Humene-Uare

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

Humene-Uare, also known as Kwalean, is comprised of two closely-related languages spoken to the southeast of Port Moresby in the central portion of Papua New Guinea's Central Province. A third language, Mulaha, has gone extinct in recent times (Dutton 1975: 626;) it's not clear whether Mulaha was a member of Humene-Uare or coordinate thereto.

Subclassification

Sources

English (1900-1901) Iaibu (Mulaha) (unobtained)

Ray (1907: 391-412) 154 comparative terms for Mulaha after W. G. Lawes (n.d.) and Manukolu (Humene) after J. Chalmers (n.d.)

Ray (1929) Mulaha, Manukolu, Garia, Kwale

Dutton (1970: 926-950) 292 comparative terms for Uare and Humene (Manugoro,) including Mulaha (Iaibu) forms drawn from English (1901-1902)

Kikkawa (1999) sketch phonology of Uare

Kikkawa (2004) survey of Uare dialects (unobtained)

History of classification

[under construction]

Ray (1907) placed Humene and Mulaha with Koiari

Dutton (1970)

Dutton (1975) Kwalean family in South-Eastern Trans New Guinea Phylum

Greenberg (1971: 835-836) Mulaha subgroup of East New Guinea.

Historical phonology

Proto-Humene-Uare had 14 consonants and 7 vowels as follows:

*m *n
*t *k
*b *d *g
*h
*w *j
*i *u
*e̝ *o̝
*a

Any consonant may occur initially or medially, excepting perhaps glottal stop. Voiceless velar stop /*k/ is rare. Initial voiced velar /*g/ is marginal due to the lenition of Owen Stanley Range initial /*g/ to Humene-Uare /*ɣ/. Initial apicals /*d *ɾ/ are uncommon.

Neither word-final consonants nor consonant clusters occur, although there may be traces of erstwhile final consonants which condition the form of the attributive (below.)

Sequential vowels are uncommon. Observed sequences include /*ai *aɛ *ɔo̝ *ɔu/.

Stress in disyllables and trisyllables is generally penultimate. Counterexamples such as /*maˈda/ “sun” indicate segments that have been lost; cf. Doromu-Maria /*meˈdaʔa/, Meneao Range /*madeka/.

Consonants correspond as follows:

Hum-Uar Humene Uare 
*m m m
*n n n
*t t t
    *t/e̝_ h s
*k k ʔ
ʔ ʔ
*b b b
*d d d
*g ʔ g
ɸ ɸ
*h h h
*w β β
ɾ ɾ
*j ʒ ʒ
β ɣ

Vowels correspond as follows:

Hum-Uar Humene Uare 
*i i i
*u u u
*e̝ e i
*o̝ o u
e e
o o
*a a a

These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with all Humene and Uare forms drawn from Dutton (1970: 926-950) unless otherwise indicated. Humene forms drawn from Ray (1908: 391-412) after Chalmers are indicated [jc].


Bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both languages:

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
   *m  m  m
 vomit  *mibuhɛd-  mibuhed-  mibuhet-
 rope/string *mɛni  meni  meni
 not  *mɛnɛ  mene  mene
 father  *ma  ˈma-ka  ˈma-ma
 take  *ma-  ma-  ma-
 fish  *maita  maita  
 thigh  *maninɛ  maˈnine  maˈnine
 sun/day  *maˈda  maˈda  maˈda
 yam  *mahɔ  maˈho  ˈmaho
 tounge  *majanɛ  maˈnane [sic] maˈʒane
 egg  *maɣa  ˈmaβa  ˈmaɣa
 mountain  *maɣa  ˈmaβa  ˈmaɣa
 top of tree *mɔʔa  moʔa-  moˈʔa-
 mosquito  *mudiɾɛ  muˈdiɾe  muˈdiɾe
 taro  *mudɛ  ˈmude  ˈmude
 kunai grass *e̝mi  emi  imi
 navel  *e̝mo̝ɾe̝  eˈmoɾe  iˈmuɾi
 1 pl.  *ɛmɛ  ˈeme  eˈme-ɣe
 that  *ɔmɔ  omo  omo
 walk/go  *ɔnam-  onam-  onam-
 eye  *ubuma  uˈbuma  uˈbuma
 louse  *nɔmɔnɛ  noˈmone  noˈmone
 heart  *jamama  ʒaˈmama  ʒaˈmama
 snake  *jaɾama  ʒaˈɾama  

Apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both languages:

   Humene-Uare  Humene  Uare
   *n  n  n
 name  *ni  ni  ni
 sand  *nikuɾi  niˈkuɾi  niˈʔuɾi
 netbag  *nihaɾɛ  niˈhaɾe  niˈhaɾa
 weep/cry  *ni[j]an-  niʒan-  nian-
 bird  *ne̝ni  neni [jc]  ˈnini
 house/village  *nɛ  ne  ˈne
 what?  *nage̝ni  naʔeni  naˈgini
 older brother  *nɛgɔ(-hɛ)  neˈʔo-he  ˈneko
 where?  *nau  nau  nou
 cold  *nagu  naʔu-  naˈhu-
 louse  *nɔmɔnɛ  noˈmone  noˈmone
 woman  *nɔgɔnɛ  noˈʔone  noɣone
 mother  *n[ɔ/o̝]  ˈno-ka  
 breast  *nuunɛ  nuˈune  nuˈne
 get up/stand up *iɣun-  iβun-  iɣun-
 who?  *e̝nu  enu  ˈiniu
 bone  *e̝tinɛ  eˈhine  iˈsine
 eat  *an-  an-  an-
 3 sg.  *ani  ˈani  ˈani
 come  *ɔna-  ona-  ona-
 walk/go  *ɔnam-  onam-  onam-
 fly (n.)  *ɔɸɛnɛ  oˈɸene  oˈɸene
 chest  *ɔʔɔnɛ  oˈʔone  ˈone
 throat/swallow  *o̝nu  oˈno ~ onuβ-  ˈunu ~ un-
 rope/string  *mɛni  meni  meni
 not  *mɛnɛ  mene  mene
 thigh  *maninɛ  maˈnine  maˈnine
 tongue  *majanɛ  maˈnane [sic] maˈʒane
 throw  *ɸ[ɛwu]n  ɸin-  ɸeun-
 push  *do̝ʔin-  doʔin-  duʔin-
 break wood  *kakan-  kakan-  ʔaʔan-
 call out  *huwan-  huβan-  huan-
 bite  *winɔh-~wihɔn- βinoh-  βihon-
 areca nut  *we̝ni  βeni  βini
 hungry  *we̝ne̝  βene  ˈβini
 arrow  *wainɛ  ˈβaine  ˈβaine
 kill  *w[ai]nɔd-  βainod-  βenod-
 chin/jaw  *ɣaɛnɛ  ˈβaene  ˈɣaene
 back  *ɣaɾɔnɛ  βaˈɾone  ɣaˈɾone
 tooth  *ɣɔnɔnɛ  βoˈnone  ɣoˈnone
 see  *ɣɔdɔn  βodon-  horon-
 dog  *ɣo̝ni  βoni  ˈɣuni

Apical voiceless stop /*t/ is generally retained as such in both languages:

   Humene-Uare  Humene  Uare
   *t  t  t
 one  *te̝bɔ  ˈtebo  ˈtiba
 bird  *t[e̝]b[o̝]ɾ[e̝] teˈboɾe 
 put down  *tɛ-  te-  te-
 run  *tuɾ[ɛ/a]h-  tuɾah-  tuɾeh-
 cough  *igut-  iʔut-  igut-
 wet  *[a]bo̝ta[he]  boˈtahe abuˈta
 fight (v.) *ute̝d-  ted-  utit-
 blunt/dull *utu  utu  utu
 fish  *maita  maita  
 moon  *batɔ  ˈbato  ˈbato

When preceded by high mid vowel /*e̝/, /*t/ is fricated to [*s], yielding a new phoneme /s/ in Uare and deoccluding to merge with /*h/ in Humene:

   Humene-Uare  Humene Uare
   *-t-/e̝_ h  s
 belly *e̝ti  eˈhi  iˈsi
 bone  *e̝tinɛ  eˈhine iˈsine
 wing  *e̝taɣa  ˈhaβa  iˈsaɣa
 smoke *ɣe̝ti  βehi  ˈɣisi

Velar voiceless stop /*k/ is uncommon. It is reflected as glottal stop /ʔ/ in Uare:

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
   *k  k  ʔ
 break wood  *kakan-  kakan-  ʔaʔan-
 elbow  *kakuʔa  kaˈkuʔa  ˈʔaʔuʔa
 bark of tree *kɔga  koka sic] oga
 sand  *nikuɾi  niˈkuɾi  niˈʔuɾi

Glottal stop /*ʔ/ is generally retained as such in both languages:

   Humene-Uare  Humene  Uare
   *ʔ  ʔ  ʔ [ʔ ø]
 chest  *ɔʔɔnɛ  oˈʔone  ˈone
 below  *[ʔ]o̝ʔu[wi]ɔ oʔuβio  ʔuʔuo
 top of tree *mɔʔa  moʔa-  moʔa-
 push  *do̝ʔin-  doʔin-  duʔin-
 elbow  *kakuʔa  kaˈkuʔa ˈʔaʔuʔa
 make hole  *hɔʔ-  oʔ-  hoʔ-
 cut rope  *waɾe̝ʔ-  βaɾeʔ-  βaɾiʔ-

There are no unambiguous examples of initial glottal stop /*ʔ/, though this could just mean that it was not heard.

Biliabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in both languages:

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
   *b  b  b
 sew up  *bibi  bibiʒ-  bibi-
 crooked  *bɛɔ  ˈbeo  ˈbeo
 moon  *batɔ  ˈbato  ˈbato
 thick  *baɾu  ˈbaɾu  ˈbaɾu
 lie down/sleep *baj-  baʒ-  baʒ-
 yellow  *bɔɾa  ˈboɾa-  boˈɾa-
 star  *bɔjɔɣa  boˈʒoβa  boˈʒoɣa
 path  *e̝bi  ˈebi  ˈibi
 draw water  *ab-  aβ- [sic] ab-
 pig  *aba  ˈaba  ˈaba
 daughter  *abɔɛ  aˈboe  aˈboe
 wet  *[a]bo̝ta  boˈta-  abuˈta
 son  *o̝bu  oˈbu  uˈbu
 eye  *ubuma  uˈbuma  uˈbuma
 vomit  *mibuhɛd-  mibuhed-  mibuhet-
 one  *te̝bɔ  ˈtebo  ˈtiba
 fence  *ɣabe̝ɾe̝  waˈbeɾe  ɣaˈbiɾi

Apical voiced stop /*d/ is retained as such in both languages. It is much more common medially than initially:

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
   *d  d  d
 straight  *do̝do̝  ˈdodo-  duˈdu-
 push  *do̝ʔin-  doʔin-  duʔin-
 sore  *e̝de̝ɾe̝  eˈdeɾe  iˈdiɾi
 this  *adi  ida ~ ada adi
 heavy  *adu  aˈdu-  aˈdu-
 sky  *aduɾɛ  aˈduɾe  aˈduɾe
 chop wood  *ɔd-  od-  od-
 foot/leg  *ɔda  ˈoda  ˈida
 cooked  *ɔd[a/ɔ]  oˈda  oˈdo-
 cassowary  *o̝de̝  ˈode  ˈudi
 fight (v.) *ute̝d-  ted-  utit-
 three  *uɣidu  iˈβidu  uˈɣidu
 vomit  *mibuhɛd-  mibuhed-  mibuhet-
 mosquito  *mudiɾɛ  muˈdiɾe  muˈdiɾe
 sun/day  *maˈda  maˈda  maˈda
 taro  *mudɛ  ˈmude  ˈmude
 stone  *hadi  ˈhadi  ˈhadi
 kill  *w[ai]no̝d- βainod-  βenod-

Voiced velar /*g/ is reflected as /ʔ/ in Humene, or initially as zero. It was sometimes heard as [k] in Uare, where /*k/ has become glottal stop:

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
   *g-  ø  g [g k]
 hot  *gɛge̝  eʔe  ˈgegi
 bury  *go̝ɾi-  oɾiʒ-  kuɾ-
   *-g-  ʔ  g [g k ɣ h]
 2 sg. obj.  *-ga  -ʔa  
 attributive  *-ga  -ʔai  -ga
 hair/feather  *igu  ˈiʔu  ˈiku
 cough  *igut-  iʔut-  igut-
 sick/illness  *o̝gi  oʔi-  uˈɣi-
 older brother *nɛgɔ(-hɛ)  neˈʔo-he  ˈneko
 what?  *nage̝(-ni) naˈʔe(-ni) naˈgini
 cold  *nagu  naʔu-  naˈhu-
 woman  *nɔgɔnɛ  noˈʔone  noˈɣone
 sugarcane  *hagi  ˈhaʔi  ˈhagi
 smell (tr.)  *hɔhɔg-  hohoʔ-  hohog-
 break (tr.)  *wahɛg-  βaheʔ-  βaheg-
 scratch  *ɣugi[t/s]- βuʔit-  ɣukis-

It may be seen that initial /*g/ is only clearly attested in two words, in keeping with the lenition of Owen Stanley Range initial /*g/ to Humene-Uare /*ɣ/. One of these, /*go̝ɾi/ “bury,” is a loan from the Central Papuan subfamily of Oceanic (cf. Motu /guri/.)

Bilabial fricative /*ɸ/ is retained as such in both languages:

   Humene-Uare Humene Uare
   *ɸ  ɸ  ɸ
 throw  *ɸ[ewu]n-  ɸin-  ɸeun-
 long  *ɸa  ˈɸa  ˈɸa
 laugh  *ɛɣɔɸ-  eβeɸ-  eɣoɸ-
 grass skirt  *aɸa[n/ɾ]ɛ  aˈɸane aˈɸaɾe
 fly (n.)  *ɔɸɛnɛ  oˈɸene oˈɸene
 fly (v.)  *ɾaɸe̝-  laɸeʒ- laɸi-an-
 wide/palm/sole *ɾaɸa  ɾaˈɸa- ɾaˈɸa-

Unoccluded fricative /*h/ is retained as such in both languages:

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
   *h  h  h
 shoulder  *hɛɾa  heˈɾa  ˈheɾa
 stone  *hadi  ˈhadi  ˈhadi
 sugarcane  *hagi  ˈhaʔi  ˈhagi
 banana  *hajɔ  ˈhaʒo  ˈhaʒo
 make hole  *hɔʔ-  oʔ- [sic] hoʔ-
 smell (tr.)  *hɔhɔg-  hohoʔ-  hohog-
 call out  *huwan-  huβan-  huan-
 suffix on sibs *-hɛ  -he  -he
 skin  *ahe̝ɾe̝  aˈheɾe  aˈhiɾi
 two  *ahɛu  aˈheu  aˈheu
 man/husband  *ɔhɔjɛ  oˈhoʒe  oˈhoʒe
 deaf  *o̝hu  ohu  uhu
 vomit  *mibuhɛd-  mibuhed-  mibuhet-
 yam  *mahɔ  maˈho  ˈmaho
 netbag  *nihaɾɛ  niˈhaɾe  niˈhaɾa
 run  *tuɾ[ɛ/a]h- tuɾah-  tuɾeh-
 break (tr.)  *wahɛg-  βaheʔ-  βaheg-
 joke (v.)  *ɣe̝ɾih-  βeɾih-  ɣiɾih-
 cook  *ɣɔɾɔh-  βoɾoh-  ɣoɾoh-

Bilabial non-stop /*w/ is occluded to [β] in both languages:

   Humene-Uare  Humene  Uare
   *w  β  β
 bite  *winɔh-~wihɔn- βinoh-  βihon-
 wash self  *wiɾ-  βiɾ-  βiɾ-
 areca nut  *we̝ni  βini  βeni
 hungry  *we̝ne̝-  βini-  βene-
 arrow  *wainɛ  ˈβaine  ˈβaine
 kill  *w[aji]no̝d-  βainod- βenod-
 break (tr.) *wahɛg-  βaheʔ-  βaheg-
 cut rope  *waɾe̝ʔ-  βaɾeʔ-  βaɾiʔ-
 man  *wajɛ  ˈβaʒe  ˈβaʒe
 look for  *waɣ-  βaβ-  βaɣ-
 water  *wɔu  ˈβou  ˈβou
 hand/arm  *ɛwɔɾɛ  eˈβoɾe  eˈβoɾe
 tail  *awa  aˈβa  aˈβa-ɣa
 singsing  *jawɔ  ˈʒaβo  ˈʒaβo

Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is retained as such in both languages:

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
   *ɾ  ɾ [r l] ɾ [r l]
 fly (v.)  *ɾafe̝-  laɸeʒ-  lafi-an-
 wide/palm/sole *ɾaɸa-  ɾaˈɸa-  ɾaˈɸa-
 blood  *ɾɔo̝  ɾoˈo  ˈɾoˈu
 leaf  *ɾɔV  loa  ɾou
 fire/firewood  *iɾɛ  ˈiɾe  iɾe
 navel  *e̝mo̝ɾe̝  eˈmoɾe  iˈmuɾi
 new  *ɛɾi-  ˈeɾi-  iʒi- [sic]
 sore  *e̝de̝ɾe̝  eˈdeɾe  iˈdiɾi
 hand/arm  *ɛwɔɾɛ  eˈβoɾe  eˈβoɾe
 sky  *aduɾɛ  aˈduɾe  aˈduɾe
 skin  *ahe̝ɾe̝  aˈheɾe  aˈhiɾi
 white  *o̝ɾo̝  oˈɾo-  uˈɾu-
 mosquito  *mudiɾɛ  muˈdiɾe  muˈdiɾe
 thick  *baɾu  ˈbaɾu  ˈbaɾu
 yellow  *bɔɾa  ˈboɾa-  boˈɾa-
 sand  *nikuɾi  niˈkuɾi  niˈʔuɾi
 netbag  *nihaɾɛ  niˈhaɾe  niˈhaɾa
 run  *tuɾ[ɛ/a]h- tuɾah-  tuɾeh-
 bury  *go̝ɾi-  oɾiʒ-  kuɾ-
 shoulder  *hɛɾa  heˈɾa  ˈheɾa
 wash  *wiɾ-  βiɾ-  βiɾ-
 cut rope  *waɾe̝ʔ-  βaɾeʔ  βaɾiʔ-
 snake  *jaɾama  ʒaˈɾama  
 nose  *jajɔɾɛ  ʒaˈʒoɾe  ʒaˈʒoɾe
 joke (v.)  *ɣe̝ɾih-  βeɾih-  ɣiɾih-
 fence  *ɣabe̝ɾe̝  waˈbeɾe  ɣaˈbiɾi
 back  *ɣaɾɔnɛ  βaˈɾone  ɣaˈɾone

Palatal non-stop /*j/ is occluded to [ʒ] in both languages:

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
   *j  ʒ  ʒ
 thin  *je̝ɣi  ˈʒeβi-ʔai ˈʒiɣi-a
 3 pl.  *jɛ  ʒe  ˈʒe(-ɣe)
 2 pl.  *ja  ʒa  ˈʒa(-ɣe)
 heart  *jamama  ʒaˈmama  ʒaˈmama
 singsing  *jawɔ  ˈʒaβo  ˈʒaβo
 snake  *jaɾama  ʒaˈɾama  
 nose  *jajɔɾɛ  ʒaˈʒoɾe  ʒaˈʒoɾe
 2/3 pl. obj.  *-ja  -ʒa  
 older sister  *ɛjɛ(-hɛ)  eˈʒe-he  eˈʒe(-he)
 branch  *ɛja  eˈʒa-  eˈʒa-
 man/husband  *ɔhɔjɛ  oˈhoʒe  oˈhoʒe
 lie down/sleep *baj-  baʒ-  baʒ-
 star  *bɔjɔɣa  boˈʒoβa  boˈʒoɣa
 banana  *hajɔ  ˈhaʒo  ˈhaʒo
 man  *wajɛ  ˈβaʒe  ˈβaʒe
 cloud/fog  *ɣɔjɛ  ˈβoʒe  ˈɣoʒe

Velar non-stop /*ɣ/ has merged with the reflex of /*w/ [β] (above) in Humene:

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
   *ɣ  β  ɣ
 smoke  *ɣe̝ti  ˈβehi  ˈɣisi
 joke (v.)  *ɣe̝ɾih-  βeɾih-  ɣiɾih-
 2 sg.  *ɣa  βa  ˈɣa
 chin/jaw  *ɣaɛnɛ  ˈβaene  ˈɣaene
 fence  *ɣabe̝ɾe̝  aˈbeɾe  ɣaˈbiɾi
 back  *ɣaɾɔnɛ  βaˈɾone  ɣaˈɾone
 tooth  *ɣɔnɔnɛ  βoˈnone  ɣoˈnone
 see  *ɣɔdɔn-  βodon-  ɣoɾon-
 cook  *ɣɔɾɔh-  βoɾoh-  ɣoɾoh-
 cloud/fog  *ɣɔjɛ  ˈβoʒe  ˈɣoʒe
 dog  *ɣo̝ni  βoni; ɣone [jc] ˈɣuni
 scratch  *ɣugi[t/s]- βuʔit-  ɣukis-
 attributive  *-ɣa  -βa(i)  -ɣa
 look for  *waɣ-  βaβ-  βaɣ-
 get up/stand up *iɣun-  iβun-  iɣun-
 wing  *e̝taɣa  ˈhaβa  iˈsaɣa
 laugh  *ɛɣɔɸ-  eβeɸ-  eɣoɸ-
 three  *uɣidu  iˈβidu  uˈɣidu
 egg  *maɣa  ˈmaβa  ˈmaɣa
 mountain  *maɣa  ˈmaβa  ˈmaɣa
 star  *bɔjɔɣa  boˈʒoβa  boˈʒoɣa
 look for  *waɣ-  βaβ-  βaɣ-
 thin  *je̝ɣi  ˈʒeβi  ˈʒiɣi

Chalmer's [ɣone] “dog” (Ray 1907: 396) suggests this merger to be quite recent in origin.

High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in both languages:

   Humene-Uare  Humene  Uare
   *i  i  i
 fat/grease  *i  i  i
 fire/firewood  *iɾɛ  ˈiɾe  iɾe
 hair/feather  *igu  ˈiʔu  ˈiku
 cough  *igut-  iʔut-  igut-
 get up/stand up *iɣun-  iβun-  iɣun-
 kunai grass  *e̝mi  emi  imi
 path  *e̝bi  ˈebi  ˈibi
 belly  *e̝ti  eˈhi  iˈsi
 bone  *e̝tinɛ  eˈhine  iˈsine
 new  *ɛɾi-  ˈeɾi-  iʒi- [sic]
 3 sg.  *ani  ˈani  ˈani
 this  *adi  ida ~ ada adi
 sick/illness  *o̝gi  oʔi-  uˈɣi-
 three  *uɣidu  iˈβidu  uˈɣidu
 vomit  *mibuhɛd-  mibuhed-  mibuhet-
 rope/string  *mɛni  meni  meni
 fish  *maita  maita  
 thigh  *maninɛ  maˈnine  maˈnine
 mosquito  *mudiɾɛ  muˈdiɾe  muˈdiɾe
 sew up  *bibi  bibiʒ-  bibi-
 name  *ni  ni  ni
 sand  *nikuɾi  niˈkuɾi  niˈʔuɾi
 netbag  *nihaɾɛ  niˈhaɾe  niˈhaɾa
 weep/cry  *ni[j]an-  niʒan-  nian-
 bird  *ne̝ni  neni [jc] ˈnini
 what?  *nage̝ni  naʔeni  naˈgini
 push  *do̝ʔin-  doʔin-  duʔin-
 bury  *go̝ɾi-  oɾiʒ-  kuɾ-
 below  *[ʔ]o̝ʔu[wi]ɔ  oʔuβio  ʔuʔuo
 stone  *hadi  ˈhadi  ˈhadi
 sugarcane  *hagi  ˈhaʔi  ˈhagi
 bite  *winɔh-~wihɔn- βinoh-  βihon-
 wash  *wiɾ-  βiɾ-  βiɾ-
 areca nut  *we̝ni  βeni  βini
 thin  *je̝ɣi  ˈʒeβi-ʔai ˈʒiɣi-a
 arrow  *wainɛ  ˈβaine  ˈβaine
 smoke  *ɣe̝ti  βehi  ˈɣisi
 joke (v.)  *ɣe̝ɾih-  βeɾih-  ɣiɾih-
 dog  *ɣo̝ni  βoni  ˈɣuni
 scratch  *ɣugi[t/s]-  βuʔit-  ɣukis-

High back vowel /*u/ is retained as such in both languages:

   Humene-Uare  Humene  Uare
   *u  u  u
 hair/feather  *igu  ˈiʔu  ˈiku
 cough  *igut-  iʔut-  igut-
 get up/stand up *iɣun-  iβun-  iɣun-
 who?  *e̝nu  enu  ˈiniu
 heavy  *adu  aˈdu-  aˈdu-
 sky  *aduɾɛ  aˈduɾe  aˈduɾe
 two  *ahɛu  aˈheu  aˈheu
 son  *o̝bu  oˈbu  uˈbu
 throat/swallow  *o̝nu  oˈno ~ onuβ- ˈunu ~ un-
 deaf  *o̝hu  ohu  uhu
 eye  *ubuma  uˈbuma  uˈbuma
 fight (v.)  *ute̝d-  ted-  utit-
 blunt/dull  *utu  utu  utu
 three  *uɣidu  iˈβidu  uˈɣidu
 vomit  *mibuhɛd-  mibuhed-  mibuhet-
 mosquito  *mudiɾɛ  muˈdiɾe  muˈdiɾe
 taro  *mudɛ  ˈmude  ˈmude
 thick  *baɾu  ˈbaɾu  ˈbaɾu
 sand  *nikuɾi  niˈkuɾi  niˈʔuɾi
 where?  *nau  nau  nou
 cold  *nagu  naʔu-  naˈhu-
 breast  *nuunɛ  nuˈune  nuˈne
 run  *tuɾ[ɛ/a]h-  tuɾah-  tuɾeh-
 elbow  *kakuʔa  kaˈkuʔa  ˈʔaʔuʔa
 below  *[ʔ]o̝ʔu[wi]ɔ oʔuβio  ʔuʔuo
 call out  *huwan-  huβan-  huan-
 water  *wɔu  ˈβou  ˈβou
 scratch  *ɣugi[t/s]-  βuʔit-  ɣukis-

High mid front vowel /*e̝/ is reflected as /e/ in Humene and as /i/ in Uare:

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
   *e̝  e  i
 kunai grass *e̝mi  emi  imi
 navel  *e̝mo̝ɾe̝  eˈmoɾe  iˈmuɾi
 path  *e̝bi  ˈebi  ˈibi
 who?  *e̝nu  enu  ˈiniu
 belly  *e̝ti  eˈhi  iˈsi
 bone  *e̝tinɛ  eˈhine  iˈsine
 wing  *e̝taɣa  ˈhaβa  iˈsaɣa
 sore  *e̝de̝ɾe̝  eˈdeɾe  iˈdiɾi
 skin  *ahe̝ɾe̝  aˈheɾe  aˈhiɾi
 cassowary  *o̝de̝  ˈode  ˈudi
 fight (v.)  *ute̝d-  ted-  utit-
 bird  *ne̝ni  neni [jc]  ˈnini
 what?  *nage̝(-ni) naˈʔe(-ni) naˈgini
 one  *te̝bɔ  ˈtebo  ˈtiba
 hot  *gɛge̝  eʔe  ˈgegi
 areca nut  *we̝ni  βeni  βini
 hungry  *we̝ne̝  βene  ˈβini
 cut rope  *waɾe̝ʔ-  βaɾeʔ-  βaɾiʔ-
 fly (v.)  *ɾaɸe̝-  laɸeʒ-  laɸi-an-
 smoke  *ɣe̝ti  βehi  ˈɣisi
 joke (v.)  *ɣe̝ɾih-  βeɾih-  ɣiɾih-
 fence  *ɣabe̝ɾe̝  waˈbeɾe  ɣaˈbiɾi

High mid back vowel /*o̝/ is reflected as /o/ in Humene and as /u/ in Uare:

   Humene-Uare  Humene  Uare
   *o̝  o  u
 navel  *e̝mo̝ɾe̝  eˈmoɾe  iˈmuɾi
 wet  *[a]bo̝ta[he] boˈtahe  abuˈta
 son  *o̝bu  oˈbu  uˈbu
 throat/swallow *o̝nu  oˈno ~ onuβ- ˈunu ~ un-
 cassowary  *o̝de̝  ˈode  ˈudi
 sick/illness  *o̝gi  oʔi-  uˈɣi-
 deaf  *o̝hu  ohu  uhu
 white  *o̝ɾo̝  oˈɾo-  uˈɾu-
 straight  *do̝do̝  ˈdodo-  duˈdu-
 push  *do̝ʔin-  doʔin-  duʔin-
 bury  *go̝ɾi-  oɾiʒ-  kuɾ-
 below  *[ʔ]o̝ʔu[wi]ɔ oʔuβio  ʔuʔuo
 blood  *ɾɔo̝  ɾoˈo  ˈɾoˈu
 thin  *je̝ɣi  ˈʒeβi-ʔai  ˈʒiɣi-a
 dog  *ɣo̝ni  βoni  ˈɣuni

Mid front vowel /*ɛ/ is reflected as /e/ in both languages:

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
   *ɛ  e  e
 fire/firewood  *iɾɛ  ˈiɾe  iɾe
 bone  *e̝tinɛ  eˈhine  iˈsine
 1 pl.  *ɛmɛ  ˈeme  eˈme-ɣe
 new  *ɛɾi-  ˈeɾi-  iʒi- [sic]
 laugh  *ɛɣɔɸ-  eβeɸ-  eɣoɸ-
 older sister  *ɛjɛ(-hɛ)  eˈʒe-he  eˈʒe(-he)
 branch  *ɛja  eˈʒa-  eˈʒa-
 hand/arm  *ɛwɔɾɛ  eˈβoɾe  eˈβoɾe
 daughter  *abɔɛ  aˈboe  aˈboe
 grass skirt  *aɸa[n/ɾ]ɛ  aˈɸane  aˈɸaɾe
 sky  *aduɾɛ  aˈduɾe  aˈduɾe
 two  *ahɛu  aˈheu  aˈheu
 fly (n.)  *ɔɸɛnɛ  oˈɸene  oˈɸene
 chest  *ɔʔɔnɛ  oˈʔone  ˈone
 man/husband  *ɔhɔjɛ  oˈhoʒe  oˈhoʒe
 vomit  *mibuhɛd-  mibuhed-  mibuhet-
 rope/string  *mɛni  meni  meni
 not  *mɛnɛ  mene  mene
 thigh  *maninɛ  maˈnine  maˈnine
 tounge  *majanɛ  maˈnane [sic] maˈʒane
 mosquito  *mudiɾɛ  muˈdiɾe  muˈdiɾe
 taro  *mudɛ  ˈmude  ˈmude
 crooked  *bɛɔ  ˈbeo  ˈbeo
 netbag  *nihaɾɛ  niˈhaɾe  niˈhaɾa
 house/village  *nɛ  ne  ˈne
 older brother  *nɛgɔ(-hɛ)  neˈʔo-he  ˈneko
 louse  *nɔmɔnɛ  noˈmone  noˈmone
 woman  *nɔgɔnɛ  noˈʔone  noɣone
 breast  *nuunɛ  nuˈune  nuˈne
 put down  *tɛ-  te-  te-
 hot  *gɛge̝  eʔe  ˈgegi
 suffix on sibs *-hɛ  -he  -he
 shoulder  *hɛɾa  heˈɾa  ˈheɾa
 cloud/fog  *ɣɔjɛ  ˈβoʒe  ˈɣoʒe
 arrow  *wainɛ  ˈβaine  ˈβaine
 break (tr.)  *wahɛg-  βaheʔ-  βaheg-
 man  *wajɛ  ˈβaʒe  ˈβaʒe
 3 pl.  *jɛ  ʒe  ˈʒe(-ɣe)
 nose  *jajɔɾɛ  ʒaˈʒoɾe  ʒaˈʒoɾe
 chin/jaw  *ɣaɛnɛ  ˈβaene  ˈɣaene
 back  *ɣaɾɔnɛ  βaˈɾone  ɣaˈɾone
 tooth  *ɣɔnɔnɛ  βoˈnone  ɣoˈnone

Mid back vowel /*ɔ/ is reflected as /o/ in both languages:

   Humene-Uare  Humene  Uare
   *ɔ  o  o
 laugh  *ɛɣɔɸ-  eβeɸ-  eɣoɸ-
 hand/arm  *ɛwɔɾɛ  eˈβoɾe  eˈβoɾe
 daughter  *abɔɛ  aˈboe  aˈboe
 that  *ɔmɔ  omo  omo
 fly (n.)  *ɔɸɛnɛ  oˈɸene  oˈɸene
 come  *ɔna-  ona-  ona-
 walk/go  *ɔnam-  onam-  onam-
 chop wood  *ɔd-  od-  od-
 foot/leg  *ɔda  ˈoda  ˈida
 cooked  *ɔd[a/ɔ]  oˈda  oˈdo-
 chest  *ɔʔɔnɛ  oˈʔone  ˈone
 man/husband  *ɔhɔjɛ  oˈhoʒe  oˈhoʒe
 top of tree  *mɔʔa  moʔa-  moˈʔa-
 crooked  *bɛɔ  ˈbeo  ˈbeo
 moon  *batɔ  ˈbato  ˈbato
 yellow  *bɔɾa  ˈboɾa-  boˈɾa-
 star  *bɔjɔɣa  boˈʒoβa  boˈʒoɣa
 older brother *nɛgɔ(-hɛ)  neˈʔo-he  ˈneko
 louse  *nɔmɔnɛ  noˈmone  noˈmone
 woman  *nɔgɔnɛ  noˈʔone  noɣone
 one  *te̝bɔ  ˈtebo  ˈtiba
 bark of tree  *kɔga  koka sic] oga
 banana  *hajɔ  ˈhaʒo  ˈhaʒo
 make hole  *hɔʔ-  oʔ-  hoʔ-
 smell (tr.)  *hɔhɔg-  hohoʔ-  hohog-
 bite  *winɔh-~wihɔn- βinoh-  βihon-
 kill  *w[ai]nɔd-  βainod-  βenod-
 water  *wɔu  ˈβou  ˈβou
 blood  *ɾɔo̝  ɾoˈo  ˈɾoˈu
 leaf  *ɾɔV  loa  ɾou
 nose  *jajɔɾɛ  ʒaˈʒoɾe  ʒaˈʒoɾe
 singsing  *jawɔ  ˈʒaβo  ˈʒaβo
 back  *ɣaɾɔnɛ  βaˈɾone  ɣaˈɾone
 tooth  *ɣɔnɔnɛ  βoˈnone  ɣoˈnone
 see  *ɣɔdɔn  βodon-  horon-
 cook  *ɣɔɾɔh-  βoɾoh-  ɣoɾoh-
 cloud/fog  *ɣɔjɛ  ˈβoʒe  ˈɣoʒe

Low central vowel /*a/ is retained as such in both languages:

   Humene-Uare  Humene  Uare
   *a  a  a
 wing  *e̝taɣa  ˈhaβa  iˈsaɣa
 branch  *ɛja  eˈʒa-  eˈʒa-
 draw water  *ab-  aβ- [sic]  ab-
 pig  *aba  ˈaba  ˈaba
 daughter  *abɔɛ  aˈboe  aˈboe
 wet  *[a]bo̝ta[he] boˈtahe  abuˈta
 grass skirt  *aɸa[n/ɾ]ɛ  aˈɸane  aˈɸaɾe
 eat  *an-  an-  an-
 3 sg.  *ani  ˈani  ˈani
 this  *adi  ida ~ ada  adi
 heavy  *adu  aˈdu-  aˈdu-
 sky  *aduɾɛ  aˈduɾe  aˈduɾe
 skin  *ahe̝ɾe̝  aˈheɾe  aˈhiɾi
 two  *ahɛu  aˈheu  aˈheu
 tail  *awa  aˈβa  aˈβa-ɣa
 come  *ɔna-  ona-  ona-
 walk/go  *ɔnam-  onam-  onam-
 foot/leg  *ɔda  ˈoda  ˈida
 eye  *ubuma  uˈbuma  uˈbuma
 father  *ma  ˈma-ka  ˈma-ma
 take  *ma-  ma-  ma-
 fish  *maita  maita  
 thigh  *maninɛ  maˈnine  maˈnine
 sun/day  *maˈda  maˈda  maˈda
 yam  *mahɔ  maˈho  ˈmaho
 tounge  *majanɛ  maˈnane [sic] maˈʒane
 egg  *maɣa  ˈmaβa  ˈmaɣa
 mountain  *maɣa  ˈmaβa  ˈmaɣa
 top of tree  *mɔʔa  moʔa-  moˈʔa-
 moon  *batɔ  ˈbato  ˈbato
 thick  *baɾu  ˈbaɾu  ˈbaɾu
 lie down/sleep *baj-  baʒ-  baʒ-
 yellow  *bɔɾa  ˈboɾa-  boˈɾa-
 star  *bɔjɔɣa  boˈʒoβa  boˈʒoɣa
 long  *ɸa  ˈɸa  ˈɸa
 netbag  *nihaɾɛ  niˈhaɾe  niˈhaɾa
 weep/cry  *ni[j]an-  niʒan-  nian-
 where?  *nau  nau  nou
 what?  *nage̝(-ni)  naˈʔe(-ni)  naˈgini
 cold  *nagu  naʔu-  naˈhu-
 break wood  *kakan-  kakan-  ʔaʔan-
 elbow  *kakuʔa  kaˈkuʔa  ˈʔaʔuʔa
 bark of tree  *kɔga  koka sic]  oga
 2 sg. obj.  *-ga  -ʔa  
 attributive  *-ga  -ʔa(i)  -ga
 shoulder  *hɛɾa  heˈɾa  ˈheɾa
 stone  *hadi  ˈhadi  ˈhadi
 sugarcane  *hagi  ˈhaʔi  ˈhagi
 banana  *hajɔ  ˈhaʒo  ˈhaʒo
 call out  *huwan-  huβan-  huan-
 arrow  *wainɛ  ˈβaine  ˈβaine
 break (tr.)  *wahɛg-  βaheʔ-  βaheg-
 cut rope  *waɾe̝ʔ-  βaɾeʔ-  βaɾiʔ-
 man  *wajɛ  ˈβaʒe  ˈβaʒe
 look for  *waɣ-  βaβ-  βaɣ-
 fly (v.)  *ɾaɸe̝-  laɸeʒ-  laɸi-an-
 wide/palm/sole *ɾaɸa  ɾaˈɸa-  ɾaˈɸa-
 heart  *jamama  ʒaˈmama  ʒaˈmama
 snake  *jaɾama  ʒaˈɾama  
 nose  *jajɔɾɛ  ʒaˈʒoɾe  ʒaˈʒoɾe
 singsing  *jawɔ  ˈʒaβo  ˈʒaβo
 2 sg.  *ɣa  βa  ˈɣa
 attributive  *-ɣa  -βa(i)  -ɣa
 chin/jaw  *ɣaɛnɛ  ˈβaene  ˈɣaene
 fence  *ɣabe̝ɾe̝  waˈbeɾe  ɣaˈbiɾi
 back  *ɣaɾɔnɛ  βaˈɾone  ɣaˈɾone
 2 pl.  *ja  ʒa  ˈʒa(-ɣe)

[under construction]

The attributive suffix, found on adjectives and upon some conceptually dependent substantives, has three forms beginning with /*ɣ *g *ʔ/ respectively:

  Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
  *-ɣa  -βa(i) -ɣa
  *-ga  -ʔa(i) -ga
  *-ʔa  -ʔa(i) -ʔai

As /*ɣ/ is known to reflect Owen Stanley Range initial /*(ŋ)g/, it's probable that the original form of the atributives was /*-(ŋ)ga/, and that its differing realizations depend upon final elements in the root which it follows; however, it's not immediately obvious what these elements might be.

The solution tentatively adopted here is based upon analogy to West Kainantu and Kratke Range “noun classes” (q.v. Bee 1965, 1973: 741-744, Lloyd 1969) which historically reflect dropped final segments and condition the realization of following consonants in a compound. This would require at least some final consonants or segments /*N(V) *C(V)/ to have been lost prior to proto-Humene-Uare, surfacing only in compounds of this kind:

 final attributive
 *ø  *-ɣa
 *N  *-ga
 *C  *-ʔa

Loans from Central Papuan

[under construction]

…with attestations drawn from Dutton (1970: 926-950):

   Motu  Sinaugoro Keapara  Humene-Uare
 thigh    manini-    *maninɛ
 yam    maɣo    *mahɔ
 tongue  mala-  mea-  mae-  *majanɛ
 taro    mude    *mudɛ
 yellow  labora  bora-bora pola-pola *bɔɾa
 one    tebona  kopuna  *te̝bɔ
 white  kuro-kuro kuro-kuro kulo-kulo *o̝ɾo̝
 bury  guri-  guri-  kuli-  *go̝ɾi-
 chin/jaw   ɣare-  are-  *ɣaɛnɛ
 eat  ani-  ɣani-  ani-  *an-

In several examples above (e.g. “tongue”, “chin”) Uare-Humene has added a suffix /*-nɛ/ to the nominal root. We assume this to originate as the Central Papuan third person possessor /*-na/, although the reason for the change in vowel quality isnˈt known.

In light of the infrequency of velar voiceless stop /*k/ (above,) the example of “white” suggests that the regular reflex of pre-Humene-Uare /*k/ may be glottal stop /*ʔ/.

Pronouns

Proto-Humene-Uare free pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with attestations drawn from Dutton (1970: 922-923, 927):

   Humene-Uare Humene  Uare
 1 sg. *ɛ  ˈeme  ˈe-ɣe
 2 sg. *ɣa  ˈβa  ˈɣa
 3 sg. *ani  ˈani  ˈani
 1 pl. *ɛmɛ  eˈm-one eˈme-ɣe
 2 pl. *ja  ʒa  ʒa(-ɣe)
 3 pl. *jɛ  ʒe  ʒe(-ɣe)

Humene's first person singular reflects the plural, which is then distinguished from the singular by the addition of a suffix [-one]. Second person plural [ʒa] is given also as an alternate form of the singular in Humene, recalling Doromu-Maria to the east in which Owen Stanley Range /*ja/ has entirely replaced singular /*ga/ (Humene-Uare /*ɣa/).

Verbal morphology

[under construction - not much is known]