Kiwai

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

The Kiwai family is comprised of six or more closely-related languages spoken along the west coast of the Papuan Gulf, from Daru Island just south of the Fly River delta, and according to MacGregor (1889-1890: 124) as far west along the coast as the Mai Kussa, to Deception Bay in the northeast, in Papua New Guinea's Western and Gulf provinces. Kiwai is the name of an island in the Fly River delta in which South Kiwai is spoken, but has also been applied to the other languages of the family.

Subclassification

The internal classification of Kiwai is as follows:

Kiwai

South Kiwai

Domori Island

Kiwai Island

Coastal South Kiwai

Wabuda Island

Bamu River

Kerewo-Morigi

Morigi

Kerewo

Northeast Kiwai

Wurm (1973: 222) calculates lexicostatistical resemblances between 11 varieties of Kiwai as follows:

Island K. Wabuda Sisiame Pirupiru M. Bamu Morigi Kerewo Gibaio Urama Gope Arigibi
Island K. 66 66 58 58 62 58 64 60 55 58
Wabuda 66 60 59 65 54 52 59 59 51 50
Sisiame 66 60 84 85 57 50 59 56 51 53
Pirupiru 58 59 84 82 59 52 56 52 46 53
M. Bamu 58 65 85 82 59 56 53 52 50 51
Morigi 62 54 57 59 59 77 60 64 63 61
Kerewo 58 52 50 52 56 77 62 75 70 63
Gibaio 64 59 59 56 53 60 62 85 81 72
Urama 60 59 56 52 52 64 75 85 83 77
Gope 55 51 51 46 50 63 70 81 83 75
Arigibi 58 50 53 53 51 61 63 72 77 75

Sources

[under construction]

D'Albertis (1880) Mawata (unobtained)

MacGregor (1889-1890) vocabulary of Kiwai

Zöller (1891) … (unobtained)

Anonymous (1902) vocabulary of Kiwai (unobtained)

Ray (1907) …

Ray (1907) … Mawata (Kadawa) of Saguane village and Parama (Perem, Bampton Island)

Ray (1907) … grammar of Kiwai

Ray (1913-1914) …

Ray (1923) …

Ray (1931) grammar of Kiwai

Anonymous (1912-1913: 176-182) 1,178 terms for Kerawa Wadi (Goaribari Island)

Herbert (1914-1915: 183) 99 comparative terms for Urama of Kinomeri village

Anonymous (1914-1915: 176-182) 154 comparative terms for Goaribiri (Wadi), Urama, Turama (Owera) and Era River

Woodward (1914-1915: 186) 173 comparative terms for Dibiri of Buniki village

Woodward (1917-1918: 97) … comparative terms for Iwainu of Gigori village and Kerewa

Rentoul (1923-1924: 55) 111 comparative terms for Umaidai of Kesumubu village

Rentoul (1923-1924: 56) 107 comparative terms for Wariadai of Iosiku village

Riley (1930-1931: 175-194) 544 comparative terms for Tureture, Kiwai, Domori, Wabuda, Sisiame, Pirupiru and Oropai

Shafer (1965: 313-326) recontruction of Kiwaian

Wurm (1951) …

Wurm (1971) …

Wurm (1973) …

Franklin ed. (1973: 565-571) 100 comparative terms for Arigibi Kiwai, Bamu Kiwai, Gibaio Kiwai, Gope Kiwai, Island Kiwai, Kerewo Kiwai, Morigi Kiwai, Pirupiru Kiwai, Sisiame Kiwai, Tureture Kiwai, Urama Kiwai, Urama Kiwai and Wabuda Kiwai after Wurm, reprinted in Franklin and Z'graggen (1975: 13-118)

Clifton (1986) Kope orthography

Clifton (1990) Kope case morphology (unobtained)

Clifton (1991) sketch phonology of Kope

Clifton (1995) Kope transitives (unobtained)

Carr and Carr (2001) dictionary of Bamu

Petterson (2002) 389 term illustrated vocabulary of Kerewo

Petterson (2010) Kerewo stories

Brown (2009) grammar of Urama

Additionally, the Summer Institute of Linguistics provides sketch phonologies of Southern Kiwai, Bamu and Kerewo; however they are undated and unattributed.

Historical phonology

[under construction]

Proto-Kiwai had 11 consonants and 5 vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *s *k
*b *d *g
*w
*i *u
*e *o
*a



Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ does not occur initially.

Neither final consonants nor consonant clusters occur.



The values given above correlate to those of Shafer's (1965: 313-326) reconstruction as follows:


Consonants correspond as follows:


Vowels correspond as follows:


These correspondences are exemplified as follows …


Bilabial nasal /*m/ … (Shafer 1965: 321):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*m
heavy *mikibo
good *measa
child *meɾe
neck *mauku
vomit *mamaɾu
mouth *magota
mother *maɾamu
1 sg. *mo
house *moto
right hand *tu-modi
hair/feather *mus[ua]
all *imese
eye *idomaɾi
scold *emV-aɾogo
calf *emo
lime *amea
dance *amaɾo
breast *amo
wake *amutia
pull *amud…
evening *adimo
sky *aɾomo
sit *omi[oi]
take *omidai
know *umoɾo
husband *uɾamu
vomit *mamaɾu
mother *maɾamu
shark *baidamo
pig *boɾomo
1 pl. *nimo
louse *nimo
older brother*naɾamu
smoke *tema
skin/bark *tama
wing *tamu
men's house *daɾimo
moon *sagomi
branch *katomo
blood *kaɾima
penis *kaɾumo
short *k₂omu
sea *koɾomo
dog *[k]umu
back *gimini
white pigeon *gimai
drum/song *gama
sea turtle *gamo
side *gomo
ripe *gumi[ni]

Apical nasal /*n/ … (Shafer 1965: 320):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*n
1 pl. *nimo
louse *nimo
scent/smell *nibo
2 pl. *nigo
younger sib *niɾaɾa
belly *niɾo
3 pl. *nei
two *netoa
excrement *nek₂eɾe
fish *na
mosquito *na[k/g]ati
one *nak[o/u]
older brother*naɾamu
heel *keba-nopu
stone *nok₂oɾa
sand *noɾi
tree *nuk₂a
arrow sp. *iona
tooth *ibo-nVɾV
name *paini
P. raggiana *pana
shoulder *bena
back *gimini

Bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …(Shafer 1965: 318):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*p
bat/flying fox*pipite
steal *piɾoito
canoe *peɾe
left *peɾo
name *paina
P. raggiana *pana
palm/sole *pata
leaf *pasa
knee/joint *popu
mountain *podo
not *puai
gourd *puɾu
base *ipi
lip(s) *ipusu
kill *opia
woman *upi
navel *upuɾo
bat/flying fox*pipite
knee/joint *popu
heel *(kebo-)nopu
sweet *topo
belly/womb *dopi
body *duɾupi
root *sipi
earlobe *sepatV
armpit *sepu
earth/ground *sopu
egg/fruit *kikopu
head *kepuɾu
stone *(nok₂oɾa-)kopi
tail *wapo

Apical voiceless stop /*t/ …(Shafer 1965: 318):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*t
smoke *tema
arrow *teɾe
skin/bark *tama
wing *tamu
thin *tako-tako
yesterday *duo-tou
sweet *topo
cloud/sky *toboɾo
dry coconut *toka
fear *toɾe
&nbsplung(s) *toɾu-toɾu
arm/hand *tu
ashes *tu[o]
long *tutuɾu
throat *tuɾuo-tuɾuo
who/what? *etuɾa
fall *eɾegetai
wake *amutia
kidney *ota
bite *ot[a/o]kob[a/o]
stand *oto(-boa)
tongue *uototoɾo[p/b]e
lie down/sleep*utua
mouth *magota
house *moto
bat/flying fox*pipite
steal *piɾoito
palm/sole *pata
two *netoa
mosquito *na[k/g]ati
long *tutuɾu
basket/bag *sito
earlobe *sepatV
branch *katomo
tree *kota
bag *gateɾe
coconut *goata

Laminal /*s/  … (Shafer 1965: 322):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*s
root *sipi
soft *sibi-sibi
crocodile *sibaɾo
basket/bag *sito
many *siɾio
sun/day *si[w]io
earlobe *sepatV
armpit *sepu
village *saboka
leg/foot *sakiɾo
moon *sagomi
blood *sa[w]i
sun/day *saɾik₂i
earth/ground*sopu
face *so[ɾa]soɾa
bone *soɾo
bladder *susu
star *suɾi
pig *su[w]ade
all *imese
lip(s) *ipusu
milk *isi
eat (pl.) *iɾiso
seek *esoɾa
top/above *osu
die *oɾisiai
sweat *oɾosa
good *measa
hair/feather*mus[ua]
leaf *pasa
fight/war *boso
girl *buseɾe
face *so[ɾa]soɾa
bladder *susu
boy *kosio
full *koɾosu[w]V
rain *wisaɾe

… /*s/ … <*f (?)> (Shafer 1965: 323):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*s
wind *susu[w]o
eat (sg.)*oɾuso
smoke *gasua

Velar voiceless stop /*k/ … <*k‘> (Shafer 1965: 314, 316):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*k
incisors *kiowa
egg/fruit *kikopu
head *kepuɾu
heel *kebo-nopu
fire *keɾa
strength/power*keɾapo
branch *katomo
blood *kaɾima
snake *kaɾu[w]o
penis *kaɾumo
stone *(nok₂oɾa-)kopi
water *kobo
tree *kota
boy *kosio
new/young *koɾio
sea *koɾomo
full *koɾosu[w]V
sleep *kuo
sugarcane *kuɾe
see *ekauɾi
bite *ot[a/o]kob[a/o]
shadow/spirit *uɾiko
heavy *mikibo[i]
neck *mauku
thin *tako-tako
one *nak[o/u]
dry coconut *toka
village *saboka
leg/foot *sakiɾo
egg/fruit *kikopu

… /*k₂/ … <*k’> … (Shafer 1965: 315, 316.) This most likely indicates a loan immediately into Bamu River Kiwai, either from Wabuda immediately to the south or from another language:

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*k₂
small *k₂aina
short *k₂omu
banana *k₂obiɾa
excrement*nek₂eɾe
stone *nok₂oɾa
tree *nuk₂a
sun/day *saɾik₂i
dog *sok₂a

… invariable … /*k₃/ … <*k> … (Shafer 1965: 315, 316.) … does not cooccur with /*k/ or /*k₂/ in the same root …:

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*k₃
life *k₃igiɾo
white *k₃[ai]a
rat *k₃aiani
fat/greast *k₃asauV
bamboo *k₃ak₃isa
fowl *k₃ak₃aba
salt/bitter*k₃aɾa-k₃aɾa
rope *k₃aɾai
hard *k₃aɾo-k₃aɾo
cup *nuk₃u
bamboo *k₃ak₃isa
spear *k₃aɾak₃o
mat *wak₃[o/u]

… doublets …:

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*k/*k₃
blood*kaɾima
red *k₃aɾima
water*kobo
wet *k₃obo-k₃obo

Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ … (Shafer 1965: 319):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*b
shoulder *bena
what/how? *beda
liver *beɾu
shark *baidamo
father *baba
rib(s) *baɾa
who? *bo(-etuɾa)
stand *oto-boa
chest *bodoɾo
fight/war *boso
pig *boɾomo
cloud *bubu
girl *buseɾe
tooth *ibo(-nVɾV)
weep/cry *idobi
paddle *aibi
father *abeɾa
bite *ot[a/o]kob[a/o]
woman *oɾobo
charcoal/black*uibu
bad *uba
heavy *mikibo
father *baba
cloud *bubu
scent/smell *nibo
cloud/sky *toboɾo
man/male *dubu
banana *dubaɾi
soft *sibi-sibi
crocodile *sibaɾo
village *saboka
heel *kebo-nopu
banana *k₂obiɾa
water *kobo
path *gabo

Apical voiced stop /*d/ … (Shafer 1965: 319):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*d
cassowary *di[w]aɾe
men's house *daɾimo
sago *dou
belly/womb *dopi
night/darkness*duo
man/male *dubu
banana *dubaɾi
body *duɾupi
hungry *duɾugeɾe
eye *idomaɾi
weep/cry *idobi
hear *iɾo[w]idiɾo
snake *edei
put/place *edea
pull *amud…
evening *adimo
take *omidai
drink *odio
axe *oda
good *uade
right hand *tu-modi
mountain *podo
what/how? *beda
shark *baidamo
chest *bodoɾo
pig *su[w]ade
fat/grease *gadi
nose *wodi

Velar voiced stop /*g/ … (Shafer 1965: 316):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*g-
back *gimini
white pigeon*gimai
meat/game *giɾo
heart *giɾV-kikopu
drum/song *gama
sea turtle *gamo
path *gabo
bag *gateɾe
fat/grease *gadi
smoke *gasua
bow/bamboo *gagaɾi
ear *gaɾe
black *gaɾe(-gaɾe)
coconut *goata
side *gomo
river *gowo
areca nut *goɾe
dew *goɾo-goɾo
ripe *gumi[ni]

Medial /*g/ … (Shafer 1965: 316, 317):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*-g-
claw *igiɾi
yellow *ago-ago
mouth *magota
hungry *duɾugeɾe
moon *sagomi
thigh *wagi
*-g-
fall *eɾegetai
speak *aɾogo
go *ogu
come *oguɾo
2 pl. *nigo
life *k₃igiɾo
bow/bamboo*gagaɾi
*-g-
dew *goɾo-goɾo
bird *wowogo

Bilabial non-stop /*w/ … (Shafer 1965: 325):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*w
rain*wisaɾe
tail*wapo
nose*wodi
bird*wowogo
moon*owe

Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ does not occur initially … (Shafer 1965: 324-325):

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
tooth *ibo-nVɾV
eye *idomaɾi
claw *igiɾi
eat (pl.) *iɾiso
who/what? *etuɾa
seek *esoɾa
see *ekauɾi
fall *eɾegetai
dance *amaɾo
father *abeɾa
sky *aɾomo
speak *aɾogo
come *oguɾo
die *oɾisiai
woman *oɾobo
sweat *oɾosa
eat (sg.) *oɾuso
sing *[ua]ɾe
know *umoɾo
navel *upuɾo
shadow/spirit *uɾiko
husband *uɾamu
child *meɾe
vomit *mamaɾu
mother *maɾamu
steal *piɾoito
canoe *peɾe
left *peɾo
gourd *puɾu
liver *beɾu
rib(s) *baɾa
chest *bodoɾo
pig *boɾomo
girl *buseɾe
belly *niɾo
younger sib *niɾaɾa
excrement *nek₂eɾe
older brother *naɾamu
arrow *teɾe
cloud/sky *toboɾo
fear *toɾe
&nbsplung(s) *toɾu-toɾu
long *tutuɾu
cassowary *di[w]aɾe
men's house *daɾimo
banana *dubaɾi
body *duɾupi
hungry *duɾugeɾe
crocodile *sibaɾo
many *siɾio
leg/foot *sakiɾo
sun/day *saɾik₂i
bone *soɾo
star *suɾi
head *kepuɾu
fire *keɾa
strength/power*keɾapo
blood *kaɾima
snake *kaɾu[w]o
penis *kaɾumo
banana *k₂obiɾa
new/young *koɾio
sea *koɾomo
full *koɾosu[w]V
sugarcane *kuɾe
meat/game *giɾo
heart *giɾV-kikopu
bag *gateɾe
bow/bamboo *gagaɾi
ear *gaɾe
black *gaɾe(-gaɾe)
areca nut *goɾe
dew *goɾo-gaɾo
rain *wisaɾe

…:

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*ɾ₂
*…

…:

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*ɾ₃
*…




Vowels /*i *u *e *o *a/ ….

High front vowel /*i/ …:

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*i
*…

High back vowel /*u/ …:

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*u
*…

Mid front vowel /*e/ …

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*e
*…

Mid back vowel /*o/ …:

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*o
*…

Low central vowel /*a/ …:

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*a
*…

Kiwai South KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
*…
*…

Pronouns

[under construction]

Kiwai pronouns are reconstructed as follows:

KiwaiSouth KiwaiWabudaBamu RiverMorigiKerewoNortheast Kiwai
1 sg.*mo
2 sg.*oɾo
3 sg.*…
1 pl.*nimo
2 pl.*nigo
3 pl.*nei

Verbal morphology

[under construction]

Loans to and from neighboring families

[under construction]



… Tabo … :

Kiwai
*…

… East Trans-Fly …

Kiwai
know *umoɾo
father *baba
egg/fruit *kikopu
sea turtle*gamo

… Aramia River … :

Kiwai
*…

… Lower Fly River … :

Kiwai
*…

… Inland Gulf … :

Kiwai
*…

… Kibiri-Porome … :

Kiwai
*…