Becking and Dawi Rivers
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
[under construction]
The Becking and Dawi Rivers family consists of anywhere from two to six languages spoken along northerly tributaries of the Digul and Eilanden Rivers, just southwest of New Guinea's central cordillera.
Subclassification
The internal classification of Becking and Dawi Rivers is as follows:
[under construction]
Becking and Dawi Rivers
Becking River
Dawi River
Komyandaret
Tsaukambo
Sources
Baas (1981) Tsakwambo (unobtained)
Versteeg (1983) Tsawkwambo (unobtained)
van Enk and de Vries (1997) grammar, (pp. 221-225) 200 comparative terms and (pp. 226-243) 1,425 term vocabulary for Korowai
Wilbrink (2004) 240 comparative terms for Korowai of (pp. 103a-103f) Ajak, Danowage, and Yaniruma villages, (pp. 104a-104f) Mabul and Snimburu, (pp. 105a-105e) Miwagé, (pp. 106a-106f) Burukmakok after de Vries and an unspecified version of Korowai which appears to be the same underlying material as found in Hughes' (2009: 27-37) Abiowage
Hughes (2009: 27-37) 239 comparative terms for Korowai of Abiowage village, Komyandaret of Danokit and Tsaukambo of Waiburu
de Vries (2012) comparison of Baas' (1981) Tsaukambo and Korowai
Historical phonology
[under construction]
Proto-Becking and Dawi Rivers had perhaps 15 consonants and 6 or 7 vowels as follows:
| *m | *n | ||
| *p | *t | *s | *k |
| *b | *d | *dz | *g |
| *nd | *ŋg | ||
| *w | *l | *j |
| *i | *u | |
| *e̝ | *o̝ | |
| [*ɛ] | *ɔ | |
| *a |
…
Only a restricted set of consonants occurs finally:
| *m | *n | ||
| *p | *t | *s | *k |
| *l |
In accordance with a regional trend which affects all but the southernmost Awyu and Dumut languages along with Asmat, Sempan, East Mek and even Kaure, the most typical synchronic reflexes of Becking and Dawi Rivers vowels are as follows, with high mid back /*o̝/ raised to [u] and high back /*u/ fronted to [ʉ ɯ y]:
| i | ʉ | u |
| e̝ | ||
| ɔ | ||
| a |
…
Initial consonants correspond as follows:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River |
| *m- | *m | *m |
| *n- | *n | *n |
| *p- | *ɸ | *p |
| *t- | *s | *t |
| *t-/_e̝ | *h | *t |
| *t-/_o̝ | *ɸ | *t |
| *t-/_ɔCi | *h | *t |
| *t-/_ɔCu | *h | *t |
| *s- | *h | *s |
| *k- | *x | *k |
| *b- | *b | *b |
| *d- | *d | *d |
| *dz- | *d | *dz |
| *g- | *g | *g |
| *ŋg- | *ŋg | *ŋg |
| *w- | *w | *w |
| *l- | *l | *l |
| *j- | *j | *j |
Medial consonants correspond as follows:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River |
| *-m- | *m | *m |
| *-n- | *n | *n |
| *-p- | *w | *p |
| *-t- | *t | *t |
| *-s- | *… | *… |
| *-k- | *x | *k |
| *-b- | *b | *b |
| *-d- | *d | *d |
| *-nd- | *nd | *nd |
| *-ŋg- | *ŋg | *ŋg |
| *-w- | *w | *w |
| *-l- | *l | *l |
| *-j- | *j | *j |
Final consonants correspond as follows:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River |
| *-m | *N | *m |
| *-n | *N | *n |
| *-p | *C | *p |
| *-t | *C | *t |
| *-s | *C | *s |
| *-k | *C | *k |
| *-l | *ø | *l |
Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River |
| *i | *i | *i |
| *u | *u | *u |
| *e̝ | *e̝ | *e̝ |
| *o̝ | *o̝ | *o̝ |
| [*ɛ] | *e̝ | *ɛ |
| *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ |
| *a | *a | *a |
| *… | *… | *… |
| *… | *… | *… |
| *… | *… | *… |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows. Some comparisons below are based upon those of de Vries (2012 ibid.)
For clarity, our presentation is divided into three sections, beginning with initial and medial consonants, followed by final consonants, then vowels and diphthongs.
Initial and medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *m- | *m | *m | |
| drink | *mi- | *mi- | *mi- |
| star | *minɔp | *minɔC | |
| side | *me̝n | *me̝n | |
| hand/arm | *me̝t | *me̝C | *me̝t |
| vein | *me̝t | *me̝t | |
| fire | *me̝lit | *me̝liC | *me̝lit |
| dog | *me̝jan | *me̝jaN | *me̝jan |
| hot | *mamun | *mamuN | *mamun |
| grandmother | *mak | *maC | *mak |
| mother's br. | *mɔm | *mɔN | *mɔm |
| younger sister | *mɔdɔt | *mɔdɔC | *mɔdɔt |
| father's sister | *mo̝[t/l] | *mo̝[C] | *mo̝[t/l] |
| body hair | *mo̝k | *mo̝k | |
| old | *mul | *mu | *mul |
| *-m- | *m | *m | |
| 2 pl. adhort. | *-mVn | *-mVN | *-mVn |
| do/make | *-mɔ- | *-mɔ | *-mɔ |
| hot | *mamun | *mamuN | *mamun |
| blow | *po̝mɔ- | *ɸo̝mɔ- | *po̝mɔ- |
| smoke | *te̝mul | *-te̝mu | *te̝mul |
| crocodile | *sɔmaⁱ[t/l] | *sɔmaⁱ[C] | *sɔmaⁱ[t/l] |
| die | *kɔmi- | *xɔmi- | *kɔmi- |
| weep/cry | *jamɔ- | *jamɔ- | *jamɔ- |
Initial and medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both subgroups:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *n- | *n | *n | |
| mother | *ni | *ni | *ni |
| friend | *ne̝kɔ | *ne̝xɔ | *ne̝kɔ |
| 1 sg. poss. | *na- | *na- | *na- |
| brother-in-law | *nabo̝[t/l] | *nabo̝[C] | *nabo̝[t/l] |
| rattan/rope | *nan | *naN | *nan |
| 1 pl. | *nako̝p | *naxo̝C | *nɔko̝p |
| flesh | *nɔp | *nɔC | *nɔp |
| index f./four | *nɔndɔ | *nɔndɔ | *nɔndɔ |
| 1 sg. | *no̝p | *no̝C | *no̝p |
| *-n- | *n | *n | |
| ashes | *anɔm | *anɔN | *anɔm |
| number | *-anɔp | *-anɔC | *-anɔp |
| snake | *anɔs | *anɔC | *anɔs |
| star | *minɔp | *minɔC | |
| mountain | *panip | *ɸaniC | *panip |
| tired/sleepy | *[t/s]ɔnute̝p | *hɔnute̝C | *tɔnute̝p |
| cassowary | *sanip | *haniC | *sanip |
| person | *janɔp | *janɔC | *janɔp |
Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *p- | *ɸ | *p [ɸ] | |
| name | *pi | *ɸi | *pi |
| new/young | *p[e̝/a]p | *ɸaC | *pe̝p |
| mountain | *panip | *ɸaniC | *panip |
| blow | *po̝mɔ- | *ɸo̝mɔ- | *po̝mɔ- |
| wind | *po̝p | *ɸo̝C | *po̝p |
| cuscus | *puwɔn | *ɸuwɔN | *puwɔn |
| sharp | *pu[t/l] | *pu[t/l] |
Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is deoccluded to merged with non-stop /*w/ in Dawi River, a change shared with Wambon to the southeast:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *-p- | *w | *p [ɸ] | |
| 1 pl. adhort. | *-pVn | *-wVN | *-pVn |
| older brother | *ape̝ | *awe̝ | *ape̝ |
| forearm/seven | *tapɔt | *sawɔ(l) | *tapɔt |
| red | *kapun | *xawuN | *kapun |
| man | *wapit | *wawiC | *wapit |
Apical plain stop /*t/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River |
| *t- | ||
| *… |
…:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River |
| *t- | ||
| *… |
…:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *-t- | *t | *t | |
| mosquito | *te̝tun | *te̝tun | |
| clan | *-kato̝n | *-xato̝N | *-kato̝n |
| ear | *kɔtɔp | *xɔtɔC | *kɔtɔp |
Laminal voiceless /*s/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *s- | *h | *s | |
| cross-child | *sa- | *ha- | *sa- |
| cassowary | *sanip | *haniC | *sanip |
…:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *s- | *s | *s | |
| crocodile | *sɔmaⁱ[t/l] | *sɔmaⁱ[C] | *sɔmaⁱ[t/l] |
…:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River |
| *-s- | ||
| *… |
Velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *k- | *x | *k [x] | |
| flower | *ke̝t | *ke̝t | |
| men's house | *kaⁱm | *kaⁱm | |
| inside | *kao̝p | *kao̝p | |
| red | *kapun | *xawuN | *kapun |
| head | *kabe̝jan | *xabe̝jaN | *kabe̝jan |
| skin/bark | *kat | *xaC | *kat |
| clan | *-kato̝n | *-xato̝N | *-kato̝n |
| tail | *kande̝p | *xande̝C | *kande̝p |
| hornbill | *kawe̝[t/l] | *kaw[e̝]l | |
| mouth | *kalɔ- | *xalɔ- | *kalɔ- |
| white | *kajɔ | *xajɔ | *kajɔ |
| arrow | *kajɔ | *xajɔ | *kajɔ |
| taro | *kaju | *xaji | |
| die | *kɔmi- | *xɔmi- | *kɔmi- |
| leg | *kɔbul | *xɔbu | *kɔbul |
| ear | *kɔtɔp | *xɔtɔC | *kɔtɔp |
| belly | *kɔndo̝[t/l] | *xɔndo̝[C] | *kɔndo̝t |
| bone | *kɔlɔl | *xɔlɔ | *kɔlɔl |
| sky | *ko̝t | *ko̝t | |
| *-k- | *x | *k | |
| friend | *ne̝kɔ | *ne̝xɔ | *ne̝kɔ |
| 1 pl. | *nako̝p | *naxo̝C | *nɔko̝p |
| 2 pl. | *gak[i/o̝]p | *gaxo̝C | *gakip |
| bamboo knife | *waki | *wax[i] | *waki |
| left | *wakan | *waxaN | *wakan |
| moon | *wakɔl | *waxɔ | *wakɔl |
| jungle fowl | *wako̝m | *wako̝m | |
| 3 pl. | *jak[i/o̝]p | *jaxo̝C | *jakip |
| dig | *jaku- | *jaxu- | *jaku- |
Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *b- | *b | *b | |
| tortoise sp. | *bip | *bip | |
| fly (v.) | *be̝di- | *be̝di- | *be̝di- |
| sit | *ba- | *ba- | *ba- |
| wing | *bao̝l | *bao̝l | |
| blunt/dull | *baŋgɔ | *b[a]ŋgɔ | *baŋgɔ |
| mud | *balum | *baluN | *balum |
| bow | *baji | *baji | *baji |
| chin/jaw | *bɔn | *bɔN- | *… |
| elbow/eight | *bɔŋgo̝p | *bɔŋgo̝C | *bɔŋgo̝p |
| village | *bɔlup | *bɔluC | *bɔlup |
| *-b- | *b | *b | |
| 2/3 pl. perf. | *-ba-te̝ | *-ba-e̝ | *-ba-te̝ |
| 1 sg. perf. | *-ba-le̝ | *-ba-le̝ | *-ba-le̝ |
| 2/3 sg. perf. | *-bɔ | *-bɔ | *-bɔ |
| son | *abul | *abu | *abul |
| brother-in-law | *nabo̝[t/l] | *nabo̝[C] | *nabo̝[t/l] |
| upper arm/nine | *tabo̝[t/l] | *sabo̝[C] | *tabo̝[t/l] |
| tooth | *[t/s]ɔbit | *hɔbi[C] | *tɔbit |
| head | *kabe̝jan | *xabe̝jaN | *kabe̝jan |
| leg | *kɔbul | *xɔbu | *kɔbul |
| knee | *gabum | *gabuN | *gabum |
Apical voiced stop /*d/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *d- | *d | *d | |
| root | *dit | *diC | *dit |
| middle f./three | *dil | *dil- | *dil |
| cloud | *de̝p | *de̝C | *de̝p |
| swim | *dadu- | *dadu- | *dadu- |
| hear/know | *… | *daje̝- | *daⁱ- |
| burn (intr.) | *dɔ- | *dɔ- | *dɔ- |
| *-d- | *d | *d | |
| younger sister | *mɔdɔt | *mɔdɔC | *mɔdɔt |
| fly (v.) | *be̝di- | *be̝di- | *be̝di- |
| swim | *dadu- | *dadu- | *dadu- |
| wrist/six | *g[e̝]d[o̝/u]n | *gVdun- | *g[e̝]do̝n |
Laminal voiced /*dz/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *dz- | *d | *dz | |
| bird | *dze̝t | *de̝C | *dze̝t |
| banana | *dzo̝p | *de̝-jɔC | *dzo̝p |
| netbag | *dzun | *duN | *dzun |
Velar voiced stop /*g/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *g- | *g | *g | |
| bamboo pipe | *ge̝t | *ge̝t | |
| wrist/six | *g[e̝]d[o̝/u]n | *gVdun- | *g[e̝]do̝n |
| nose | *ge̝lip | *ge̝liC | *ge̝lip |
| 2 sg. poss. | *ga- | *ga- | |
| 2 pl. | *gak[i/o̝]p | *gaxo̝C | *gakip |
| song sp. | *gɔm | *gɔm | |
| 2 sg. | *go̝p | *go̝C | *go̝p |
| pig | *gɔ[t/l] | *gɔ[C] | *gɔ[t/l] |
| louse | *go̝t | *go̝C |
Prenasalized apical stop /*nd/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *-nd- | *nd | *nd | |
| index f./four | *nɔndɔ | *nɔndɔ | *nɔndɔ |
| scratch | *[t/s]e̝nde̝- | *he̝nde̝- | *te̝nde̝- |
| tail | *kande̝p | *xande̝C | *kande̝p |
| belly | *kɔndo̝[t/l] | *xɔndo̝[C] | *kɔndo̝t |
Prenasalized velar stop /*ŋg/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *ŋg- | *… | *… | |
| *-ŋg- | *ŋg | *ŋg | |
| blunt/dull | *baŋgɔ | *b[a]ŋgɔ | *baŋgɔ |
| elbow/eight | *bɔŋgo̝p | *bɔŋgo̝C | *bɔŋgo̝p |
Bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *w- | *w | *w | |
| man | *wapit | *wawiC | *wapit |
| bamboo knife | *waki | *wax[i] | *waki |
| left | *wakan | *waxaN | *wakan |
| moon | *wakɔl | *waxɔ | *wakɔl |
| jungle fowl | *wako̝m | *wako̝m | |
| paddle | *walup | *walup | |
| thumb/five | *wajɔ | *wajɔ | *wajɔ |
| *-w- | *w | *w | |
| older sister | *awu | *awu | *aw[u] |
| cuscus | *puwɔn | *ɸuwɔN | *puwɔn |
| hornbill | *kawe̝[t/l] | *kaw[e̝]l | |
| breadfruit | *jawɔt | *jawɔC | *jawɔt |
Apical non-stop /*l/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *l- | *l | *l | |
| daughter | *las | *laC | *las |
| *-l- | *l | *l | |
| eat | *(a)le̝- | *(a)le̝- | *(a)le̝- |
| cook/burn | *alu- | *alu- | |
| earth/ground | *ula[C] | *wala[C] | *ula[C] |
| fire | *me̝lit | *me̝liC | *me̝lit |
| 1 sg. perf. | *-ba-le̝ | *-ba-le̝ | *-ba-le̝ |
| mud | *balum | *baluN | *balum |
| village | *bɔlup | *bɔluC | *bɔlup |
| mouth | *kalɔ- | *xalɔ- | *kalɔ- |
| bone | *kɔlɔl | *xɔlɔ | *kɔlɔl |
| nose | *ge̝lip | *ge̝liC | *ge̝lip |
| paddle | *walup | *walup |
Palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *j- | *j | *j | |
| lie down/sleep | *je̝- | *ja- | *je̝- |
| 3 sg. poss. | *ja- | *ja- | *ja- |
| weep/cry | *jamɔ- | *jamɔ- | *jamɔ- |
| person | *janɔp | *janɔC | *janɔp |
| 3 pl. | *jak[i/o̝]p | *jaxo̝C | *jakip |
| dig | *jaku- | *jaxu- | *jaku- |
| breadfruit | *jawɔt | *jawɔC | *jawɔt |
| fruit/seed | *jɔp | *jɔC | *jɔp |
| husband | *jo̝m | *jo̝N | *jo̝m |
| 3 sg. | *jo̝p | *jo̝C | *jo̝p |
| *-j- | *j | *j | |
| thorn | *ajun | *ajiN | *ajun |
| dog | *me̝jan | *me̝jaN | *me̝jan |
| leech | *tajɔ | *sajɔ | *tajɔ |
| head | *kabe̝jan | *xabe̝jaN | *kabe̝jan |
| white | *kajɔ | *xajɔ | *kajɔ |
| arrow | *kajɔ | *xajɔ | *kajɔ |
| taro | *kaju | *xaji | |
| thumb/five | *wajɔ | *wajɔ | *wajɔ |
…
Only a limited subset of consonants /*m *n *p *t *s *k *l/ occur finally.
Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *-m | *N [ø] | *m | |
| 2 sg. adhort. | *-m | *-m | |
| ashes | *anɔm | *anɔN | *anɔm |
| liver | *ɔᵘm | *ɔᵘN | *um |
| mother's br. | *mɔm | *mɔN | *mɔm |
| mud | *balum | *baluN | *balum |
| men's house | *kaⁱm | *kaⁱm | |
| knee | *gabum | *gabuN | *gabum |
| song sp. | *gɔm | *gɔm | |
| jungle fowl | *wako̝m | *wako̝m | |
| husband | *jo̝m | *jo̝N | *jo̝m |
Final apical nasal /*n/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *-n | *N [ø] | *n | |
| 3 sg. adhort. | *-n | *-n | |
| thorn | *ajun | *ajiN | *ajun |
| side | *me̝n | *me̝n | |
| 2 pl. adhort. | *-mVn | *-mVN | *-mVn |
| dog | *me̝jan | *me̝jaN | *me̝jan |
| hot | *mamun | *mamuN | *mamun |
| 1 pl. adhort. | *-pVn | *-wVN | *-pVn |
| cuscus | *puwɔn | *ɸuwɔN | *puwɔn |
| chin/jaw | *bɔn | *bɔN- | *… |
| rattan/rope | *nan | *naN | *nan |
| mosquito | *te̝tun | *te̝tun | |
| netbag | *dzun | *duN | *dzun |
| red | *kapun | *xawuN | *kapun |
| head | *kabe̝jan | *xabe̝jaN | *kabe̝jan |
| clan | *-kato̝n | *-xato̝N | *-kato̝n |
| wrist/six | *g[e̝]d[o̝/u]n | *gVdun- | *g[e̝]do̝n |
| left | *wakan | *waxaN | *wakan |
Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *-p | *C [ʔ] | *p | |
| 1 sg. adhort. | *-p | *-p | |
| number | *-anɔp | *-anɔC | *-anɔp |
| house | *ɔp | *wɔC | *ɔp |
| star | *minɔp | *minɔC | |
| mountain | *panip | *ɸaniC | *panip |
| tortoise sp. | *bip | *bip | |
| elbow/eight | *bɔŋgo̝p | *bɔŋgo̝C | *bɔŋgo̝p |
| village | *bɔlup | *bɔluC | *bɔlup |
| 1 pl. | *nako̝p | *naxo̝C | *nɔko̝p |
| flesh | *nɔp | *nɔC | *nɔp |
| 1 sg. | *no̝p | *no̝C | *no̝p |
| tongue | *[t/s]e̝p | *he̝C | *te̝p |
| tired/sleepy | *[t/s]ɔnute̝p | *hɔnute̝C | *tɔnute̝p |
| forest | *tɔp | *sɔC | *tɔp |
| cloud | *de̝p | *de̝C | *de̝p |
| cassowary | *sanip | *haniC | *sanip |
| banana | *dzo̝p | *de̝-jɔC | *dzo̝p |
| inside | *kao̝p | *kao̝p | |
| tail | *kande̝p | *xande̝C | *kande̝p |
| ear | *kɔtɔp | *xɔtɔC | *kɔtɔp |
| nose | *ge̝lip | *ge̝liC | *ge̝lip |
| 2 pl. | *gak[i/o̝]p | *gaxo̝C | *gakip |
| 2 sg. | *go̝p | *go̝C | *go̝p |
| paddle | *walup | *walup | |
| person | *janɔp | *janɔC | *janɔp |
| 3 pl. | *jak[i/o̝]p | *jaxo̝C | *jakip |
| fruit/seed | *jɔp | *jɔC | *jɔp |
| 3 sg. | *jo̝p | *jo̝C | *jo̝p |
Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *-t | *C [ʔ] | *t | |
| hand/arm | *me̝t | *me̝C | *me̝t |
| vein | *me̝t | *me̝t | |
| fire | *me̝lit | *me̝liC | *me̝lit |
| younger sister | *mɔdɔt | *mɔdɔC | *mɔdɔt |
| leaf | *be̝t | *be̝C | *be̝t |
| roof | *[t/s]e̝t | *he̝C | *te̝t |
| root | *dit | *diC | *dit |
| bird | *dze̝t | *de̝C | *dze̝t |
| flower | *ke̝t | *ke̝t | |
| sky | *ko̝t | *ko̝t | |
| bamboo pipe | *ge̝t | *ge̝t | |
| louse | *go̝t | *go̝C | |
| man | *wapit | *wawiC | *wapit |
| breadfruit | *jawɔt | *jawɔC | *jawɔt |
Final laminal voiceless /*s/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *-s | *C [ʔ] | *s | |
| snake | *anɔs | *anɔC | *anɔs |
| hair | *[t/s]o̝s | *ɸo̝C | *to̝s |
| daughter | *las | *laC | *las |
Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *-k | *C [ʔ] | *k | |
| water | *ak | *aC | *ak |
| grandmother | *mak | *maC | *mak |
| body hair | *mo̝k | *mo̝k |
Final apical non-stop /*l/ is dropped in Dawi River:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *-l | *ø | *l | |
| son | *abul | *abu | *abul |
| excrement | *ɔl | *wɔ | *ɔl |
| old | *mul | *mu | *mul |
| wing | *bao̝l | *bao̝l | |
| smoke | *te̝mul | *-te̝mu | *te̝mul |
| leg | *kɔbul | *xɔbu | *kɔbul |
| bone | *kɔlɔl | *xɔlɔ | *kɔlɔl |
| moon | *wakɔl | *waxɔ | *wakɔl |
Vowels /*i *u *e̝ *o̝ *ɔ *a/ … There is no evidence for a low mid front vowel /*ɛ/ despite its existence in Korowai (q.v. van Enk and de Vries 1997: 54-65).
High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in both subfamilies:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *i | *i | *i | |
| drink | *mi- | *mi- | *mi- |
| name | *pi | *ɸi | *pi |
| mother | *ni | *ni | *ni |
| tortoise sp. | *bip | *bip | |
| root | *dit | *diC | *dit |
| middle f./three | *dil | *dil- | *dil |
| star | *minɔp | *minɔC | |
| fly (v.) | *be̝di- | *be̝di- | *be̝di- |
| fire | *me̝lit | *me̝liC | *me̝lit |
| nose | *ge̝lip | *ge̝liC | *ge̝lip |
| die | *kɔmi- | *xɔmi- | *kɔmi- |
| tooth | *[t/s]ɔbit | *hɔbi[C] | *tɔbit |
| hold | *ati- | *ati- | *ati- |
| bow | *baji | *baji | *baji |
| bamboo knife | *waki | *wax[i] | *waki |
| mountain | *panip | *ɸaniC | *panip |
| cassowary | *sanip | *haniC | *sanip |
| man | *wapit | *wawiC | *wapit |
High back vowel /*u/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *u | *u | *u | |
| old | *mul | *mu | *mul |
| sharp | *pu[t/l] | *pu[t/l] | |
| netbag | *dzun | *duN | *dzun |
| cuscus | *puwɔn | *ɸuwɔN | *puwɔn |
| smoke | *te̝mul | *-te̝mu | *te̝mul |
| mosquito | *te̝tun | *te̝tun | |
| village | *bɔlup | *bɔluC | *bɔlup |
| leg | *kɔbul | *xɔbu | *kɔbul |
| tired/sleepy | *[t/s]ɔnute̝p | *hɔnute̝C | *tɔnute̝p |
| older sister | *awu | *awu | *aw[u] |
| cook/burn | *alu- | *alu- | |
| swim | *dadu- | *dadu- | *dadu- |
| dig | *jaku- | *jaxu- | *jaku- |
| son | *abul | *abu | *abul |
| hot | *mamun | *mamuN | *mamun |
| mud | *balum | *baluN | *balum |
| red | *kapun | *xawuN | *kapun |
| knee | *gabum | *gabuN | *gabum |
| paddle | *walup | *walup |
One example of initial /*u/ is reflected as /*wa/ in Dawi River:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *u/#_ | *wa | *u | |
| earth/ground | *ula[C] | *wala[C] | *ula[C] |
…:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *u/j_ | *i | *u | |
| taro | *kaju | *xaji | |
| thorn | *ajun | *ajiN | *ajun |
High mid front vowel /*e̝/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *e̝ | *e̝ | *e̝ | |
| side | *me̝n | *me̝n | |
| hand/arm | *me̝t | *me̝C | *me̝t |
| vein | *me̝t | *me̝t | |
| leaf | *be̝t | *be̝C | *be̝t |
| tongue | *[t/s]e̝p | *he̝C | *te̝p |
| roof | *[t/s]e̝t | *he̝C | *te̝t |
| scratch | *[t/s]e̝nde̝- | *he̝nde̝- | *te̝nde̝- |
| cloud | *de̝p | *de̝C | *de̝p |
| bird | *dze̝t | *de̝C | *dze̝t |
| flower | *ke̝t | *ke̝t | |
| bamboo pipe | *ge̝t | *ge̝t | |
| fly (v.) | *be̝di- | *be̝di- | *be̝di- |
| fire | *me̝lit | *me̝liC | *me̝lit |
| nose | *ge̝lip | *ge̝liC | *ge̝lip |
| smoke | *te̝mul | *-te̝mu | *te̝mul |
| mosquito | *te̝tun | *te̝tun | |
| friend | *ne̝kɔ | *ne̝xɔ | *ne̝kɔ |
| dog | *me̝jan | *me̝jaN | *me̝jan |
| tired/sleepy | *[t/s]ɔnute̝p | *hɔnute̝C | *tɔnute̝p |
| older brother | *ape̝ | *awe̝ | *ape̝ |
| eat | *(a)le̝- | *(a)le̝- | *(a)le̝- |
| 2/3 pl. perf. | *-ba-te̝ | *-ba-e̝ | *-ba-te̝ |
| 1 sg. perf. | *-ba-le̝ | *-ba-le̝ | *-ba-le̝ |
| tail | *kande̝p | *xande̝C | *kande̝p |
| hornbill | *kawe̝[t/l] | *kaw[e̝]l | |
| head | *kabe̝jan | *xabe̝jaN | *kabe̝jan |
…:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *e̝/j_ | *a | *e̝ | |
| lie down/sleep | *je̝- | *ja- | *je̝- |
High mid back vowel /*o̝/ …:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *o̝ | *o̝ | *o̝ | |
| go up | *to̝- | *to̝- | |
| father's sister | *mo̝[t/l] | *mo̝[C] | *mo̝[t/l] |
| body hair | *mo̝k | *mo̝k | |
| wind | *po̝p | *ɸo̝C | *po̝p |
| 1 sg. | *no̝p | *no̝C | *no̝p |
| sun | *to̝p | *so̝C | *to̝p |
| hair | *[t/s]o̝s | *ɸo̝C | *to̝s |
| penis | *[d/dz]o̝[t/l] | *do̝l- | *[d/dz]o̝[t/l] |
| sky | *ko̝t | *ko̝t | |
| 2 sg. | *go̝p | *go̝C | *go̝p |
| louse | *go̝t | *go̝C | |
| husband | *jo̝m | *jo̝N | *jo̝m |
| 3 sg. | *jo̝p | *jo̝C | *jo̝p |
| blow | *po̝mɔ- | *ɸo̝mɔ- | *po̝mɔ- |
| elbow/eight | *bɔŋgo̝p | *bɔŋgo̝C | *bɔŋgo̝p |
| belly | *kɔndo̝[t/l] | *xɔndo̝[C] | *kɔndo̝t |
| wing | *bao̝l | *bao̝l | |
| inside | *kao̝p | *kao̝p | |
| brother-in-law | *nabo̝[t/l] | *nabo̝[C] | *nabo̝[t/l] |
| 1 pl. | *nako̝p | *naxo̝C | *nɔko̝p |
| upper arm/nine | *tabo̝[t/l] | *sabo̝[C] | *tabo̝[t/l] |
| clan | *-kato̝n | *-xato̝N | *-kato̝n |
| jungle fowl | *wako̝m | *wako̝m |
…:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *… | *… | *… | |
| banana | *dzo̝p | *de̝jɔC | *dzo̝p |
There is only scant evidence for a low mid front vowel /*ɛ/, which is marginal in de Vries' Korowai and does not exist in Dawi River:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *ɛ | *e̝ | *ɛ | |
| 1 pl. perf. | *-ba-lɛ | *-ba-le̝ | *-ba-lɛ |
Low mid back vowel /*ɔ/ is retained as such in both subfamilies:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *ɔ | *ɔ | *ɔ | |
| do/make | *-mɔ- | *-mɔ | *-mɔ |
| 2/3 sg. perf. | *-bɔ | *-bɔ | *-bɔ |
| focus | *-tɔ | *-tɔ | *-tɔ |
| burn (intr.) | *dɔ- | *dɔ- | *dɔ- |
| mother's br. | *mɔm | *mɔN | *mɔm |
| chin/jaw | *bɔn | *bɔN- | *… |
| flesh | *nɔp | *nɔC | *nɔp |
| forest | *tɔp | *sɔC | *tɔp |
| song sp. | *gɔm | *gɔm | |
| pig | *gɔ[t/l] | *gɔ[C] | *gɔ[t/l] |
| fruit/seed | *jɔp | *jɔC | *jɔp |
| index f./four | *nɔndɔ | *nɔndɔ | *nɔndɔ |
| younger sister | *mɔdɔt | *mɔdɔC | *mɔdɔt |
| ear | *kɔtɔp | *xɔtɔC | *kɔtɔp |
| bone | *kɔlɔl | *xɔlɔ | *kɔlɔl |
| die | *kɔmi- | *xɔmi- | *kɔmi- |
| tooth | *[t/s]ɔbit | *hɔbi[C] | *tɔbit |
| village | *bɔlup | *bɔluC | *bɔlup |
| leg | *kɔbul | *xɔbu | *kɔbul |
| tired/sleepy | *[t/s]ɔnute̝p | *hɔnute̝C | *tɔnute̝p |
| elbow/eight | *bɔŋgo̝p | *bɔŋgo̝C | *bɔŋgo̝p |
| belly | *kɔndo̝[t/l] | *xɔndo̝[C] | *kɔndo̝t |
| cuscus | *puwɔn | *ɸuwɔN | *puwɔn |
| friend | *ne̝kɔ | *ne̝xɔ | *ne̝kɔ |
| blow | *po̝mɔ- | *ɸo̝mɔ- | *po̝mɔ- |
| younger brother | *mɔp-ka | *mɔCka | *mɔpVka |
| crocodile | *sɔmaⁱ[t/l] | *sɔmaⁱ[C] | *sɔmaⁱ[t/l] |
| star | *minɔp | *minɔC | |
| blunt/dull | *baŋgɔ | *b[a]ŋgɔ | *baŋgɔ |
| leech | *tajɔ | *sajɔ | *tajɔ |
| mouth | *kalɔ- | *xalɔ- | *kalɔ- |
| white | *kajɔ | *xajɔ | *kajɔ |
| arrow | *kajɔ | *xajɔ | *kajɔ |
| thumb/five | *wajɔ | *wajɔ | *wajɔ |
| weep/cry | *jamɔ- | *jamɔ- | *jamɔ- |
| ashes | *anɔm | *anɔN | *anɔm |
| number | *-anɔp | *-anɔC | *-anɔp |
| snake | *anɔs | *anɔC | *anɔs |
| forearm/seven | *tapɔ[t/l] | *sawɔ(l) | *tapɔ[t/l] |
| moon | *wakɔl | *waxɔ | *wakɔl |
| person | *janɔp | *janɔC | *janɔp |
| breadfruit | *jawɔt | *jawɔC | *jawɔt |
To initial /*ɔ/ is preposed a prosthetic bilabial non-stop /*w/ in Dawi River:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *ɔ/#_ | *wɔ | *ɔ | |
| house | *ɔp | *wɔC | *ɔp |
| excrement | *ɔl | *wɔ | *ɔl |
Low central vowel /*a/ is generally retained as such in both subfamilies:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *a | *a | *a | |
| sit | *ba- | *ba- | *ba- |
| 1 sg. poss. | *na- | *na- | *na- |
| cross-child | *sa- | *ha- | *sa- |
| 2 sg. poss. | *ga- | *ga- | |
| 3 sg. poss. | *ja- | *ja- | *ja- |
| breast | *am | *aN | *am |
| water | *ak | *aC | *ak |
| grandmother | *mak | *maC | *mak |
| rattan/rope | *nan | *naN | *nan |
| skin/bark | *kat | *xaC | *kat |
| daughter | *las | *laC | *las |
| left | *wakan | *waxaN | *wakan |
| hold | *ati- | *ati- | *ati- |
| bow | *baji | *baji | *baji |
| bamboo knife | *waki | *wax[i] | *waki |
| mountain | *panip | *ɸaniC | *panip |
| cassowary | *sanip | *haniC | *sanip |
| man | *wapit | *wawiC | *wapit |
| older sister | *awu | *awu | *aw[u] |
| cook/burn | *alu- | *alu- | |
| son | *abul | *abu | *abul |
| thorn | *ajun | *ajiN | *ajun |
| swim | *dadu- | *dadu- | *dadu- |
| taro | *kaju | *xaji | |
| dig | *jaku- | *jaxu- | *jaku- |
| hot | *mamun | *mamuN | *mamun |
| mud | *balum | *baluN | *balum |
| red | *kapun | *xawuN | *kapun |
| knee | *gabum | *gabuN | *gabum |
| paddle | *walup | *walup | |
| older brother | *ape̝ | *awe̝ | *ape̝ |
| eat | *(a)le̝- | *(a)le̝- | *(a)le̝- |
| 2/3 pl. perf. | *-ba-te̝ | *-ba-e̝ | *-ba-te̝ |
| 1 sg. perf. | *-ba-le̝ | *-ba-le̝ | *-ba-le̝ |
| tail | *kande̝p | *xande̝C | *kande̝p |
| hornbill | *kawe̝[t/l] | *kaw[e̝]l | |
| head | *kabe̝jan | *xabe̝jaN | *kabe̝jan |
| wing | *bao̝l | *bao̝l | |
| inside | *kao̝p | *kao̝p | |
| brother-in-law | *nabo̝[t/l] | *nabo̝[C] | *nabo̝[t/l] |
| upper arm/nine | *tabo̝[t/l] | *sabo̝[C] | *tabo̝[t/l] |
| clan | *-kato̝n | *-xato̝N | *-kato̝n |
| jungle fowl | *wako̝m | *wako̝m | |
| ashes | *anɔm | *anɔN | *anɔm |
| number | *-anɔp | *-anɔC | *-anɔp |
| snake | *anɔs | *anɔC | *anɔs |
| blunt/dull | *baŋgɔ | *b[a]ŋgɔ | *baŋgɔ |
| leech | *tajɔ | *sajɔ | *tajɔ |
| mouth | *kalɔ- | *xalɔ- | *kalɔ- |
| white | *kajɔ | *xajɔ | *kajɔ |
| arrow | *kajɔ | *xajɔ | *kajɔ |
| thumb/five | *wajɔ | *wajɔ | *wajɔ |
| weep/cry | *jamɔ- | *jamɔ- | *jamɔ- |
| forearm/seven | *tapɔ[t/l] | *sawɔ(l) | *tapɔ[t/l] |
| moon | *wakɔl | *waxɔ | *wakɔl |
| person | *janɔp | *janɔC | *janɔp |
| breadfruit | *jawɔt | *jawɔC | *jawɔt |
| dog | *me̝jan | *me̝jaN | *me̝jan |
| younger brother | *mɔp-ka | *mɔCka | *mɔpVka |
In the first person plural free pronoun, /*a/ is raised and backed to /*ɔ/ in Becking River when followed by high mid back /*o̝/ in the second syllable; however this is not regular (above):
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *a/_Co̝ | *a | *ɔ | |
| 1 pl. | *nako̝p | *naxo̝C | *nɔko̝p |
Diphthongs …
…:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *ɔᵘ | *ɔᵘ | *u | |
| liver | *ɔᵘm | *ɔᵘN | *um |
…:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| *aⁱ | |||
| men's house | *kaⁱm | *kaⁱm | |
| crocodile | *sɔmaⁱ[t/l] | *sɔmaⁱ[C] | *sɔmaⁱ[t/l] |
Pronouns
Becking and Dawi River free pronouns are reconstructed as follows:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| 1 sg. | *no̝p | *no̝C | *no̝p |
| 2 sg. | *go̝(-p) | *go̝C | *go̝p |
| 3 sg. | *jo̝p | *jo̝C | *jo̝p |
| 1 pl. | *nako̝p | *naxo̝C | *nɔko̝p |
| 2 pl. | *gak[i/o̝]p | *gaxo̝C | *gakip |
| 3 pl. | *jak[i/o̝]p | *jaxo̝C | *jakip |
Possessive prefixes are reconstructed for singular persons only as follows. These are based upon those of Korowai (q.v. van Enk and de Vries 1997: 67-69) and on prefixes on some kin terms in Hughes (2009: 28) as well as outcomparison to their Central Digul River equivalents:
| Becking-Dawi | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| 1 sg. poss. | *na- | *na- | *na- |
| 2 sg. poss. | *ga- | ? | *ga- |
| 3 sg. poss. | *ja- | *ja- | *ja- |
Verbal morphology
[under construction]
…
Loans from neighboring families
[under construction]
Loans from Dumut …:
| Dumut | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| day | *alup | *alup |
Loans from Ndeiram River …:
| Ndeiram River | Dawi River | Becking River | |
| village | *… | *… | *… |
| sago | *… | *ndau |