Humene-Uare
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
Humene-Uare, also known as Kwalean, is comprised of two closely-related languages spoken to the southeast of Port Moresby in the central portion of Papua New Guinea's Central Province. A third language, Mulaha, has gone extinct in recent times (Dutton 1975: 626;) it's not clear whether Mulaha was a member of Humene-Uare or coordinate thereto.
Subclassification
…
Sources
English (1900-1901) Iaibu (Mulaha) (unobtained)
Ray (1907: 391-412) 154 comparative terms for Mulaha after W. G. Lawes (n.d.) and Manukolu (Humene) after J. Chalmers (n.d.)
Ray (1929) Mulaha, Manukolu, Garia, Kwale
Dutton (1970: 926-950) 292 comparative terms for Uare and Humene (Manugoro,) including Mulaha (Iaibu) forms drawn from English (1901-1902)
Kikkawa (1999) sketch phonology of Uare
Kikkawa (2004) survey of Uare dialects (unobtained)
History of classification
[under construction]
Ray (1907) placed Humene and Mulaha with Koiari
Dutton (1970)
Dutton (1975) Kwalean family in South-Eastern Trans New Guinea Phylum
Greenberg (1971: 835-836) Mulaha subgroup of East New Guinea.
Historical phonology
Proto-Humene-Uare had 14 consonants and 7 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | |||
*t | *k | *ʔ | ||
*b | *d | *g | ||
*ɸ | *h | |||
*w | *ɾ | *j | *ɣ |
*i | *u | |
*e̝ | *o̝ | |
*ɛ | *ɔ | |
*a |
Any consonant may occur initially or medially, excepting perhaps glottal stop. Voiceless velar stop /*k/ is rare. Initial voiced velar /*g/ is marginal due to the lenition of Owen Stanley Range initial /*g/ to Humene-Uare /*ɣ/. Initial apicals /*d *ɾ/ are uncommon.
Neither word-final consonants nor consonant clusters occur, although there may be traces of erstwhile final consonants which condition the form of the attributive (below.)
Sequential vowels are uncommon. Observed sequences include /*ai *aɛ *ɔo̝ *ɔu/.
Stress in disyllables and trisyllables is generally penultimate. Counterexamples such as /*maˈda/ “sun” indicate segments that have been lost; cf. Doromu-Maria /*meˈdaʔa/, Meneao Range /*madeka/.
Consonants correspond as follows:
Hum-Uar | Humene | Uare |
*m | m | m |
*n | n | n |
*t | t | t |
*t/e̝_ | h | s |
*k | k | ʔ |
*ʔ | ʔ | ʔ |
*b | b | b |
*d | d | d |
*g | ʔ | g |
*ɸ | ɸ | ɸ |
*h | h | h |
*w | β | β |
*ɾ | ɾ | ɾ |
*j | ʒ | ʒ |
*ɣ | β | ɣ |
Vowels correspond as follows:
Hum-Uar | Humene | Uare |
*i | i | i |
*u | u | u |
*e̝ | e | i |
*o̝ | o | u |
*ɛ | e | e |
*ɔ | o | o |
*a | a | a |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with all Humene and Uare forms drawn from Dutton (1970: 926-950) unless otherwise indicated. Humene forms drawn from Ray (1908: 391-412) after Chalmers are indicated [jc].
Bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*m | m | m | |
vomit | *mibuhɛd- | mibuhed- | mibuhet- |
rope/string | *mɛni | meni | meni |
not | *mɛnɛ | mene | mene |
father | *ma | ˈma-ka | ˈma-ma |
take | *ma- | ma- | ma- |
fish | *maita | maita | |
thigh | *maninɛ | maˈnine | maˈnine |
sun/day | *maˈda | maˈda | maˈda |
yam | *mahɔ | maˈho | ˈmaho |
tounge | *majanɛ | maˈnane [sic] | maˈʒane |
egg | *maɣa | ˈmaβa | ˈmaɣa |
mountain | *maɣa | ˈmaβa | ˈmaɣa |
top of tree | *mɔʔa | moʔa- | moˈʔa- |
mosquito | *mudiɾɛ | muˈdiɾe | muˈdiɾe |
taro | *mudɛ | ˈmude | ˈmude |
kunai grass | *e̝mi | emi | imi |
navel | *e̝mo̝ɾe̝ | eˈmoɾe | iˈmuɾi |
1 pl. | *ɛmɛ | ˈeme | eˈme-ɣe |
that | *ɔmɔ | omo | omo |
walk/go | *ɔnam- | onam- | onam- |
eye | *ubuma | uˈbuma | uˈbuma |
louse | *nɔmɔnɛ | noˈmone | noˈmone |
heart | *jamama | ʒaˈmama | ʒaˈmama |
snake | *jaɾama | ʒaˈɾama |
Apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*n | n | n | |
name | *ni | ni | ni |
sand | *nikuɾi | niˈkuɾi | niˈʔuɾi |
netbag | *nihaɾɛ | niˈhaɾe | niˈhaɾa |
weep/cry | *ni[j]an- | niʒan- | nian- |
bird | *ne̝ni | neni [jc] | ˈnini |
house/village | *nɛ | ne | ˈne |
what? | *nage̝ni | naʔeni | naˈgini |
older brother | *nɛgɔ(-hɛ) | neˈʔo-he | ˈneko |
where? | *nau | nau | nou |
cold | *nagu | naʔu- | naˈhu- |
louse | *nɔmɔnɛ | noˈmone | noˈmone |
woman | *nɔgɔnɛ | noˈʔone | noɣone |
mother | *n[ɔ/o̝] | ˈno-ka | |
breast | *nuunɛ | nuˈune | nuˈne |
get up/stand up | *iɣun- | iβun- | iɣun- |
who? | *e̝nu | enu | ˈiniu |
bone | *e̝tinɛ | eˈhine | iˈsine |
eat | *an- | an- | an- |
3 sg. | *ani | ˈani | ˈani |
come | *ɔna- | ona- | ona- |
walk/go | *ɔnam- | onam- | onam- |
fly (n.) | *ɔɸɛnɛ | oˈɸene | oˈɸene |
chest | *ɔʔɔnɛ | oˈʔone | ˈone |
throat/swallow | *o̝nu | oˈno ~ onuβ- | ˈunu ~ un- |
rope/string | *mɛni | meni | meni |
not | *mɛnɛ | mene | mene |
thigh | *maninɛ | maˈnine | maˈnine |
tongue | *majanɛ | maˈnane [sic] | maˈʒane |
throw | *ɸ[ɛwu]n | ɸin- | ɸeun- |
push | *do̝ʔin- | doʔin- | duʔin- |
break wood | *kakan- | kakan- | ʔaʔan- |
call out | *huwan- | huβan- | huan- |
bite | *winɔh-~wihɔn- | βinoh- | βihon- |
areca nut | *we̝ni | βeni | βini |
hungry | *we̝ne̝ | βene | ˈβini |
arrow | *wainɛ | ˈβaine | ˈβaine |
kill | *w[ai]nɔd- | βainod- | βenod- |
chin/jaw | *ɣaɛnɛ | ˈβaene | ˈɣaene |
back | *ɣaɾɔnɛ | βaˈɾone | ɣaˈɾone |
tooth | *ɣɔnɔnɛ | βoˈnone | ɣoˈnone |
see | *ɣɔdɔn | βodon- | horon- |
dog | *ɣo̝ni | βoni | ˈɣuni |
Apical voiceless stop /*t/ is generally retained as such in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*t | t | t | |
one | *te̝bɔ | ˈtebo | ˈtiba |
bird | *t[e̝]b[o̝]ɾ[e̝] | teˈboɾe | |
put down | *tɛ- | te- | te- |
run | *tuɾ[ɛ/a]h- | tuɾah- | tuɾeh- |
cough | *igut- | iʔut- | igut- |
wet | *[a]bo̝ta[he] | boˈtahe | abuˈta |
fight (v.) | *ute̝d- | ted- | utit- |
blunt/dull | *utu | utu | utu |
fish | *maita | maita | |
moon | *batɔ | ˈbato | ˈbato |
When preceded by high mid vowel /*e̝/, /*t/ is fricated to [*s], yielding a new phoneme /s/ in Uare and deoccluding to merge with /*h/ in Humene:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*-t-/e̝_ | h | s | |
belly | *e̝ti | eˈhi | iˈsi |
bone | *e̝tinɛ | eˈhine | iˈsine |
wing | *e̝taɣa | ˈhaβa | iˈsaɣa |
smoke | *ɣe̝ti | βehi | ˈɣisi |
Velar voiceless stop /*k/ is uncommon. It is reflected as glottal stop /ʔ/ in Uare:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*k | k | ʔ | |
break wood | *kakan- | kakan- | ʔaʔan- |
elbow | *kakuʔa | kaˈkuʔa | ˈʔaʔuʔa |
bark of tree | *kɔga | koka sic] | oga |
sand | *nikuɾi | niˈkuɾi | niˈʔuɾi |
Glottal stop /*ʔ/ is generally retained as such in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*ʔ | ʔ | ʔ [ʔ ø] | |
chest | *ɔʔɔnɛ | oˈʔone | ˈone |
below | *[ʔ]o̝ʔu[wi]ɔ | oʔuβio | ʔuʔuo |
top of tree | *mɔʔa | moʔa- | moʔa- |
push | *do̝ʔin- | doʔin- | duʔin- |
elbow | *kakuʔa | kaˈkuʔa | ˈʔaʔuʔa |
make hole | *hɔʔ- | oʔ- | hoʔ- |
cut rope | *waɾe̝ʔ- | βaɾeʔ- | βaɾiʔ- |
There are no unambiguous examples of initial glottal stop /*ʔ/, though this could just mean that it was not heard.
Biliabial voiced stop /*b/ is retained as such in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*b | b | b | |
sew up | *bibi | bibiʒ- | bibi- |
crooked | *bɛɔ | ˈbeo | ˈbeo |
moon | *batɔ | ˈbato | ˈbato |
thick | *baɾu | ˈbaɾu | ˈbaɾu |
lie down/sleep | *baj- | baʒ- | baʒ- |
yellow | *bɔɾa | ˈboɾa- | boˈɾa- |
star | *bɔjɔɣa | boˈʒoβa | boˈʒoɣa |
path | *e̝bi | ˈebi | ˈibi |
draw water | *ab- | aβ- [sic] | ab- |
pig | *aba | ˈaba | ˈaba |
daughter | *abɔɛ | aˈboe | aˈboe |
wet | *[a]bo̝ta | boˈta- | abuˈta |
son | *o̝bu | oˈbu | uˈbu |
eye | *ubuma | uˈbuma | uˈbuma |
vomit | *mibuhɛd- | mibuhed- | mibuhet- |
one | *te̝bɔ | ˈtebo | ˈtiba |
fence | *ɣabe̝ɾe̝ | waˈbeɾe | ɣaˈbiɾi |
Apical voiced stop /*d/ is retained as such in both languages. It is much more common medially than initially:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*d | d | d | |
straight | *do̝do̝ | ˈdodo- | duˈdu- |
push | *do̝ʔin- | doʔin- | duʔin- |
sore | *e̝de̝ɾe̝ | eˈdeɾe | iˈdiɾi |
this | *adi | ida ~ ada | adi |
heavy | *adu | aˈdu- | aˈdu- |
sky | *aduɾɛ | aˈduɾe | aˈduɾe |
chop wood | *ɔd- | od- | od- |
foot/leg | *ɔda | ˈoda | ˈida |
cooked | *ɔd[a/ɔ] | oˈda | oˈdo- |
cassowary | *o̝de̝ | ˈode | ˈudi |
fight (v.) | *ute̝d- | ted- | utit- |
three | *uɣidu | iˈβidu | uˈɣidu |
vomit | *mibuhɛd- | mibuhed- | mibuhet- |
mosquito | *mudiɾɛ | muˈdiɾe | muˈdiɾe |
sun/day | *maˈda | maˈda | maˈda |
taro | *mudɛ | ˈmude | ˈmude |
stone | *hadi | ˈhadi | ˈhadi |
kill | *w[ai]no̝d- | βainod- | βenod- |
Voiced velar /*g/ is reflected as /ʔ/ in Humene, or initially as zero. It was sometimes heard as [k] in Uare, where /*k/ has become glottal stop:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*g- | ø | g [g k] | |
hot | *gɛge̝ | eʔe | ˈgegi |
bury | *go̝ɾi- | oɾiʒ- | kuɾ- |
*-g- | ʔ | g [g k ɣ h] | |
2 sg. obj. | *-ga | -ʔa | |
attributive | *-ga | -ʔai | -ga |
hair/feather | *igu | ˈiʔu | ˈiku |
cough | *igut- | iʔut- | igut- |
sick/illness | *o̝gi | oʔi- | uˈɣi- |
older brother | *nɛgɔ(-hɛ) | neˈʔo-he | ˈneko |
what? | *nage̝(-ni) | naˈʔe(-ni) | naˈgini |
cold | *nagu | naʔu- | naˈhu- |
woman | *nɔgɔnɛ | noˈʔone | noˈɣone |
sugarcane | *hagi | ˈhaʔi | ˈhagi |
smell (tr.) | *hɔhɔg- | hohoʔ- | hohog- |
break (tr.) | *wahɛg- | βaheʔ- | βaheg- |
scratch | *ɣugi[t/s]- | βuʔit- | ɣukis- |
It may be seen that initial /*g/ is only clearly attested in two words, in keeping with the lenition of Owen Stanley Range initial /*g/ to Humene-Uare /*ɣ/. One of these, /*go̝ɾi/ “bury,” is a loan from the Central Papuan subfamily of Oceanic (cf. Motu /guri/.)
Bilabial fricative /*ɸ/ is retained as such in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*ɸ | ɸ | ɸ | |
throw | *ɸ[ewu]n- | ɸin- | ɸeun- |
long | *ɸa | ˈɸa | ˈɸa |
laugh | *ɛɣɔɸ- | eβeɸ- | eɣoɸ- |
grass skirt | *aɸa[n/ɾ]ɛ | aˈɸane | aˈɸaɾe |
fly (n.) | *ɔɸɛnɛ | oˈɸene | oˈɸene |
fly (v.) | *ɾaɸe̝- | laɸeʒ- | laɸi-an- |
wide/palm/sole | *ɾaɸa | ɾaˈɸa- | ɾaˈɸa- |
Unoccluded fricative /*h/ is retained as such in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*h | h | h | |
shoulder | *hɛɾa | heˈɾa | ˈheɾa |
stone | *hadi | ˈhadi | ˈhadi |
sugarcane | *hagi | ˈhaʔi | ˈhagi |
banana | *hajɔ | ˈhaʒo | ˈhaʒo |
make hole | *hɔʔ- | oʔ- [sic] | hoʔ- |
smell (tr.) | *hɔhɔg- | hohoʔ- | hohog- |
call out | *huwan- | huβan- | huan- |
suffix on sibs | *-hɛ | -he | -he |
skin | *ahe̝ɾe̝ | aˈheɾe | aˈhiɾi |
two | *ahɛu | aˈheu | aˈheu |
man/husband | *ɔhɔjɛ | oˈhoʒe | oˈhoʒe |
deaf | *o̝hu | ohu | uhu |
vomit | *mibuhɛd- | mibuhed- | mibuhet- |
yam | *mahɔ | maˈho | ˈmaho |
netbag | *nihaɾɛ | niˈhaɾe | niˈhaɾa |
run | *tuɾ[ɛ/a]h- | tuɾah- | tuɾeh- |
break (tr.) | *wahɛg- | βaheʔ- | βaheg- |
joke (v.) | *ɣe̝ɾih- | βeɾih- | ɣiɾih- |
cook | *ɣɔɾɔh- | βoɾoh- | ɣoɾoh- |
Bilabial non-stop /*w/ is occluded to [β] in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*w | β | β | |
bite | *winɔh-~wihɔn- | βinoh- | βihon- |
wash self | *wiɾ- | βiɾ- | βiɾ- |
areca nut | *we̝ni | βini | βeni |
hungry | *we̝ne̝- | βini- | βene- |
arrow | *wainɛ | ˈβaine | ˈβaine |
kill | *w[aji]no̝d- | βainod- | βenod- |
break (tr.) | *wahɛg- | βaheʔ- | βaheg- |
cut rope | *waɾe̝ʔ- | βaɾeʔ- | βaɾiʔ- |
man | *wajɛ | ˈβaʒe | ˈβaʒe |
look for | *waɣ- | βaβ- | βaɣ- |
water | *wɔu | ˈβou | ˈβou |
hand/arm | *ɛwɔɾɛ | eˈβoɾe | eˈβoɾe |
tail | *awa | aˈβa | aˈβa-ɣa |
singsing | *jawɔ | ˈʒaβo | ˈʒaβo |
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is retained as such in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*ɾ | ɾ [r l] | ɾ [r l] | |
fly (v.) | *ɾafe̝- | laɸeʒ- | lafi-an- |
wide/palm/sole | *ɾaɸa- | ɾaˈɸa- | ɾaˈɸa- |
blood | *ɾɔo̝ | ɾoˈo | ˈɾoˈu |
leaf | *ɾɔV | loa | ɾou |
fire/firewood | *iɾɛ | ˈiɾe | iɾe |
navel | *e̝mo̝ɾe̝ | eˈmoɾe | iˈmuɾi |
new | *ɛɾi- | ˈeɾi- | iʒi- [sic] |
sore | *e̝de̝ɾe̝ | eˈdeɾe | iˈdiɾi |
hand/arm | *ɛwɔɾɛ | eˈβoɾe | eˈβoɾe |
sky | *aduɾɛ | aˈduɾe | aˈduɾe |
skin | *ahe̝ɾe̝ | aˈheɾe | aˈhiɾi |
white | *o̝ɾo̝ | oˈɾo- | uˈɾu- |
mosquito | *mudiɾɛ | muˈdiɾe | muˈdiɾe |
thick | *baɾu | ˈbaɾu | ˈbaɾu |
yellow | *bɔɾa | ˈboɾa- | boˈɾa- |
sand | *nikuɾi | niˈkuɾi | niˈʔuɾi |
netbag | *nihaɾɛ | niˈhaɾe | niˈhaɾa |
run | *tuɾ[ɛ/a]h- | tuɾah- | tuɾeh- |
bury | *go̝ɾi- | oɾiʒ- | kuɾ- |
shoulder | *hɛɾa | heˈɾa | ˈheɾa |
wash | *wiɾ- | βiɾ- | βiɾ- |
cut rope | *waɾe̝ʔ- | βaɾeʔ | βaɾiʔ- |
snake | *jaɾama | ʒaˈɾama | |
nose | *jajɔɾɛ | ʒaˈʒoɾe | ʒaˈʒoɾe |
joke (v.) | *ɣe̝ɾih- | βeɾih- | ɣiɾih- |
fence | *ɣabe̝ɾe̝ | waˈbeɾe | ɣaˈbiɾi |
back | *ɣaɾɔnɛ | βaˈɾone | ɣaˈɾone |
Palatal non-stop /*j/ is occluded to [ʒ] in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*j | ʒ | ʒ | |
thin | *je̝ɣi | ˈʒeβi-ʔai | ˈʒiɣi-a |
3 pl. | *jɛ | ʒe | ˈʒe(-ɣe) |
2 pl. | *ja | ʒa | ˈʒa(-ɣe) |
heart | *jamama | ʒaˈmama | ʒaˈmama |
singsing | *jawɔ | ˈʒaβo | ˈʒaβo |
snake | *jaɾama | ʒaˈɾama | |
nose | *jajɔɾɛ | ʒaˈʒoɾe | ʒaˈʒoɾe |
2/3 pl. obj. | *-ja | -ʒa | |
older sister | *ɛjɛ(-hɛ) | eˈʒe-he | eˈʒe(-he) |
branch | *ɛja | eˈʒa- | eˈʒa- |
man/husband | *ɔhɔjɛ | oˈhoʒe | oˈhoʒe |
lie down/sleep | *baj- | baʒ- | baʒ- |
star | *bɔjɔɣa | boˈʒoβa | boˈʒoɣa |
banana | *hajɔ | ˈhaʒo | ˈhaʒo |
man | *wajɛ | ˈβaʒe | ˈβaʒe |
cloud/fog | *ɣɔjɛ | ˈβoʒe | ˈɣoʒe |
Velar non-stop /*ɣ/ has merged with the reflex of /*w/ [β] (above) in Humene:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*ɣ | β | ɣ | |
smoke | *ɣe̝ti | ˈβehi | ˈɣisi |
joke (v.) | *ɣe̝ɾih- | βeɾih- | ɣiɾih- |
2 sg. | *ɣa | βa | ˈɣa |
chin/jaw | *ɣaɛnɛ | ˈβaene | ˈɣaene |
fence | *ɣabe̝ɾe̝ | aˈbeɾe | ɣaˈbiɾi |
back | *ɣaɾɔnɛ | βaˈɾone | ɣaˈɾone |
tooth | *ɣɔnɔnɛ | βoˈnone | ɣoˈnone |
see | *ɣɔdɔn- | βodon- | ɣoɾon- |
cook | *ɣɔɾɔh- | βoɾoh- | ɣoɾoh- |
cloud/fog | *ɣɔjɛ | ˈβoʒe | ˈɣoʒe |
dog | *ɣo̝ni | βoni; ɣone [jc] | ˈɣuni |
scratch | *ɣugi[t/s]- | βuʔit- | ɣukis- |
attributive | *-ɣa | -βa(i) | -ɣa |
look for | *waɣ- | βaβ- | βaɣ- |
get up/stand up | *iɣun- | iβun- | iɣun- |
wing | *e̝taɣa | ˈhaβa | iˈsaɣa |
laugh | *ɛɣɔɸ- | eβeɸ- | eɣoɸ- |
three | *uɣidu | iˈβidu | uˈɣidu |
egg | *maɣa | ˈmaβa | ˈmaɣa |
mountain | *maɣa | ˈmaβa | ˈmaɣa |
star | *bɔjɔɣa | boˈʒoβa | boˈʒoɣa |
look for | *waɣ- | βaβ- | βaɣ- |
thin | *je̝ɣi | ˈʒeβi | ˈʒiɣi |
Chalmer's [ɣone] “dog” (Ray 1907: 396) suggests this merger to be quite recent in origin.
High front vowel /*i/ is retained as such in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*i | i | i | |
fat/grease | *i | i | i |
fire/firewood | *iɾɛ | ˈiɾe | iɾe |
hair/feather | *igu | ˈiʔu | ˈiku |
cough | *igut- | iʔut- | igut- |
get up/stand up | *iɣun- | iβun- | iɣun- |
kunai grass | *e̝mi | emi | imi |
path | *e̝bi | ˈebi | ˈibi |
belly | *e̝ti | eˈhi | iˈsi |
bone | *e̝tinɛ | eˈhine | iˈsine |
new | *ɛɾi- | ˈeɾi- | iʒi- [sic] |
3 sg. | *ani | ˈani | ˈani |
this | *adi | ida ~ ada | adi |
sick/illness | *o̝gi | oʔi- | uˈɣi- |
three | *uɣidu | iˈβidu | uˈɣidu |
vomit | *mibuhɛd- | mibuhed- | mibuhet- |
rope/string | *mɛni | meni | meni |
fish | *maita | maita | |
thigh | *maninɛ | maˈnine | maˈnine |
mosquito | *mudiɾɛ | muˈdiɾe | muˈdiɾe |
sew up | *bibi | bibiʒ- | bibi- |
name | *ni | ni | ni |
sand | *nikuɾi | niˈkuɾi | niˈʔuɾi |
netbag | *nihaɾɛ | niˈhaɾe | niˈhaɾa |
weep/cry | *ni[j]an- | niʒan- | nian- |
bird | *ne̝ni | neni [jc] | ˈnini |
what? | *nage̝ni | naʔeni | naˈgini |
push | *do̝ʔin- | doʔin- | duʔin- |
bury | *go̝ɾi- | oɾiʒ- | kuɾ- |
below | *[ʔ]o̝ʔu[wi]ɔ | oʔuβio | ʔuʔuo |
stone | *hadi | ˈhadi | ˈhadi |
sugarcane | *hagi | ˈhaʔi | ˈhagi |
bite | *winɔh-~wihɔn- | βinoh- | βihon- |
wash | *wiɾ- | βiɾ- | βiɾ- |
areca nut | *we̝ni | βeni | βini |
thin | *je̝ɣi | ˈʒeβi-ʔai | ˈʒiɣi-a |
arrow | *wainɛ | ˈβaine | ˈβaine |
smoke | *ɣe̝ti | βehi | ˈɣisi |
joke (v.) | *ɣe̝ɾih- | βeɾih- | ɣiɾih- |
dog | *ɣo̝ni | βoni | ˈɣuni |
scratch | *ɣugi[t/s]- | βuʔit- | ɣukis- |
High back vowel /*u/ is retained as such in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*u | u | u | |
hair/feather | *igu | ˈiʔu | ˈiku |
cough | *igut- | iʔut- | igut- |
get up/stand up | *iɣun- | iβun- | iɣun- |
who? | *e̝nu | enu | ˈiniu |
heavy | *adu | aˈdu- | aˈdu- |
sky | *aduɾɛ | aˈduɾe | aˈduɾe |
two | *ahɛu | aˈheu | aˈheu |
son | *o̝bu | oˈbu | uˈbu |
throat/swallow | *o̝nu | oˈno ~ onuβ- | ˈunu ~ un- |
deaf | *o̝hu | ohu | uhu |
eye | *ubuma | uˈbuma | uˈbuma |
fight (v.) | *ute̝d- | ted- | utit- |
blunt/dull | *utu | utu | utu |
three | *uɣidu | iˈβidu | uˈɣidu |
vomit | *mibuhɛd- | mibuhed- | mibuhet- |
mosquito | *mudiɾɛ | muˈdiɾe | muˈdiɾe |
taro | *mudɛ | ˈmude | ˈmude |
thick | *baɾu | ˈbaɾu | ˈbaɾu |
sand | *nikuɾi | niˈkuɾi | niˈʔuɾi |
where? | *nau | nau | nou |
cold | *nagu | naʔu- | naˈhu- |
breast | *nuunɛ | nuˈune | nuˈne |
run | *tuɾ[ɛ/a]h- | tuɾah- | tuɾeh- |
elbow | *kakuʔa | kaˈkuʔa | ˈʔaʔuʔa |
below | *[ʔ]o̝ʔu[wi]ɔ | oʔuβio | ʔuʔuo |
call out | *huwan- | huβan- | huan- |
water | *wɔu | ˈβou | ˈβou |
scratch | *ɣugi[t/s]- | βuʔit- | ɣukis- |
High mid front vowel /*e̝/ is reflected as /e/ in Humene and as /i/ in Uare:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*e̝ | e | i | |
kunai grass | *e̝mi | emi | imi |
navel | *e̝mo̝ɾe̝ | eˈmoɾe | iˈmuɾi |
path | *e̝bi | ˈebi | ˈibi |
who? | *e̝nu | enu | ˈiniu |
belly | *e̝ti | eˈhi | iˈsi |
bone | *e̝tinɛ | eˈhine | iˈsine |
wing | *e̝taɣa | ˈhaβa | iˈsaɣa |
sore | *e̝de̝ɾe̝ | eˈdeɾe | iˈdiɾi |
skin | *ahe̝ɾe̝ | aˈheɾe | aˈhiɾi |
cassowary | *o̝de̝ | ˈode | ˈudi |
fight (v.) | *ute̝d- | ted- | utit- |
bird | *ne̝ni | neni [jc] | ˈnini |
what? | *nage̝(-ni) | naˈʔe(-ni) | naˈgini |
one | *te̝bɔ | ˈtebo | ˈtiba |
hot | *gɛge̝ | eʔe | ˈgegi |
areca nut | *we̝ni | βeni | βini |
hungry | *we̝ne̝ | βene | ˈβini |
cut rope | *waɾe̝ʔ- | βaɾeʔ- | βaɾiʔ- |
fly (v.) | *ɾaɸe̝- | laɸeʒ- | laɸi-an- |
smoke | *ɣe̝ti | βehi | ˈɣisi |
joke (v.) | *ɣe̝ɾih- | βeɾih- | ɣiɾih- |
fence | *ɣabe̝ɾe̝ | waˈbeɾe | ɣaˈbiɾi |
High mid back vowel /*o̝/ is reflected as /o/ in Humene and as /u/ in Uare:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*o̝ | o | u | |
navel | *e̝mo̝ɾe̝ | eˈmoɾe | iˈmuɾi |
wet | *[a]bo̝ta[he] | boˈtahe | abuˈta |
son | *o̝bu | oˈbu | uˈbu |
throat/swallow | *o̝nu | oˈno ~ onuβ- | ˈunu ~ un- |
cassowary | *o̝de̝ | ˈode | ˈudi |
sick/illness | *o̝gi | oʔi- | uˈɣi- |
deaf | *o̝hu | ohu | uhu |
white | *o̝ɾo̝ | oˈɾo- | uˈɾu- |
straight | *do̝do̝ | ˈdodo- | duˈdu- |
push | *do̝ʔin- | doʔin- | duʔin- |
bury | *go̝ɾi- | oɾiʒ- | kuɾ- |
below | *[ʔ]o̝ʔu[wi]ɔ | oʔuβio | ʔuʔuo |
blood | *ɾɔo̝ | ɾoˈo | ˈɾoˈu |
thin | *je̝ɣi | ˈʒeβi-ʔai | ˈʒiɣi-a |
dog | *ɣo̝ni | βoni | ˈɣuni |
Mid front vowel /*ɛ/ is reflected as /e/ in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*ɛ | e | e | |
fire/firewood | *iɾɛ | ˈiɾe | iɾe |
bone | *e̝tinɛ | eˈhine | iˈsine |
1 pl. | *ɛmɛ | ˈeme | eˈme-ɣe |
new | *ɛɾi- | ˈeɾi- | iʒi- [sic] |
laugh | *ɛɣɔɸ- | eβeɸ- | eɣoɸ- |
older sister | *ɛjɛ(-hɛ) | eˈʒe-he | eˈʒe(-he) |
branch | *ɛja | eˈʒa- | eˈʒa- |
hand/arm | *ɛwɔɾɛ | eˈβoɾe | eˈβoɾe |
daughter | *abɔɛ | aˈboe | aˈboe |
grass skirt | *aɸa[n/ɾ]ɛ | aˈɸane | aˈɸaɾe |
sky | *aduɾɛ | aˈduɾe | aˈduɾe |
two | *ahɛu | aˈheu | aˈheu |
fly (n.) | *ɔɸɛnɛ | oˈɸene | oˈɸene |
chest | *ɔʔɔnɛ | oˈʔone | ˈone |
man/husband | *ɔhɔjɛ | oˈhoʒe | oˈhoʒe |
vomit | *mibuhɛd- | mibuhed- | mibuhet- |
rope/string | *mɛni | meni | meni |
not | *mɛnɛ | mene | mene |
thigh | *maninɛ | maˈnine | maˈnine |
tounge | *majanɛ | maˈnane [sic] | maˈʒane |
mosquito | *mudiɾɛ | muˈdiɾe | muˈdiɾe |
taro | *mudɛ | ˈmude | ˈmude |
crooked | *bɛɔ | ˈbeo | ˈbeo |
netbag | *nihaɾɛ | niˈhaɾe | niˈhaɾa |
house/village | *nɛ | ne | ˈne |
older brother | *nɛgɔ(-hɛ) | neˈʔo-he | ˈneko |
louse | *nɔmɔnɛ | noˈmone | noˈmone |
woman | *nɔgɔnɛ | noˈʔone | noɣone |
breast | *nuunɛ | nuˈune | nuˈne |
put down | *tɛ- | te- | te- |
hot | *gɛge̝ | eʔe | ˈgegi |
suffix on sibs | *-hɛ | -he | -he |
shoulder | *hɛɾa | heˈɾa | ˈheɾa |
cloud/fog | *ɣɔjɛ | ˈβoʒe | ˈɣoʒe |
arrow | *wainɛ | ˈβaine | ˈβaine |
break (tr.) | *wahɛg- | βaheʔ- | βaheg- |
man | *wajɛ | ˈβaʒe | ˈβaʒe |
3 pl. | *jɛ | ʒe | ˈʒe(-ɣe) |
nose | *jajɔɾɛ | ʒaˈʒoɾe | ʒaˈʒoɾe |
chin/jaw | *ɣaɛnɛ | ˈβaene | ˈɣaene |
back | *ɣaɾɔnɛ | βaˈɾone | ɣaˈɾone |
tooth | *ɣɔnɔnɛ | βoˈnone | ɣoˈnone |
Mid back vowel /*ɔ/ is reflected as /o/ in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*ɔ | o | o | |
laugh | *ɛɣɔɸ- | eβeɸ- | eɣoɸ- |
hand/arm | *ɛwɔɾɛ | eˈβoɾe | eˈβoɾe |
daughter | *abɔɛ | aˈboe | aˈboe |
that | *ɔmɔ | omo | omo |
fly (n.) | *ɔɸɛnɛ | oˈɸene | oˈɸene |
come | *ɔna- | ona- | ona- |
walk/go | *ɔnam- | onam- | onam- |
chop wood | *ɔd- | od- | od- |
foot/leg | *ɔda | ˈoda | ˈida |
cooked | *ɔd[a/ɔ] | oˈda | oˈdo- |
chest | *ɔʔɔnɛ | oˈʔone | ˈone |
man/husband | *ɔhɔjɛ | oˈhoʒe | oˈhoʒe |
top of tree | *mɔʔa | moʔa- | moˈʔa- |
crooked | *bɛɔ | ˈbeo | ˈbeo |
moon | *batɔ | ˈbato | ˈbato |
yellow | *bɔɾa | ˈboɾa- | boˈɾa- |
star | *bɔjɔɣa | boˈʒoβa | boˈʒoɣa |
older brother | *nɛgɔ(-hɛ) | neˈʔo-he | ˈneko |
louse | *nɔmɔnɛ | noˈmone | noˈmone |
woman | *nɔgɔnɛ | noˈʔone | noɣone |
one | *te̝bɔ | ˈtebo | ˈtiba |
bark of tree | *kɔga | koka sic] | oga |
banana | *hajɔ | ˈhaʒo | ˈhaʒo |
make hole | *hɔʔ- | oʔ- | hoʔ- |
smell (tr.) | *hɔhɔg- | hohoʔ- | hohog- |
bite | *winɔh-~wihɔn- | βinoh- | βihon- |
kill | *w[ai]nɔd- | βainod- | βenod- |
water | *wɔu | ˈβou | ˈβou |
blood | *ɾɔo̝ | ɾoˈo | ˈɾoˈu |
leaf | *ɾɔV | loa | ɾou |
nose | *jajɔɾɛ | ʒaˈʒoɾe | ʒaˈʒoɾe |
singsing | *jawɔ | ˈʒaβo | ˈʒaβo |
back | *ɣaɾɔnɛ | βaˈɾone | ɣaˈɾone |
tooth | *ɣɔnɔnɛ | βoˈnone | ɣoˈnone |
see | *ɣɔdɔn | βodon- | horon- |
cook | *ɣɔɾɔh- | βoɾoh- | ɣoɾoh- |
cloud/fog | *ɣɔjɛ | ˈβoʒe | ˈɣoʒe |
Low central vowel /*a/ is retained as such in both languages:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*a | a | a | |
wing | *e̝taɣa | ˈhaβa | iˈsaɣa |
branch | *ɛja | eˈʒa- | eˈʒa- |
draw water | *ab- | aβ- [sic] | ab- |
pig | *aba | ˈaba | ˈaba |
daughter | *abɔɛ | aˈboe | aˈboe |
wet | *[a]bo̝ta[he] | boˈtahe | abuˈta |
grass skirt | *aɸa[n/ɾ]ɛ | aˈɸane | aˈɸaɾe |
eat | *an- | an- | an- |
3 sg. | *ani | ˈani | ˈani |
this | *adi | ida ~ ada | adi |
heavy | *adu | aˈdu- | aˈdu- |
sky | *aduɾɛ | aˈduɾe | aˈduɾe |
skin | *ahe̝ɾe̝ | aˈheɾe | aˈhiɾi |
two | *ahɛu | aˈheu | aˈheu |
tail | *awa | aˈβa | aˈβa-ɣa |
come | *ɔna- | ona- | ona- |
walk/go | *ɔnam- | onam- | onam- |
foot/leg | *ɔda | ˈoda | ˈida |
eye | *ubuma | uˈbuma | uˈbuma |
father | *ma | ˈma-ka | ˈma-ma |
take | *ma- | ma- | ma- |
fish | *maita | maita | |
thigh | *maninɛ | maˈnine | maˈnine |
sun/day | *maˈda | maˈda | maˈda |
yam | *mahɔ | maˈho | ˈmaho |
tounge | *majanɛ | maˈnane [sic] | maˈʒane |
egg | *maɣa | ˈmaβa | ˈmaɣa |
mountain | *maɣa | ˈmaβa | ˈmaɣa |
top of tree | *mɔʔa | moʔa- | moˈʔa- |
moon | *batɔ | ˈbato | ˈbato |
thick | *baɾu | ˈbaɾu | ˈbaɾu |
lie down/sleep | *baj- | baʒ- | baʒ- |
yellow | *bɔɾa | ˈboɾa- | boˈɾa- |
star | *bɔjɔɣa | boˈʒoβa | boˈʒoɣa |
long | *ɸa | ˈɸa | ˈɸa |
netbag | *nihaɾɛ | niˈhaɾe | niˈhaɾa |
weep/cry | *ni[j]an- | niʒan- | nian- |
where? | *nau | nau | nou |
what? | *nage̝(-ni) | naˈʔe(-ni) | naˈgini |
cold | *nagu | naʔu- | naˈhu- |
break wood | *kakan- | kakan- | ʔaʔan- |
elbow | *kakuʔa | kaˈkuʔa | ˈʔaʔuʔa |
bark of tree | *kɔga | koka sic] | oga |
2 sg. obj. | *-ga | -ʔa | |
attributive | *-ga | -ʔa(i) | -ga |
shoulder | *hɛɾa | heˈɾa | ˈheɾa |
stone | *hadi | ˈhadi | ˈhadi |
sugarcane | *hagi | ˈhaʔi | ˈhagi |
banana | *hajɔ | ˈhaʒo | ˈhaʒo |
call out | *huwan- | huβan- | huan- |
arrow | *wainɛ | ˈβaine | ˈβaine |
break (tr.) | *wahɛg- | βaheʔ- | βaheg- |
cut rope | *waɾe̝ʔ- | βaɾeʔ- | βaɾiʔ- |
man | *wajɛ | ˈβaʒe | ˈβaʒe |
look for | *waɣ- | βaβ- | βaɣ- |
fly (v.) | *ɾaɸe̝- | laɸeʒ- | laɸi-an- |
wide/palm/sole | *ɾaɸa | ɾaˈɸa- | ɾaˈɸa- |
heart | *jamama | ʒaˈmama | ʒaˈmama |
snake | *jaɾama | ʒaˈɾama | |
nose | *jajɔɾɛ | ʒaˈʒoɾe | ʒaˈʒoɾe |
singsing | *jawɔ | ˈʒaβo | ˈʒaβo |
2 sg. | *ɣa | βa | ˈɣa |
attributive | *-ɣa | -βa(i) | -ɣa |
chin/jaw | *ɣaɛnɛ | ˈβaene | ˈɣaene |
fence | *ɣabe̝ɾe̝ | waˈbeɾe | ɣaˈbiɾi |
back | *ɣaɾɔnɛ | βaˈɾone | ɣaˈɾone |
2 pl. | *ja | ʒa | ˈʒa(-ɣe) |
[under construction]
The attributive suffix, found on adjectives and upon some conceptually dependent substantives, has three forms beginning with /*ɣ *g *ʔ/ respectively:
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
*-ɣa | -βa(i) | -ɣa | |
*-ga | -ʔa(i) | -ga | |
*-ʔa | -ʔa(i) | -ʔai |
As /*ɣ/ is known to reflect Owen Stanley Range initial /*(ŋ)g/, it's probable that the original form of the atributives was /*-(ŋ)ga/, and that its differing realizations depend upon final elements in the root which it follows; however, it's not immediately obvious what these elements might be.
The solution tentatively adopted here is based upon analogy to West Kainantu and Kratke Range “noun classes” (q.v. Bee 1965, 1973: 741-744, Lloyd 1969) which historically reflect dropped final segments and condition the realization of following consonants in a compound. This would require at least some final consonants or segments /*N(V) *C(V)/ to have been lost prior to proto-Humene-Uare, surfacing only in compounds of this kind:
final | attributive |
*ø | *-ɣa |
*N | *-ga |
*C | *-ʔa |
Loans from Central Papuan
[under construction]
…with attestations drawn from Dutton (1970: 926-950):
Motu | Sinaugoro | Keapara | Humene-Uare | |
thigh | manini- | *maninɛ | ||
yam | maɣo | *mahɔ | ||
tongue | mala- | mea- | mae- | *majanɛ |
taro | mude | *mudɛ | ||
yellow | labora | bora-bora | pola-pola | *bɔɾa |
one | tebona | kopuna | *te̝bɔ | |
white | kuro-kuro | kuro-kuro | kulo-kulo | *o̝ɾo̝ |
bury | guri- | guri- | kuli- | *go̝ɾi- |
chin/jaw | ɣare- | are- | *ɣaɛnɛ | |
eat | ani- | ɣani- | ani- | *an- |
In several examples above (e.g. “tongue”, “chin”) Uare-Humene has added a suffix /*-nɛ/ to the nominal root. We assume this to originate as the Central Papuan third person possessor /*-na/, although the reason for the change in vowel quality isnˈt known.
In light of the infrequency of velar voiceless stop /*k/ (above,) the example of “white” suggests that the regular reflex of pre-Humene-Uare /*k/ may be glottal stop /*ʔ/.
Pronouns
Proto-Humene-Uare free pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with attestations drawn from Dutton (1970: 922-923, 927):
Humene-Uare | Humene | Uare | |
1 sg. | *ɛ | ˈeme | ˈe-ɣe |
2 sg. | *ɣa | ˈβa | ˈɣa |
3 sg. | *ani | ˈani | ˈani |
1 pl. | *ɛmɛ | eˈm-one | eˈme-ɣe |
2 pl. | *ja | ʒa | ʒa(-ɣe) |
3 pl. | *jɛ | ʒe | ʒe(-ɣe) |
Humene's first person singular reflects the plural, which is then distinguished from the singular by the addition of a suffix [-one]. Second person plural [ʒa] is given also as an alternate form of the singular in Humene, recalling Doromu-Maria to the east in which Owen Stanley Range /*ja/ has entirely replaced singular /*ga/ (Humene-Uare /*ɣa/).
Verbal morphology
[under construction - not much is known]