Inland Gulf
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
The Inland Gulf family is comprised of six languages spoken in geographically separated enclaves inland of the Kiwai languages along the northwest coast of the Papuan Gulf in Papua New Guinea's Gulf and Western provinces.
Subclassification
The internal classification of Inland Gulf is as follows:
Inland Gulf
Ipiko
West Inland Gulf
Foia Foia
Hoia Hoia
Hoyahoya
Mahigi
Mubami
Franklin (1973: 270-271) provides lexicostatistical figures for five Inland Gulf vocabularies as follows, with Foia Foia represented by Franklin's Minanibai and Johnston's (1919-1920) Eme-eme and Mubami by Franklin's Tao-Suamato. The unrelated Karami language of Flint (1917-1918) is included due to a large number of loans from Foia Foia:
Ipiko | Minanibai | Eme-eme | Mahigi | T.-Suamato | Karami | |
Ipiko | — | 36 | 44 | 42 | 14 | 20 |
Minanibai | 20 | — | 44 | 42 | 39 | 17 |
Eme-eme | 44 | 44 | — | 21 | 24 | 36 |
Mahigi | 42 | 42 | 21 | — | 38 | 15 |
T.-Suamato | 14 | 39 | 24 | 38 | — | 11 |
Karami | 36 | 17 | 36 | 15 | 11 | — |
Sources
Johnston (1919-1920: 120) 120 comparative terms for Eme-eme (Foia Foia) of Korariperamesina or Pepeha village
Cridland (1923-1924: 58) 130 comparative terms for Mahigi
Chance (1925-1926: 91) 131 comparative terms for Ipiko of Amipoki village
Franklin (1973: 270-273) miscellaneous notes including lexicostatistics, phonological observations and pronouns for Ipiko (Ibigo,) Minanibai (Foia Foia) and Tao-Suamato (Mubami)
Franklin ed. (1973: 577-578,) Franklin (1975: 264-268) 100 comparative terms for Ipiko, Minanibai and Tao-Suamato
Reesink (1976: 31-34) 100 comparative terms for Tao-Suamato
Reesink (n.d.) survey vocabulary of Tao-Suamato provided in comparative spreadsheet format by Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics, Ukarumpa
Carr (1991) 120 comparative terms for Foyafoya of Bibisa village, Hoyahoya of Matakia and Hoia Hoia of Ukusi-Kaperami
Carr (1991) 99 comparative terms for Ipiko, Minanibai and Mubami
Carr (2006) sketch phonology of Hoyahoya
Carr (2006) 164 comparative terms and 20 comparative phrases for Pepeha village (Foia Foia)
Carr (2006) sketch phonology of Hoyahoya
MacKenzie (2002) 176 comparative terms and 19 comparative phrases for Mubami of Ugu/Kala, Parieme and Sogae villages
Petterson (2002) 170 comparative terms and 2 comparative phrases for the Eva dialect of Ipiko
Petterson (2007: 17-32) 971 terms for Eva of Pakeuaba village
Petterson (2014) 204 comparative terms and 26 comparative phrases for Foeafoea of Bibisa village
Petterson (2014) notes on Eva grammar
Petterson (2014) dictionary of Eva and Ibigo
Allen and Keneqa (2006) sketch phonology of Foia Foia with no glosses
History of classification
Franklin (1968: 27-28) recognizes West Inland Gulf as Bamu-Turaman Family including Pepeha, Mahigi and Karami. Denies relationship to Kikori River. Ipiko (Ipikoi) (p. 28-29) unclassified isolate.
Franklin (1973: 269-272) Ipiko added to form Inland Gulf.
Franklin (1975: 861) Inland Gulf sub-phylum level stock in Trans New Guinea phylum with special relationship to Kikori River (Turama-Kikorian) as well as Central and South New Guinea Stock.
Greenberg (1971: 829,) misled by the presence of loans in both directions, included the Inland Gulf languages in his Kiwai subgroup of South New Guinea; this placement was sharply contested by Franklin (1973: 382-383.)
Historical phonology
[under construction]
Proto-Inland Gulf had 13 or 14 consonants and at least 5 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | ||
*p | *t | *k | |
*b | *d | *g | |
*ɸ | *s | ||
*w | [*ɾ] | *j | *ɣ̃ |
*i | *u | |
*e | *o | |
*a |
Neither final consonants nor consonant clusters occur.
Stress appears to have been contrastive (cf. /*ka'ɸuto/ “smoke” vs. /*gene'ɸo/ “bandicoot”) but has not been reconstructed below.
Intial consonants correspond as follows:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami |
*m- | m | m | m | m | m | m |
*n- | n | n | n | n | n | n |
*p- | p | p | p | p | p | p |
*t- | t | t | t | t | t | t |
*k- | ø | k | k | k | k | ø |
*b- | b | b | b | b | b | b |
*d- | d | d | d | d | d | d |
*d-/_iV | d | d | g | g | ? | d |
*g- | g | g | g | g | g | g |
*ɸ- | h | ɸ | h | h | h | ɸ |
*s- | h | s | h | h | h | s |
*w- | v | w | w | w | w | w |
*w-/_i | ? | w | w | w | ? | b |
*j- | h/ɾ | ɾ | l | l | d | d |
*j-/_VN | ? | n | n | n | ? | d |
*ɣ̃- | v | ɣ̃ | g | w | g | g |
Medial consonants correspond as follows:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami |
*-m- | m | m | m | m | m | m |
*-n- | n | n | n | n | ɾ | l |
*-p- | p | p | p | p | p | p |
*-t- | t | t | t | t | t | t |
*-k- | ʔ | k | k | k | k | ʔ |
*-b- | b | b | b | b | b | b |
*-d- | d | d | d | d | d | d |
*-g- | g | g | g | g | g | g |
*-ɸ- | h | ɸ | h | h | h | ɸ |
*-s- | h | s | h | h | h | h |
*-w- | v | w | w | w | w | w |
[*-ɾ-] | ɾ | ɾ | l | l | ɾ | l |
*-j- | h/ɾ | ɾ | l | l | ? | l |
*-ɣ̃- | n | n | n | n | n | n |
*-ɣ̃-/mV_ | n | m | n | ? | ? | ? |
Vowels and vowel sequences correspond as follows:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami |
*i | i | i | i | i | i | i |
*u | u | u | u | u | u | u |
*e | e | e | e | e | e | e |
*o | o | o | o | o | o | o |
*a | a | a | a | a | a | a |
*eCi | ||||||
*eCu | ||||||
*aCi | ||||||
*aCu | ||||||
* | ||||||
* | ||||||
* | ||||||
* | ||||||
* | ||||||
* |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Ipiko attestations drawn from Petterson (2007: 17-32, 2014) unless otherwise indicated. Petterson's Ibigo dialect forms are indicated [ib]. Those drawn from Chance (1925-1926: 91) are indicated [sc]; those drawn from Franklin (1973: ) are indicated [kf]. Foia Foia forms are phonemicizations based upon Johnston's (1919-1920: 120) Eme-Eme, Franklin's (1973: 577-578) Minanibai, Carr's (1991) Foyafoya, Carr's (2006) Pepeha and Petterson's (2014) Foeafoea. Hoia Hoia attestations are drawn from Carr (1991.) Hoyahoya attestations are drawn from Carr (1991, 2006.) Mahigi attestations are drawn from Cridland (1923-1924: 58.) Mubami forms are phonemicizations based upon Franklin's (1973: 578) Tao-Suamato, Reesink's (1976: 31-34) Tao-Suamato and MacKenzie's (2002) Mubami.
West Inland Gulf forms unaccompanied by an Ipiko word and without outcomparisons may not have dated to proto-Inland Gulf, but are presented as Inland Gulf for the sake of convenience.
Bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*m- | m | m | m | m | m | m | |
two | *measi | mèáhì | masi | 'mahi | mahi | mahi | |
fire | *maɸi | maɸi | 'mahi | mahi | |||
pig | *maɸa | màhá | maɸa | 'maga | maʁa ~ ma'ha | ||
mouth | *maɣ̃oto | mānótò | mamoto | mo'noto | mogoto | ||
seed | *moko | momoko | (mo)'moko | momoko | momoʔo | ||
neck | *mogo | mògó | mogo | ||||
heart | *muki | múmúʔí | muʔi | ||||
*-m- | m | m | m | m | m | m | |
singular (m.) | *-eame | -eme | -ame | -ame | |||
singular (f.) | *-eamu | -emu | |||||
see | *[e]meto | emeto | |||||
spread mat | *[e]m[e]so | emeho | |||||
sing | *ami | ame | ami | ||||
girl | *ameno | ameno | amelo | ||||
come (sg.) | *amV | ama | -amo- | ||||
people | *animi | animi | |||||
man | *aneme | ànèméá | |||||
woman | *anumu | ànúmu | |||||
person | *ama | ama | ama | ami | ama | ||
seed | *momoko | momoko | mo'moko | momoko | momoʔo | ||
all | *bautVkumi | botakumi | batokime | bautoʔumi | |||
come | *bam- | -bam- | -bam- | ||||
sun | *nowumu | nowumu | nowumu | ||||
nape | *tumuku | tumuʔu | |||||
navel | *dukumu | duʔum-oni | dukumu | dukumu | |||
knee | *kemuku | ke'muku | ke'muku | omuʔu | |||
cold | *kokamo | kokamo | ko'kamo | ||||
big (m.) | *gamise | gamise | ga'mihe | ||||
big (n.) | *gamiso | gamiso | gamiho | ||||
thumb/five | *weak[e]mu | vēāʔúmú | wak[e]mu | wakumu | waʔumo | ||
bush fowl | *wak[o]m[o] | vaʔomo |
Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*n- | n | n | n | n | n | n | |
1 pl. | *ni | ní | ni | ni | ni | ni | |
skin | *nikopi | nikopi | ni'kopi | ni'kopi | niʔoɸi | ||
1 sg. obj. | *na- | na- | na- | na- | |||
banana | *napeto | nàpétò | napeɾo | napero | |||
excrement | *nag[e] | nage | |||||
mosquito | *n[a/o]ɣ̃iti | naniti | noniti | nonoti | noniti | ||
1 sg. | *no | nó | no | no | no | no | |
sun | *nowumu | nowumu | nowumu |
Medial /*n/ is denasalized to non-stop /ɾ/ in Mahigi and to lateral /l/ in Mubami:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*-n- | n | n | n | n | ɾ | l | |
leg | *idini | idini | idili | ||||
weep/cry | *iwino | ivino | |||||
meat | *ainu | ainu | ailu | ||||
girl | *ameno | ameno | amelo | ||||
people | *animi | animi | |||||
man | *aneme | ànèméá | |||||
woman | *anumu | ànúmu | |||||
get on (?) | *atino | atino | |||||
louse | *uani | úānì | uali | ||||
shoulder | *beno | bénò | beno | 'beno | 'beno | bero | belo |
lie down/sleep | *teno | ténô | telo | ||||
egg/seed | *kane | ánè | |||||
eye | *kuɸino | uhino | kuɸino | ku'hino | kuhino | kuhiru | uɸilo |
sand | *gini | gini | gili | ||||
bandicoot | *geneɸo | gènèhó | geneɸo | 'genoho | 'geneho | gerepo | geleɸo |
breast | *jono | nono | 'nono | 'nono | dolo |
Bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*p- | p | p | p | p | p | p | |
forearm | *pipiɣ̃i | pìpínì | pipini | pipini | pipini | ||
leaf | *peas[a/o] | pèhá | paso | ||||
vine/rope | *pai | pai | pai | ||||
dry | *paetV | paetV | patea | ||||
hot | *papato | pàpátò | papato | pa'pato | pa'pato | papato | |
ashes | *pawo | pavo | pawo | ||||
white ashes | *paɣ̃eɸ[o] | paneɸo | panɛhɛ | panehe | |||
*-p- | p | p | p | p | p | p | |
lip(s) | *itupu | imu tutupu | … | itaubo [sic] | |||
star | *op[o]po | o'popo [kf] | |||||
forearm | *pipiɣ̃i | pìpínì | pipini | pipini | pipini | ||
hot | *papato | pàpátò | papato | pa'pato | pa'pato | papato | |
banana | *napeto | nàpétò | napeɾo | napero | |||
foot/lower leg | *tepeje | tepeɾe | te'pele | ||||
fish/meat | *tope | tòpé | tope | to'pe | tope ~ topɛ | ||
knee | *kaipoki | aipoʔi ~ eipoʔi ipoʔi | kaipo | ||||
skin | *ko[j]ipo | oipo | kɔɾipɔ | ||||
night | *ɣ̃apo | vápò |
In one example, medial /*p/ is unexpectedly reflected as fricative /ɸ/ in MacKenzie's Mubami:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*-p- | ? | p | p | p | ? | ɸ | |
skin | *nikopi | nikopi | ni'kopi | ni'kopi | niʔoɸi |
Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*t- | t | t | t | t | t | t | |
root | *titi | tìtí | titi | ||||
foot/lower leg | *tepeje | tepeɾe | te'pele | ||||
lie down/sleep | *teno | ténô | telo | ||||
tooth | *ta | ta [ib] | ta | ||||
fire | *tae | tae | tairi | taeli | |||
fish/meat | *tope | tòpé | tope | to'pe | tope ~ topɛ | ||
ear | *tu | tu | tu- | ||||
nape | *tumuku | tumuʔu |
Medial /*t/ is sporadically lenited to [d r] in Hoyahoya and Mahigi:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*-t- | t | t | t | t [t r] | t [t d r] | t | |
sleep | *iboto | iboto | iboto | ||||
lip(s) | *itupu | imu tutupu | … | itaubo | |||
see | *[e]meto | emeto | |||||
3 pl. | *eti | ítì | eti | iti | eti | ||
3 sg. m. | *ete | étè | ete | 'ete | ete | ||
yellow | *eta | e'ta [rp] | eta | ||||
3 sg. n. | *eto | étò | eto | ||||
3 sg. f. | *etu | itu | etu | etu | |||
get on (?) | *atino | atino | |||||
mouth | *maɣ̃oto | mānótò | mamoto | mo'noto | mogoto | ||
dry | *paetV | paetV | patea | ||||
hot | *papato | pàpátò | papato | pa'pato | pa'pato | papato | |
chest | *bita | bìtá | bita | bita | bita | ||
all | *bautVkumi | botakumi | batokime | bautoʔumi | |||
earth/ground | *boti | boti | 'boti | bɔ'ti | boti | boti | |
wind | *ɸubato | hubato | ɸubato | ||||
egg | *ɸutu | utu | ɸutu | ||||
banana | *napeto | nàpétò | napeɾo | napero | |||
mosquito | *n[a/o]ɣ̃iti | naniti | noniti | nonoti | noniti | ||
root | *titi | tìtí | titi | ||||
shin | *dete | dete | dedi | ||||
old | *duta | duta | duta | duta | |||
smoke | *kaɸuto | ahuto | koɸuto | kohuto | kohuɾi | kahuri | oɸuto |
belly | *kuti | ùtí | kuti | 'kuti | ku'ti | uti | |
who? | *wotei | wotei | wo'tei | wɔtene | wotei |
Velar voiceless stop /*k/ is reflected as glottal stop /ʔ/, heard as zero initially, in Ipiko and in Mubami (Franklin 1973: 272):
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*k- | ø | k | k | k | k | ø | |
woman/wife | *kiɸa | kiɸa | 'kiha | kihaiu | iɸa | ||
woman/wife | *kiwaju | ìvóhi | kiwolu ~ ki'wɔɾu | ||||
knee | *kemuku | ke'muku | ke'muku | omuʔu | |||
knee | *kaipoki | aipoʔi ~ eipoʔi ipoʔi | … | ||||
egg/seed | *kane | ánè | |||||
areca nut | *ka[n/ɣ̃]io | anio | kanio | ||||
smoke | *kaɸuto | ahuto | koɸuto | kohuto | kohuɾi | kahuri | oɸuto |
cassowary | *koibo | koibo | 'koibo | 'koibo | |||
tongue | *koda | koda | koda | koda | oda | ||
cold | *kokamo | kokamo | ko'kamo | ||||
skin | *ko[j]ipo | oipo | kɔɾipɔ | ||||
belly | *kuti | ùtí | kuti | 'kuti | ku'ti | uti | |
*-k- | ʔ | k | k | k | k | ʔ | |
lime | *eka | eʔa | eka | ||||
seed | *moko | momoko | (mo)'moko | momoko | momoʔo | ||
heart | *muki | múmúʔí | muʔi | ||||
throat | *ɸoko | hoʔo | ɸoko | ho'kolɛ | ho'kolɛ | hokori | |
all | *bautVkumi | botakumi | batokime | bautoʔumi | |||
skin | *nikopi | nikopi | ni'kopi | ni'kopi | niʔoɸi | ||
nape | *tumuku | tumuʔu | |||||
heavy | *dioku | dioku | 'gʲoku | ki'oku | dioʔu | ||
bamboo | *diki | diʔi | diki | ||||
navel | *dukumu | duʔum-oni | dukumu | dukumu | |||
hand | *saki | haki | aki | saʔi | |||
knee | *kemuku | ke'muku | ke'muku | omuʔu | |||
cold | *kokamo | kokamo | ko'kamo | ||||
snake | *wike | wikewe | 'βike ~ 'wike | 'wike | biʔe | ||
thumb/five | *weak[e]mu | vēāʔúmú | wak[e]mu | wakumu | waʔumo | ||
bush fowl | *wak[o]m[o] | vaʔomo | |||||
night | *jika | ɾika | 'dikɔ | dikʷa ~ dika | di'ka | diʔa |
Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ ia retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*b- | b | b | b | b | b | b | |
chest | *bita | bìtá | bita | bita | bita | ||
shoulder | *beno | bénò | beno | 'beno | 'beno | bero | belo |
tooth | *bese | 'behe | behe ~ bɛhɛ | behe | behe | ||
come | *bam- | -bam- | -bam- | ||||
leaf | *basai | ba'hai | bahai | ||||
all | *bautVkumi | botakumi | batokime | bautoʔumi | |||
thigh | *boɸo | bóhò | boɸo | boɸo | |||
canoe | *bo[n/ɣ̃]io | bone | bonio | ||||
earth/ground | *boti | boti | 'boti | bɔ'ti | boti | boti | |
moon | *bubei | bubei | bubei | bubei | |||
*-b- | b | b | b | b | b | b | |
sleep | *iboto | iboto | iboto | ||||
fish | *ebi | ebi | ebi | ||||
wind | *ɸubato | hubato | ɸubato | ||||
cassowary | *koibo | koibo | 'koibo | 'koibo |
Apical voiced stop /*d/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*d- | d | d | d | d | d | d | |
bamboo | *diki | diʔi | diki | ||||
tree | *de | de | de | de | dɛ | de | de |
shin | *dete | dete | dedi | ||||
nose | *dasi | dahi | desi | 'dɛhi | 'dɛhi | dehi | dehi |
good (n.) | *dajo | daɾo | dalo | ||||
good (m.) | *dajoe | daɾoe | dale | ||||
sago | *dou | du | dou | ||||
afternoon | *dodoso | doɾoho | dodoho | ||||
yesterday | *doso | doho | doso | doho | 'doho | doho | |
old | *duta | duta | duta | duta | |||
navel | *dukumu | duʔum-oni | dukumu | dukumu | |||
*-d- | d | d | d | d [d ɾ] | d | d | |
leg | *idini | idini | idili | ||||
older brother(1) | *ade | (no-)ade | (no-)ede | ||||
short | *didiɸi[n/ɣ̃]o | didiɸino | didi'hino | didi'hino | |||
afternoon | *dodoso | doɾoho | dodoho | ||||
tongue | *koda | koda | koda | koda | oda |
…:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*d-/_i | d | d | g | g | ? | d | |
heavy | *dioku | dioku | 'gʲoku | ki'oku [sic] | dioʔu | ||
tomorrow | *di[o]ɸu | dihu | diɸu | 'gʲo'hu | diɸu |
Initial velar voiced stop /*g/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*g- | g | g | g | g | g | g | |
head | *gia | gia | gʲa | gʲa | gia | gia | |
new | *gia | gia[i]gewo | gʲagewo | gʲa | giala | ||
sand | *gini | gini | gili | ||||
bandicoot | *geneɸo | gènèhó | geneɸo | 'genoho | 'geneho | gerepo | geleɸo |
big (m.) | *gamise | gamise | ga'mihe | ||||
big (n.) | *gamiso | gamiso | gamiho | ||||
not | *gasai | gasai | ga'hai | gahai | |||
dog | *gaso | gáhò | gaso | 'gaho | 'gaho | gahola | gaho |
long | *g[a]ɾiwo | gàɾívò | goɾiwo | goli'goliwo | goligoliwo | golioliwo |
Medial /*g/ undergoes subphonemic lenition in Mubami, a development shared with the Kerewo and northeastern dialects of Kiwai (q.v. Shafer 1965: CITE):
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*-g- | g | g | g | g | g | g [g ɣ ø] | |
give | *-[a]go | -ago | -ago | -ag[o] | |||
water | *ogo | ògó | 'ogo | ||||
hear | *ug[i/e] | uge | -ugi- | -ugʲ- | -ugi- | -ugV- | |
neck | *mogo | mògó | mogo | ||||
excrement | *nag[e] | nage | |||||
cut up | *ɣ̃asugo | vahugo | |||||
path | *jigei | jigei | 'dige | 'digei | |||
name | *jiga | hìgá | ɾiga | 'ligɔ | li'ga | diga | |
one (n.) | *jaigio | ɾaigio | 'lagio | laigio | dago- | ||
one (m.) | *jaige | ɾaige | 'lage | lagei ~ -dage | |||
one (f.) | *jaigu | ɾaigu | |||||
cut up | *j[a]sugo | hahugo |
Unlike anterior voiced stops /*b *d/ which reflect Fly River prenasalized /*mb *nd/, Inland Gulf /*g/ probably cannot reflect /*ŋg/, which instead yields /*ɣ̃/ (below) both initially and medially. Only one example of /*g/, /*mogo/ “neck”, is known to have a potential outcomparison in Zimakani (Begua) [mɔŋgo] (Voorhoeve 1970: 11;) it seems simplest to assume this resemblance a coincidence.
Bilabial fricative /*ɸ/ is deccluded to /h/ in Ipiko, Hoia Hoia, Hoyahoya and Mahigi, and sporadically to /ɸ/ [h] in Mubami (Franklin 1973: 272):
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*ɸ- | h | ɸ | h | h | h [h ø] | ɸ | |
throat | *ɸoko | hoʔo | ɸoko | ho'kolɛ | ho'kolɛ | hokori | |
wind | *ɸubato | hubato | ɸubato | ||||
egg | *ɸutu | utu | ɸutu | ||||
*-ɸ- | h | ɸ | h | h | h | ɸ [ɸ h] | |
mountain | *iɸia | iɸia | iɸia | ||||
house | *aɸo | àhó | 'oho | ||||
fire | *maɸi | maɸi | 'mahi | mahi | |||
white ashes | *paɣ̃eɸ[o] | paneɸo | panɛhɛ | panehe | |||
thigh | *boɸo | bóhò | boɸo | boɸo | |||
wing | *taɸu | taɸu | 'tahu | 'tahu | tataɸu | ||
tomorrow | *di[o]ɸu | dihu | diɸu | 'gʲo'hu | diɸu | ||
short | *didiɸi[n/ɣ̃]o | didiɸino | didi'hino | didi'hino | |||
woman/wife | *kiɸa | kiɸa | 'kiha | kihaiu | iɸa | ||
smoke | *kaɸuto | ahuto | koɸuto | kohuto | kohuɾi | kahuri | oɸuto |
eye | *kuɸino | uhino | kuɸino | ku'hino | kuhino | kuhiru | uɸilo |
bandicoot | *geneɸo | gènèhó | geneɸo | 'genoho | 'geneho | gerepo (?) | geleɸo |
One example …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*ɸ-/_ia | ɸ | s | s | ||||
bone | *ɸia | ɸia | sa | sa |
…:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*ɸ/a_a | h | ɸ | h [g] | h [ʁ h] | |||
pig | *maɸa | màhá | maɸa | 'maga | maʁa ~ ma'ha |
Initial fricative /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/ in Ipiko, Hoia Hoia, Hoyahoya and Mahigi (Franklin 1973: 272):
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*s- | h | s | h | h | h [h ø] | s | |
cassowary | *siɣ̃ia | híníá | henia | sinia | |||
tongue | *sasa | háhá | |||||
hand | *saki | haki | aki | saʔi | |||
hand | *saɣ̃a | hàná | sania | 'hana |
Medial /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/ in Mubami as well, being preserved as such only in Foia Foia:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*-s- | h | s | h | h | h | h | |
spread mat | *[e]m[e]so | emeho | |||||
bird | *ewesa | ewesa | 'ɛβɛha | eweha ~ 'ɛwiha | eveha | ||
egg | *usu | usu | uhu | ||||
two | *measi | mèáhì | masi | 'mahi | mahi | mahi | |
leaf | *peas[a/o] | pèhá | paso | ||||
tooth | *bese | 'behe | behe ~ bɛhɛ | behe | behe | ||
leaf | *basai | ba'hai | bahai | ||||
nose | *dasi | dahi | desi | 'dɛhi | 'dɛhi | dehi | dehi |
afternoon | *dodoso | doɾoho | dodoho | ||||
yesterday | *doso | doho | doso | doho | 'doho | doho | |
big (m.) | *gamise | gamise | ga'mihe | ||||
big (n.) | *gamiso | gamiso | gamiho | ||||
not | *gasai | gasai | ga'hai | gahai | |||
dog | *gaso | gáhò | gaso | 'gaho | 'gaho | gahola | gaho |
tail | *wasV | wasiɾi | wa'huli | wahe | |||
cut up | *j[a]sugo | hahugo | |||||
cut up | *ɣ̃asugo | vahugo |
Bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*w- | v | w | w | w | w | w | |
thumb/five | *weak[e]mu | vēāʔúmú | wak[e]mu | wakumu | waʔumo | ||
tail | *wasV | wasiɾi | wa'huli | wahe | |||
bush fowl | *wak[o]m[o] | vaʔomo | |||||
mango sp. | *w[o]iwi | voivi | |||||
who? | *wotei | wotei | wo'tei | wɔtene | wotei | ||
*-w- | v | w | w [β] | w | w | w | |
father | *-we | -ve | -we | -we | |||
mother | *-wu | -vu | -wu | -wu | -wu | ||
weep/cry | *iwino | ivino | |||||
liver | *iwa | ìvá | iwa | iwa | iwo | ||
weep/cry | *iwo | ivo | |||||
paddle (v.) | *[e]w[ea] | evea | |||||
bird | *ewesa | ewesa | 'ɛβɛha | eweha ~ 'ɛwiha | eweha | ||
ashes | *pawo | pavo | pawo | ||||
sun | *nowumu | nowumu | nowumu | ||||
woman/wife | *kiwaju | ìvóhi | kiwolu ~ ki'wɔɾu | ||||
long | *g[a]ɾiwo | gàɾívò | goɾiwo | goli'goliwo | goligoliwo | golioliwo | |
mango sp. | *w[o]iwi | voivi |
One example …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*w-/_i | v | w | w | w | b | ||
snake | *wike | wikewe | 'βike ~ 'wike | 'wike | biʔe |
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
-ɾ- | ɾ | ɾ | l | l | ? | l | |
long | *g[a]ɾiwo | gàɾívò | goɾiwo | goli'goliwo | goligoliwo | golioliwo |
Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is apirated to /h/ in the Eva dialect of Ipiko, occluded to /ɾ/ in the Ibigo dialect of Ipiko (q.v. Petterson 2014 ibid.) and in Foia Foia, and occluded to /d/ in Mahigi and Mubami:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*j- | ɾ/h | ɾ | l [l d] | l [l d] | d [d l] | d | |
night | *jika | ɾika | 'dikɔ | dikʷa ~ dika | di'ka | diʔa | |
path | *jigei | jigei | 'dige | 'digei | |||
name | *jiga | hìgá; ɾiga [ib] | ɾiga | 'ligɔ | li'ga | diga | |
ear | *jeja | ɾeɾa | i'ela | ||||
one (n.) | *jaigio | ɾaigio | 'lagio | laigio | dago- | ||
one (m.) | *jaige | ɾaige | 'lage | lagei ~ -dage | |||
one (f.) | *jaigu | ɾaigu | |||||
cut up | *j[a]sugo | hahugo | |||||
leaf | *jaji | -lali | -rari | ||||
2 pl. | *jo | ho; ɾo [ib] | ɾo | lo | lo | do |
When /*j/ is followed by a nasal consonant in the next syllable onset, it is occluded to apical nasal /n/ in Foia Foia:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*j-/_Vn | n | n | n | d | |||
breast | *jono | nono | 'nono | 'nono | dolo |
…:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*-j- | h; ɾ [ib] | ɾ | l | l [l ɾ] | ? | l | |
foot/lower leg | *tepeje | tepeɾe | te'pele | ||||
good (n.) | *dajo | daɾo | dalo | ||||
woman/wife | *kiwaju | ìvóhi ivoɾi [ib] | kiwolu ~ ki'wɔɾu | ||||
good (m.) | *dajoe | daɾoe | dale | ||||
ear | *jeja | ɾeɾa | i'ela | ||||
leaf | *jaji | -lali | -rari | ||||
rain | *ɣ̃[o/u]jV | goi-oi | goloi |
…:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*… | |||||||
fire | *tae | tae | tairi | taeli |
The development of initial velar nasalized non-stop /*ɣ̃/ is visible only in the second person singular:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*ɣ̃- | w [β v w] | ɣ̃ | g | w | g | g | |
night | *ɣ̃apo | vápò | |||||
cut up | *ɣ̃asugo | vahugo | |||||
2 sg. | *ɣ̃o | vo | ɣ̃o | go | wo | go | |
rain | *ɣ̃[o/u]jV | goi-oi | goloi |
Medial /*ɣ̃/ is reflected as apical nasal [n], presumably via velar nasal [*ŋ], in all descendants. Unlike the reflexes of apical /*n/, these aren't denasalized in Mahigi and Mubami:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*-ɣ̃- | n | n | n | n | n | n |
|
forearm | *pipiɣ̃i | pìpínì | pipini | pipini | pipini | ||
white ashes | *paɣ̃eɸ[o] | paneɸo | panɛhɛ | panehe | |||
mosquito | *n[a/o]ɣ̃iti | naniti | noniti | nonoti | noniti | ||
cassowary | *siɣ̃ia | híníá | henia | sinia | |||
hand | *saɣ̃a | hàná | sania | 'hana |
In one example, medial /*ɣ̃/ is reflected as /m/ in Foia Foia, preseumably because it is preceded by /*m/ in the onset of the previous syllable. It's not clear if Mubami's medial /g/ is a similarly-conditioned reflex of /ɣ̃/ or an immediate loan from Kiwai /*magota/:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*-ɣ̃-/*mV_ | n | m | n | ? | ? | g | |
mouth | *maɣ̃oto | mānótò | mamoto | mo'noto | mogoto |
“Cassowary” is a loan from Turama River /*sigina/ (q.v. Franklin 1968: 32,) allowing us to confirm the original value of /*(ŋ)g/. This is supported by Fly River /*maŋgot/ “mouth”, /*piŋgi/ “arm”, /*n[a/o]ŋgit/ “moquito”, /*s[e/a]ŋga/ 'hand', from which the development of /*g/ might be expected. A lenition similar to that which must have occurred in pre-Inland Gulf is found in Kuni dialect of Boazi, in which Fly River /*ŋg/ is reflected as [ŋɣ]; e.g. [maŋɣat] “language” < /*maŋgot/ (q.v. Fumey 2006: 2.)
… vowels …/*i *u *e *o *a/ …
High front vowel /*i/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*i | i | i | i | i | i | i | |
1 pl. | *ni | ní | ni | ni | ni | ni | |
root | *titi | tìtí | titi | ||||
bamboo | *diki | diʔi | diki | ||||
sand | *gini | gini | gili | ||||
leg | *idini | idini | idili | ||||
forearm | *pipiɣ̃i | pìpínì | pipini | pipini | pipini | ||
snake | *wike | wikewe | 'βike ~ 'wike | 'wike | biʔe | ||
path | *jigei | jigei | 'dige | 'digei | |||
weep/cry | *iwo | ivo | |||||
sleep | *iboto | iboto | iboto | ||||
skin | *nikopi | nikopi | ni'kopi | ni'kopi | niʔoɸi | ||
liver | *iwa | ìvá | iwa | iwa | iwo | ||
chest | *bita | bìtá | bita | bita | bita | ||
woman/wife | *kiɸa | kiɸa | 'kiha | kihaiu | iɸa | ||
night | *jika | ɾika | 'dikɔ | dikʷa ~ dika | di'ka | diʔa | |
name | *jiga | hìgá | ɾiga | 'ligɔ | li'ga | diga | |
mountain | *iɸia | iɸia | iɸia | ||||
cassowary | *siɣ̃ia | híníá | henia | sinia | |||
woman/wife | *kiwaju | ìvóhi | kiwolu ~ ki'wɔɾu | ||||
heart | *muki | múmúʔí | muʔi | ||||
belly | *kuti | ùtí | kuti | 'kuti | ku'ti | uti | |
eye | *kuɸino | uhino | kuɸino | ku'hino | kuhino | kuhiru | uɸilo |
fish | *ebi | ebi | ebi | ||||
earth/ground | *boti | boti | 'boti | bɔ'ti | boti | boti | |
mosquito | *n[a/o]ɣ̃iti | naniti | noniti | nonoti | noniti | ||
louse | *uani | úānì | uali | ||||
two | *measi | mèáhì | masi | 'mahi | mahi | mahi | |
nose | *dasi | dahi | desi | 'dɛhi | 'dɛhi | dehi | dehi |
hand | *saki | haki | aki | saʔi | |||
leaf | *jaji | -lali | -rari | ||||
people | *animi | animi | |||||
big (m.) | *gamise | gamise | ga'mihe | ||||
big (n.) | *gamiso | gamiso | gamiho | ||||
long | *g[a]ɾiwo | gàɾívò | goɾiwo | goli'goliwo | goligoliwo | golioliwo |
One example …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*i/_Cu | u | i | ? | u | ? | ? | |
elbow | *i[n/ɣ̃]u | unu | inu | unu |
High back vowel /*u/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*u | u | u | u | u | u | u | |
ear | *tu | tu | tu- | ||||
mother | *-wu | -vu | -wu | -wu | -wu | ||
egg | *usu | usu | uhu | ||||
egg | *ɸutu | utu | ɸutu | ||||
nape | *tumuku | tumuʔu | |||||
navel | *dukumu | duʔum-oni | dukumu | dukumu | |||
heart | *muki | múmúʔí | muʔi | ||||
belly | *kuti | ùtí | kuti | 'kuti | ku'ti | uti | |
eye | *kuɸino | uhino | kuɸino | ku'hino | kuhino | kuhiru | uɸilo |
hear | *ug[i/e] | uge | -ugi- | -ugʲ- | -ugi- | -ugV- | |
moon | *bubei | bubei | bubei | bubei | |||
old | *duta | duta | duta | duta | |||
wind | *ɸubato | hubato | ɸubato | ||||
elbow | *i[n/ɣ̃]u | unu | inu | unu | |||
meat | *ainu | ainu | ailu | ||||
knee | *kemuku | ke'muku | ke'muku | omuʔu | |||
thumb/five | *weak[e]mu | vēāʔúmú | wak[e]mu | wakumu | waʔumo | ||
sun | *nowumu | nowumu | nowumu | ||||
heavy | *dioku | dioku | 'gʲoku | ki'oku | dioʔu | ||
tomorrow | *di[o]ɸu | dihu | diɸu | 'gʲo'hu | diɸu | ||
singular (f.) | *-eamu | -emu | |||||
wing | *taɸu | taɸu | 'tahu | 'tahu | tataɸu | ||
woman | *anumu | ànúmu | |||||
smoke | *kaɸuto | ahuto | koɸuto | kohuto | kohuɾi | kahuri | oɸuto |
Mid front vowel /*e/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*e | e | e | e | e | e | e | |
tree | *de | de | de | de | dɛ | de | de |
father | *-we | -ve | -we | -we | |||
3 sg. m. | *ete | étè | ete | 'ete | ete | ||
tooth | *bese | 'behe | behe ~ bɛhɛ | behe | behe | ||
shin | *dete | dete | dedi | ||||
fish | *ebi | ebi | ebi | ||||
3 sg. n. | *eto | étò | eto | ||||
shoulder | *beno | bénò | beno | 'beno | 'beno | bero | belo |
lie down/sleep | *teno | ténô | telo | ||||
bandicoot | *geneɸo | gènèhó | geneɸo | 'genoho | 'geneho | gerepo | geleɸo |
yellow | *eta | e'ta [rp] | eta | ||||
lime | *eka | eʔa | eka | ||||
ear | *jeja | ɾeɾa | i'ela | ||||
bird | *ewesa | ewesa | 'ɛβɛha | eweha ~ 'ɛwiha | eweha | ||
singular (m.) | *-eame | -eme | -ame | -ame | |||
snake | *wike | wikewe | 'βike ~ 'wike | 'wike | biʔe | ||
fish/meat | *tope | tòpé | tope | to'pe | tope ~ topɛ | ||
egg/seed | *kane | ánè | |||||
man | *aneme | ànèméá | |||||
girl | *ameno | ameno | amelo | ||||
white ashes | *paɣ̃eɸ[o] | paneɸo | panɛhɛ | panehe | |||
banana | *napeto | nàpétò | napeɾo | napero |
… /*eCi/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*e/_Ci | iCi | eCi | iCi | ? | eCi | ||
3 pl. | *eti | ítì | eti | iti | eti |
… /*eCu/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*e/_Cu | iCu | eCu | ? | eCu | |||
3 sg. f. | *etu | itu | etu | etu | |||
*e/_Cu | iCu | iCu | ? | iCu | ? | iCu | |
mother (3 sg.) | *e-wu | i-vu | i-wu | i-wu | i-wu | ||
*e/_Cu | ? | ? | ? | eCu | eCu | oCu | |
knee | *kemuku | ke'muku | ke'muku | omuʔu |
Mid back vowel /*o/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*o | o | o | o | o | o | o | |
1 sg. | *no | nó | no | no | no | no | |
2 pl. | *jo | ho | ɾo | lo | lo | do | |
2 sg. | *ɣ̃o | vo | ɣ̃o | go | wo | go | |
water | *ogo | ògó | 'ogo | ||||
seed | *moko | momoko | (mo)'moko | momoko | momoʔo | ||
neck | *mogo | mògó | mogo | ||||
thigh | *boɸo | bóhò | boɸo | boɸo | |||
throat | *ɸoko | hoʔo | ɸoko | ho'kolɛ | ho'kolɛ | hokori | |
yesterday | *doso | doho | doso | doho | 'doho | doho | |
breast | *jono | nono | 'nono | 'nono | dolo | ||
afternoon | *dodoso | doɾoho | dodoho | ||||
earth/ground | *boti | boti | 'boti | bɔ'ti | boti | boti | |
canoe | *bo[n/ɣ̃]io | bone | bonio | ||||
sun | *nowumu | nowumu | nowumu | ||||
fish/meat | *tope | tòpé | tope | to'pe | tope ~ topɛ | ||
tongue | *koda | koda | koda | koda | oda | ||
cold | *kokamo | kokamo | ko'kamo | ||||
weep/cry | *iwo | ivo | |||||
sleep | *iboto | iboto | iboto | ||||
skin | *nikopi | nikopi | ni'kopi | ni'kopi | niʔoɸi | ||
skin | *ko[j]ipo | oipo | kɔɾipɔ | ||||
cassowary | *koibo | koibo | 'koibo | 'koibo | |||
eye | *kuɸino | uhino | kuɸino | ku'hino | kuhino | kuhiru | uɸilo |
long | *g[a]ɾiwo | gàɾívò | goɾiwo | goli'goliwo | goligoliwo | golioliwo | |
smoke | *kaɸuto | ahuto | koɸuto | kohuto | kohuɾi | kahuri | oɸuto |
3 sg. n. | *eto | étò | eto | ||||
shoulder | *beno | bénò | beno | 'beno | 'beno | bero | belo |
lie down/sleep | *teno | ténô | telo | ||||
bandicoot | *geneɸo | gènèhó | geneɸo | 'genoho | 'geneho | gerepo | geleɸo |
girl | *ameno | ameno | amelo | ||||
banana | *napeto | nàpétò | napeɾo | napero | |||
house | *aɸo | aho | 'oho | ||||
ashes | *pawo | pavo | pawo | ||||
good (n.) | *dajo | daɾo | dalo | ||||
dog | *gaso | gáhò | gaso | 'gaho | 'gaho | gahola | gaho |
night | *ɣ̃apo | vápò | |||||
mouth | *maɣ̃oto | mānótò | mamoto | mo'noto | mogoto | ||
hot | *papato | pàpátò | papato | pa'pato | pa'pato | papato | |
wind | *ɸubato | hubato | ɸubato |
Low central vowel /*a/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*a | a | a | a | a | a | a | |
1 sg. obj. | *na- | na- | na- | na- | |||
tooth | *ta | ta [ib] | ta | ||||
come (sg.) | *am[V] | ama | -amo- | ||||
come | *bam- | -bam- | -bam- | ||||
person | *ama | ama | 'ama | 'ama | ami (?) | ama | |
pig | *maɸa | màhá | maɸa | 'maga | maʁa ~ ma'ha | ||
tongue | *sasa | háhá | |||||
leaf | *basai | ba'hai | bahai | ||||
people | *animi | animi | |||||
big (m.) | *gamise | gamise | ga'mihe | ||||
big (n.) | *gamiso | gamiso | gamiho | ||||
not | *gasai | gasai | ga'hai | gahai | |||
wing | *taɸu | taɸu | 'tahu | 'tahu | tataɸu | ||
woman | *anumu | ànúmu | |||||
egg/seed | *kane | ánè | |||||
man | *aneme | ànèméá | |||||
girl | *ameno | ameno | amelo | ||||
banana | *napeto | nàpétò | napeɾo | napero | |||
white ashes | *paɣ̃eɸ[o] | paneɸo | panɛhɛ | panehe | |||
house | *aɸo | aho | 'oho (?) | ||||
ashes | *pawo | pavo | pawo | ||||
good (n.) | *dajo | daɾo | dalo | ||||
dog | *gaso | gáhò | gaso | 'gaho | 'gaho | gahola | gaho |
night | *ɣ̃apo | vápò | |||||
hot | *papato | pàpátò | papato | pa'pato | pa'pato | papato | |
mouth | *maɣ̃oto | mānótò | mamoto | mo'noto | mogoto | ||
liver | *iwa | ìvá | iwa | iwa | iwo | ||
chest | *bita | bìtá | bita | bita | bita | ||
woman/wife | *kiɸa | kiɸa | 'kiha | kihaiu | iɸa | ||
night | *jika | ɾika | 'dikɔ | dikʷa ~ dika | di'ka | diʔa | |
name | *jiga | hìgá | ɾiga | 'ligɔ | li'ga | diga | |
old | *duta | duta | duta | duta | |||
wind | *ɸubato | hubato | ɸubato | ||||
yellow | *eta | e'ta [rp] | eta | ||||
lime | *eka | eʔa | eka | ||||
ear | *jeja | ɾeɾa | i'ela | ||||
bird | *ewesa | ewesa | 'ɛβɛha | eweha ~ 'ɛwiha | eweha | ||
tongue | *koda | koda | koda | koda | oda | ||
cold | *kokamo | kokamo | ko'kamo |
… /*aCi/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*a/_Ci | a | e | e | e | e | e | |
nose | *dasi | dahi | desi | 'dɛhi | 'dɛhi | dehi | dehi |
…:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*a/_i | a | ||||||
*a/_i | a | ||||||
people | *animi | animi |
…:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*a/_i | a | a | a | a | a | ||
fire | *maɸi | maɸi | 'mahi | mahi | |||
hand | *saki | haki | aki | saʔi | |||
leaf | *jaji | -lali | -rari |
… /*aCu/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*a/_u | a | o | o | o | a | o | |
woman | *anumu | ànúmu | |||||
smoke | *kaɸuto | ahuto | koɸuto | kohuto | kohuɾi | kahuri | oɸuto |
*a/_u | o | ||||||
woman/wife | *kiwaju | ìvóhi | kiwolu ~ ki'wɔɾu |
… vowel sequences …
The sequence /*ia/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*ia | ie | ia | ia | ia | ia | ia | |
bone | *ɸia | ɸia | sa [< /hia/] | ||||
head | *gia | gia | gʲa | gʲa | gia | gia | |
new | *gia | gia[i]gewo | gʲagewo | gʲa | giala | ||
mountain | *iɸia | iɸia | iɸia | ||||
cassowary | *siɣ̃ia | híníá | henia | sinia |
… /*ia/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*… | a | ia | a | ||||
hand | *saɣ̃a | hàná | sania | 'hana |
… /*io/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*io | e | io | io | io | ? | o | |
canoe | *bo[n/ɣ̃]io | bone | bonio | ||||
sun | *siwio | hive | siwio | siwo | |||
one (n.) | *jaigio | ɾaigio | 'lagio | laigio | dago- |
One exception in Mubami is likely due to stress:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*io | ? | io | io | io | ? | io | |
heavy | *dioku | dioku | 'gʲoku | ki'oku | dioʔu |
… /*ua/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*ua | ua | ua | |||||
louse | *uani | úānì | uali |
… /*ei/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*ei | ei | ei [ei e] | ei [ei e] | ei | ei | ||
path | *jigei | jigei | 'dige | 'digei | |||
moon | *bubei | bubei | bubei | bubei | |||
who? | *wotei | wotei | wo'tei | wɔtene | wotei |
The sequence /*ea/ is simplified to /*a/ in the western languages, and is merged with /e/ in Ipiko under unknown conditions:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*ea | ea | a | a | a | a | a | |
two | *measi | mèáhì | masi | 'mahi | mahi | mahi | |
thumb/five | *weak[e]mu | vēāʔúmú | wak[e]mu | wakumu | waʔumo | ||
*ea₂ | e | a | a | ||||
singular (f.) | *-eamu | -emu | |||||
singular (m.) | *-eame | -eme | -ame | -ame | |||
leaf | *peas[a/o] | pèhá | paso |
… /*oi/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*oi | oi | oi | oi | ||||
cassowary | *koibo | koibo | 'koibo | 'koibo |
… /*ou/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*ou | u | ou | |||||
sago | *dou | du | dou |
… /*ai/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*ai | ai | ai | ai | ai | ? | ai | |
father | *ai | ai | ai | alai | |||
vine/rope | *pai | pai | pai | ||||
meat | *ainu | ainu | ailu | ||||
leaf | *basai | ba'hai | bahai | ||||
not | *gasai | gasai | ga'hai | gahai |
… /*au/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*au | o | a | au | ||||
all | *bautVkumi | botakumi | batokime | bautoʔumi |
… /*ae/ …:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
*ae | ae | ||||||
fire | *tae | tae | tairi | taeli |
…:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami |
*… | ||||||
*… |
Gender ablaut
Inland Gulf languages indicate gender in (at least) some human nominals and agreeing adjectives according to same vocalism as Marind-Yaqay and Boazi (q.v. Drabbe 1954: CITE, 1955: CITE,) with masculine singular indicated by /*e/, feminine singular by /*u/, animate plural by /*i/ and neuter by /*o/:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoyahoya | Mubami | |
*e/*u/*i/*o | e/u/i/o | e/u/i/o | e/u/i/o | e/u/i/o | |
singular (m.) | *-eame | -eme | -ame | -ame | |
singular (f.) | *-eamu | -emu | |||
3 sg. m. | *ete | étè | ete | 'ete | ete |
3 sg. f. | *etu | itu | etu | etu | |
3 pl. | *eti | ítì | eti | iti | eti |
3 sg. n. | *eto | étò | eto | ||
man | *aneme | ànèméá | |||
woman | *anumu | ànúmu | |||
people | *animi | animi | |||
big (m.) | *gamise | gamise | |||
big (n.) | *gamiso | gamiso | gamiho | ||
father | *we | -ve | -we | -we | |
mother | *wu | -vu | -wu | -wu | -wu |
one (m.) | *jaige | ɾaige | |||
one (f.) | *jaigu | ɾaigu | |||
one (n.) | *jaigio | ɾaigio | laigio | dago- |
Pronouns
Inland Gulf free pronouns are reconstructed as follows:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mubami | |
1 sg. | *no | nó | no | no | no | no |
2 sg. | *ɣ̃o | vo | ɣ̃o | go | wo | go |
3 sg. m. | *ete | étè | ete | 'ete | ete | |
3 sg. f. | *etu | itu; utu [ib] | etu | etu | ||
1 pl. | *ni | ní | ni | ni | ni | ni |
2 pl. | *jo | ho; ɾo [ib] | ɾo | lo | lo | do |
3 pl. | *eti | ítì | eti | iti | 'eti |
Object and inalienable possessive prefixes are based primarily upon comparison of Ipiko forms to those of other subfamilies of Fly River, and are reconstructed as follows:
Inland Gulf | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoyahoya | Mubami | |
1 sg. obj./poss. | *na- | na- | na- | na- | |
2 sg. obj./poss. | *ɣ̃a- | va- | |||
3 sg. obj./poss. | *a-/*e- | a-/e- | e- | e- | e- |
1 pl. obj./poss. | *ni- | ni- | |||
2 pl. obj./poss. | *ja- | ha-; ɾa- [ib] | |||
3 pl. obj./poss. | *ja- | ha- |
It's probable that a full set of prefixes is present in all Inland Gulf languages but is simply not visible in the brief survey vocabularies.
Loans from neighboring families
[under construction]
Loans from Kiwai …:
Kiwai | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
breast | *amo | amo | |||||
know | *umoɾo- | umoɾo- | umoɾo- | umoɾo- | umo'ɾo- | ||
heavy | *mikibo | miibo | |||||
cloud | *bubu | bubu | |||||
louse | *nimo | nimo | nimo | ni'mo | |||
belly | *niɾo | niɾo | diro (?) | ||||
fish | *na(-keɾe) | nakeɾe | 'nakeɾe | ||||
smoke | *tema | 'tɛma | |||||
men's house | *daɾimo | daɾimo | dalimo | ||||
banana | *dubaɾi | dubaɾi | dubaɾi | dubali ~ dubaɾi | |||
root | *sipi | hipi | 'hipi | ||||
sun | *siwio | hive | siwio | siwo | |||
sun | *saɾiki | 'heiki | seki | seiʔi | |||
bone | *soɾo | hoɾo | |||||
blood | *kaɾima | kaɾima | kalima | 'kalima | karimo | ||
boy | *kosio | 'ohi-ama | 'ohio | ||||
fat/grease | *gadi | gadi | 'gadi | 'gadi | gadi | ||
ear | *gaɾe | 'gaɾe | |||||
sand | *wio | vio | wio | ||||
rain | *wisaɾe | vúhá |
Loans to Kiwai and Tabo:
Inland Gulf | NE. Kiwai | Morigi | Kerewo | Bamu | Tabo |
*… |
Loans from Dibiyaso or the ancestor or close relative thereof are found in Mubami, Mahigi and Hoyahoya:
Dibiyaso | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
path | iti | idi | idi | ||
tooth | bese-ɾepa | 'behe | behe ~ bɛhɛ | behe | behe |
Loans from Kikori River:
… | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami |
… |
Loans from Motu:
Motu | Ipiko | Foia Foia | Hoia Hoia | Hoyahoya | Mahigi | Mubami | |
cloud | oɺi | oɾi | oɾi | ||||
wallaby | magani | magani | magani |