tail of bird | *ɒt[a]ɾɔn | *ataɾɔn | — |
Low mid back /*ɔ/ is raised to /u/ in North Wambon and in East Wambon when followed by high mid rounded vowels /*ɵ̝ *o̝/ in the next syllable:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*ɔ/_Cɵ̝ | u | *ɔ | *u | |||
wing | *mbɔɾɵ̝ɾ | mbuluk ko- [rw] | mburuⁱ | *mbɔɾɵ̝ | *buruy | |
thunder | *kɔmɵ̝t | kumut [rw] | kumut | *kɔmɵ̝t | *kumöt | |
*ɔ/_Co̝ | u | u | u | *ɔ | — | |
wrist/six | *kɔmo̝k | kumuk | ˈkumuɢ- | *kɔmo̝k | — |
Several roots of the form /*CɔCaC/ are reflected as /CaCaC/ in Kokenop:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*ɔCa | oCa | aCa | *ɔCa | |||
far | *kɔmam | komam [rw] | qɐmː | kamam | *kɔmam | *komam |
incorrect | *ŋgɔmbam | ŋgombam [rw] | ŋgamban | *ŋgɔmbam | *gobam |
When followed by /*j/, low mid back rounded /*ɔ/ is raised and fronted to /i/ in Wambon and gains an offglide to become /oᵘ/ in Mandobo; we presume the difference in Kokenop reflexes to result from …
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*o/_j | i | u | *… | |||
mother | *… | -i | -oⁱ | *awo̝j | ||
wind | *kijapo̝j | kiwi | kiwuⁱ | *kijawo̝j | *kiwuy |
Low back rounded vowel /*ɒ/ is uncommon. It is merged with the reflexes of low mid /*ɔ/ in North Wambon and in East Wambon and with those of low central /*a/ in Mandobo:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*ɒ | o | o [ ] | o | *a | *ɔ | |
breast | *ɒm | om | ɔm | om | *am | *ɔm |
excrement | *ɒɾ | ot | ɔ̃: | oⁱ | *aj | *ɔy |
not/nothing | *ndɒj | ndoⁱ | dɔː | ndoⁱ | *nd[a/ɔ]j | *dɔy |
mosquito | *sɒpe̝n | sowɛn | *taje̝n-ɔp | *sɔwen | ||
tail of bird | *ɒt[a]ɾɔn | *ataɾɔn | — |
Low central vowel /*a/ is generally preserved as such in all descendants, excepting some Mandobo dialects which …, a development which postdates proto-Mandobo:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*a | a [a ɑ] | a | *a | *a | ||
sit/stay | *mba- | mba- | mba- | *mba- | *ba- | |
eat (imperative) | *na | na | — | |||
1 sg. poss. | *na- | na- | na | *na | ||
walk/go (n.p.) | *ka- | ka- | ɐ- ~ -gɐ- | *ka- | — | |
break/snap | *ŋgʷa- | ŋgande [rw] | ŋgandɛ | *ŋgʷa-nde̝- | *gwa=ne- | |
crippled/lame | *wa | *wa | — | |||
house/nest | *ap | ap | ɐp̚ | ap | *-ap (?) | — |
shoulder/ten | *mak | mak | *mak | *mak | ||
father | *mbap | mbap [hj] | *mbap | — | ||
hear | *ndat- | ndat- | dɐɾ- | ndat- | *ndat | **dat- |
skin/bark | *kat | kat | gɐɾ ~ qɐʀ | *-kat | — | |
outside | *kat | kat | *kat | *kat | ||
friend | *kaj | na-ɣaⁱ [hj] | ˈqɐjɛn | kaᵉ | — | |
frog | *kʷak | kak | *kʷak | *koak | ||
calf | *wan | wan | *wan | *wan | ||
left | *wak | ɥɑq̚ [jh] | wɐɣ- | *wak | — | |
take/hold | *ɾap- | lap- | rap- | *ɾap- | — | |
woman | *ɾan | lan | ɾɐŋ | ran | *ɾan | *ran |
father's father | *[a]mbaj | ambaⁱ [rw] | mbaᵉ | *ambaj | — | |
who? | *[a]kʷap | ɐˈɣɛp̚ | agap | *kʷap | — | |
dog | *aŋgaj | aŋgaⁱ | aŋgaᵉ | *aŋgaj | *agay | |
yellow | *t[a]jan | tɐjɐn | — | |||
slippery | *ndaɾa[t/ɾ]- | ndalat-ke [rw] | ndaragaᵉ | — | ||
fence | *ndaɾak | ndɑrɑq [jh] | *ndaɾak | — | ||
palate | *kana[m/n] | kanaŋ-git | *kana[m/n] | — | ||
fish | *ɾakʷaj | laɣaⁱ | ragaᵉ | *ɾakʷaj | **rokay | |
lip(s) | *mbaɾa[m/n]-kat | mbaŋgat | bɐŋˈkɐr | mbaraŋgat | *mbaŋgaj | — |
sago palm stem | *mbaŋgi | mbaŋgi | *mbaŋgi | *bagi | ||
old (person) | *mbaɾi | mbari | *mbaɾi | *bari | ||
snake | *ŋgʷati | *ŋgʷati | — | |||
bamboo knife | *waki | waɣi | wɐgi | wagi | *waki | *waki |
bite | *ati[k]- | asi- [rw] | atigo- | *ati[k-m]ɔ- | — | |
sneeze | *asin | asiŋ-mo- [rw] | asi- | — | ||
daughter | *matip | matip | *matip | *matip | ||
stairs/ladder | *paɾik | halik [rw] | *waɾik | — | ||
male | *mbatim | mbatim | *mbatim | *batim | ||
bow | *mbandit | mandit [rw] | mɐˈdiʀ | *mbandit | — | |
cuscus | *takip | tɑʁip̚ [jh] | tɐˈɢip̚ | *takip | — | |
widow/wife | *saɾip | salip [rw] | saˈrip̚ | sarip | *taɾip | *sarip |
path | *[ndz/j]andit | dʒandit | *jandit | — | ||
night/dark | *wamin | wamin | *wamin | — | ||
egg | *wandin | wandin | -ɪndin | wandin | *wandin | — |
belly | *wandin | wandin | *wandin | *wadin | ||
younger sister | *[a]mbijat | mbiat | *ambijat | *biat | ||
head | *kambijan | *kambijan | — | |||
theft | *kamb[i/u]ɾ | kambit [rw] | kambir | — | ||
child | *amut | amit [hj] | — | |||
yesterday | *aɾup | alip | ariw amin | *aɾuwa | — | |
thorn | *aɾun | alin | ɐˈʀiŋ | arin | *aɾun | *arün |
thorn | *aɾuk | *aɾuk | — | |||
hot | *mamun | mamin | mɐmin | mamin | — | |
beard | *matut | matit | *matut | *matit | ||
elbow/eight | *ŋgambum | ŋgambim [rw] | ŋgambin | *ŋgambum | *gabün | |
inside | *wamup | wamip | — | |||
tail | *wambut | wambit [rw] | wɐ:mbir | wambit | *wambut | *wabüt |
canoe | *ja[p]un | *jahun | — | |||
garden | *jakup | jagip | *jakup | *yaküp | ||
mucus | *wakuɾa[ɾ/j] | warigaᵉ | *wakuɾaj | — | ||
eat (future) | *ande̝- | ande- | ˈɐndɛ- | *ande̝- | — | |
enough | *kaɾe̝ | karɛ | *kaɾe̝- | *kare | ||
laughter | *ambe̝n | amben [rw] | ɐnˈbɛn | *ambe̝n | — | |
spirit | *mbake̝t | mbaɣet [hj] | — | |||
cowrie shell | *tak[e̝]t | taɣet | *tak[e̝]t | — | ||
upper arm/nine | *ndzape̝t | dʒaβet | jɐˈβɛt | *taje̝t | — | |
friend | *kambe̝n | kambe [hj] | *kambe̝n | — | ||
saliva/spittle | *kate̝t | katɛt | *kate̝t | *katet | ||
tomorrow | *jane̝n | jan ŋga | *jane̝n | — | ||
scar | *at[e̝/ɛ][t/ɾ] | atet [rw] | atɛrɛm | — | ||
raw/new | *aɾɵ̝(-jɔk) | alujok/alun [rw] | ariok | *aɾɵ̝ | — | |
flesh | *kandɵ̝ | kandu | *kandɵ̝ | — | ||
get up/stand up | *matɵ̝ɾ- | matut [hj] | moˈtɛr- | matigo (?) | *matɵ̝ɾɵ̝- | — |
son | *mandɵ̝p | maːndup | *mandɵ̝p | *maadöp | ||
heavy | *kakɵ̝n | kuɣun [hj] | kagun | *kakɵ̝n | *kaakön | |
cough/phlegm | *ŋganɵ̝m | *ŋganɵ̝m | — | |||
chin/jaw | *ŋgandɵ̝m | *ŋgandɵ̝m | — | |||
sick/dead | *watɵ̝k | *watɵ̝k | — | |||
gather | *jaŋg[ɵ̝/o̝]-mɔ- | jaŋgumo- [rw] | jaŋgumo- | — | ||
nose | *taŋgo̝t | toŋgot | *taŋgo̝t | *togut | ||
thumb/five | *aŋgʷo̝ | aŋgu | *aŋgʷo̝ | *agu | ||
ripe/yellow | *amo̝[ɾ/j] | amuⁱ | *amo̝j | — | ||
cold | *saɾo̝[ɾ/j] | saruⁱ | *taɾo̝j | — | ||
man/old man | *kako̝p | kagup | *kako̝p | — | ||
ghost | *kako̝j | kaguⁱ | *ko̝ko̝ | *kakuy | ||
inside | *k[a]ɾo̝p | *k[a]ɾo̝p | — | |||
female | *ɾaŋgo̝j | laŋguⁱ | raŋguⁱ | *ɾaŋgo̝j | — | |
put down | *paɾɔ- | halo- | — | |||
vagina | *a-tɔp | a-top [rw] | a-top | *a-tɔp | *atop | |
story/tradition | *matɔm | matom | *matɔm | *maatom | ||
grandchild | *mak-ɔp | maɣop [rw] | ˈmɐɢob̚ | magop | *mak-ɔp | *maakop |
mouth/jaw | *maŋgɔt | maŋgot | maŋgot | *maŋgɔt | *magot | |
bird of paradise | *pandɔ[ɾ/j] | andoⁱ | *wandɔj | *wadoy | ||
tongue | *pa[wɔ]n | han-op [rw] | ɐŋ-ˈkɐr | an-op | *wa[wɔ]n(-kat) | — |
go (imperative) | *na-kɔj | naɣoⁱ | — | |||
armpit | *taŋgɔn (tɔp) | taŋgo-top [rw] | taŋgo top | *taŋgɔn (tɔp) | *taagon top | |
flying fox | *tawɔɾ | tawot [rw] | towoⁱ | — | ||
finger | *taɾɔn | talon [rw] | — | |||
widow | *kamɔk | *kamɔk | — | |||
worm | *kambɔt | kɐmboˈtɐj [hj] | *kambɔt | — | ||
breadfruit | *ɾawɔt | lawot [rw] | rɐˈbɔʀ | rawot | *ɾawɔt | *rawot |
tie/bind | *and[awɔ]p- | andop [hj] | ɐnˈdɐb- | andap- | — | |
sick/ill | *jambɔɾɔ | jambolo-k- | *jambɔɾɔ | — | ||
tooth | *imban | *imban | — | |||
mouse/rat | *s[e̝]k[o̝]nap | sɛɢˈnɑp [jh] | sogonap | *to̝ko̝n-ɔp | *sukunaap | |
spider | *at[o̝]wan | asowan [rw] | suwan | *ato̝wan | *sukan/*suwan | |
light/clear | *[ɔ]ndzat | dʒat | rat | *ɔɾat | *rat | |
lightning | *mbɔmban | *mbɔmban | — | |||
knowledge | *n[ɔ]pam | *nɔwam | — | |||
termite | *tɔmaj | tomae | tomaᵉ | *tɔmaj | *tomay | |
far | *kɔmam | komam [rw] | qɐmː | kamam | *kɔmam | *komam |
neck | *k[ɔ]man | *kɔman | — | |||
bark/skin | *kɔtaj | kotaⁱ | kotaᵉ | *kɔtaj | *kotay | |
white | *kɔwat | kowat | qɐˈwɐʀ | *kɔwat | — | |
lie/falsehood | *kɔjap | kojap [rw] | kojap | — | ||
incorrect | *ŋgɔmbam | ŋgombam [rw] | ŋgamban | *ŋgɔmbam | *gobam | |
daughter | *t[ɒ/ɔ]mba-ɾan | tombalan [hj] | — | |||
now/today | *kɔwandɵ̝t | kowandut | *kɔwandɵ̝t | — |
Low central vowel /*a/ is fronted and raised to /ɛ/ in Mandobo when preceded by /*j/:
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | Healey | |
*a/j_ | a [a ɑ] | a | *… | |||
torch | *jaŋgɔt | jaŋgot [rw] | jaŋgot | *e̝ŋgɔt | *yagot | |
*a/j_ | a [a ɑ] | a | *… | |||
sun/day | *sajat | sat | sat | *t[e̝jɛ]t | *seat |
Pronouns
Dumut nominative pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with Kenon forms drawn from de Vries and de Vries-Wiersma (1992: 41-42,) Ketum from Jang (2003: 40,) Kokenop and Mandobo from Drabbe (1959: 180-181,) Oàmbon Dumut from Drabbe (1954: 162-163) and South Mandobo of Kaisah from Lebold, Kriens and Susanto (2013: 38):
Wambon | Kenon | Ketum | Agayop | Mandobo | |
1 sg. | *nɵ̝kʷ | nuk | nuk̚ | nup | *nɵ̝p |
2 sg. | *ŋgɵ̝p | ŋgup | ɢup̚ | ŋgup | *ŋgɵ̝p |
3 sg. | *ɛkɛp; *jɵ̝p | neɣep | ɛˈɢɛp̚ | jup | *jɵ̝p; *ɛkɛ(p) |
1 pl. | *naŋgVp | noɣop | nɛˈɢip̚ | naŋgup | *naŋgup |
2 pl. | *ŋgaŋgVp | ŋgoɣop | gɛˈɢip̚ | ŋgaŋgup | *ŋgaŋgip |
3 pl. | *jakVp | dʒaɣop | jɐˈɢop̚ | jaŋgup | *jaŋgip |
Wambon's final /*k/ in the first person singular is unexpected; final /*p/ is supported by outcomparison to Ndeiram River /*nup/ and Becking River /*nup/.
Plural forms develop irregularly in all descendants. Kenon Wambon's medial [ɣ] regularly reflects /*k/, not /*ŋg/, but as both Awyu and Ndeiram River forms are reconstructed with /*ŋg/, we must conclude the Kenon forms irregular. Conversely, Awyu third person plural /*jɔxɔ/ reflects /*jakɔp/, not /*jaŋgɔp/. Comparison of this form to Kombai /ja/ shows the augment /*kɔp/, perhaps identical to the word for “man,” to be separable, as the augment sof the first and second plurals must likewise be by comparison to the singulars.
Two possibilities present themselves: either either augment could occur on any base, with Kenon Wambon using /*kɔp/, South Dumut /*ŋg[ʉ/u]p/, and Awyu using the one on the third person and the other on the first and second persons, or both Kenon and South Dumut have altered one or the other set by analogy. Our reconstruction here assumes the latter scenario. In this light, Ketum Wambon can be viewed as a transitional stage, in which /*ŋg/ in the first and second person augments has been regularized to /k/ [ɢ], but the reflex of /*ʉ/ [i] has not yet been levelled to /o/ as occurs in Kenon.
Possessive forms are reconstructed as follows. De Vries and de Vreis-Wiersma's Kenon Wambon forms are mandatorily prefixed. Oàmbon Dumut forms are drawn from Drabbe (1954: 211-212.) No possessive forms for Ketum Wambon or for South Mandobo of Kaisah are given in Jang (2003) or Lebold, Kriens and Susanto (2013) respectively:
Wambon | Kenon | Agayop | Mandobo | |
1 sg. | *na | na- | na | *… |
2 sg. | *ŋga | ŋga- | ŋgo | *… |
3 sg. | neɣo- | ja | *… | |
1 pl. | noɣo- | naŋgo | *… | |
2 pl. | ŋgoɣo- | ŋgaŋgo | *… | |
3 pl. | dʒaɣo- | jaŋgo | *… |
Verbal morphology
[under construction]
….
…. realis … (Wester 1014: 106-107) …
…. future … (Wester 1014: 113-116) …
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Loans from neighboring families
[under construction]
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… loans from Lowland Ok …
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…. loans from …
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… loans from Marind-Yaqay …
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