Inland Gulf

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

The Inland Gulf family is comprised of six languages spoken in geographically separated enclaves inland of the Kiwai languages along the northwest coast of the Papuan Gulf in Papua New Guinea's Gulf and Western provinces.

Subclassification

The internal classification of Inland Gulf is as follows:

Inland Gulf

Ipiko

West Inland Gulf

Foia Foia

Hoia Hoia

Hoyahoya

Mahigi

Mubami

Franklin (1973: 270-271) provides lexicostatistical figures for five Inland Gulf vocabularies as follows, with Foia Foia represented by Franklin's Minanibai and Johnston's (1919-1920) Eme-eme and Mubami by Franklin's Tao-Suamato. The unrelated Karami language of Flint (1917-1918) is included due to a large number of loans from Foia Foia:

Ipiko Minanibai Eme-eme Mahigi T.-Suamato Karami
Ipiko 36 44 42 14 20
Minanibai 20 44 42 39 17
Eme-eme 44 44 21 24 36
Mahigi 42 42 21 38 15
T.-Suamato 14 39 24 38 11
Karami 36 17 36 15 11

Sources

Johnston (1919-1920: 120) 120 comparative terms for Eme-eme (Foia Foia) of Korariperamesina or Pepeha village

Cridland (1923-1924: 58) 130 comparative terms for Mahigi

Chance (1925-1926: 91) 131 comparative terms for Ipiko of Amipoki village

Franklin (1973: 270-273) miscellaneous notes including lexicostatistics, phonological observations and pronouns for Ipiko (Ibigo,) Minanibai (Foia Foia) and Tao-Suamato (Mubami)

Franklin ed. (1973: 577-578,) Franklin (1975: 264-268) 100 comparative terms for Ipiko, Minanibai and Tao-Suamato

Reesink (1976: 31-34) 100 comparative terms for Tao-Suamato

Reesink (n.d.) survey vocabulary of Tao-Suamato provided in comparative spreadsheet format by Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics, Ukarumpa

Carr (1991) 120 comparative terms for Foyafoya of Bibisa village, Hoyahoya of Matakia and Hoia Hoia of Ukusi-Kaperami

Carr (1991) 99 comparative terms for Ipiko, Minanibai and Mubami

Carr (2006) sketch phonology of Hoyahoya

Carr (2006) 164 comparative terms and 20 comparative phrases for Pepeha village (Foia Foia)

Carr (2006) sketch phonology of Hoyahoya

MacKenzie (2002) 176 comparative terms and 19 comparative phrases for Mubami of Ugu/Kala, Parieme and Sogae villages

Petterson (2002) 170 comparative terms and 2 comparative phrases for the Eva dialect of Ipiko

Petterson (2007: 17-32) 971 terms for Eva of Pakeuaba village

Petterson (2014) 204 comparative terms and 26 comparative phrases for Foeafoea of Bibisa village

Petterson (2014) notes on Eva grammar

Petterson (2014) dictionary of Eva and Ibigo

Allen and Keneqa (2006) sketch phonology of Foia Foia with no glosses

History of classification

Franklin (1968: 27-28) recognizes West Inland Gulf as Bamu-Turaman Family including Pepeha, Mahigi and Karami. Denies relationship to    Kikori River. Ipiko (Ipikoi) (p. 28-29) unclassified isolate.

Franklin (1973: 269-272) Ipiko added to form Inland Gulf.

Franklin (1975: 861) Inland Gulf sub-phylum level stock in Trans New Guinea phylum with special relationship to Kikori River (Turama-Kikorian) as well as Central and South New Guinea Stock.

Greenberg (1971: 829,) misled by the presence of loans in both directions, included the Inland Gulf languages in his Kiwai subgroup of South New Guinea; this placement was sharply contested by Franklin (1973: 382-383.)

Historical phonology

[under construction]

Proto-Inland Gulf had 13 or 14 consonants and at least 5 vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *k
*b *d *g
*s
*w [*ɾ] *j *ɣ̃
*i *u
*e *o
*a

Neither final consonants nor consonant clusters occur.

Stress appears to have been contrastive (cf. /*ka'ɸuto/ “smoke” vs. /*gene'ɸo/ “bandicoot”) but has not been reconstructed below.

Intial consonants correspond as follows:

Inland Gulf Ipiko Foia Foia Hoia Hoia Hoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
*m- m m m m m m
*n- n n n n n n
*p- p p p p p p
*t- t t t t t t
*k- ø k k k k ø
*b- b b b b b b
*d- d d d d d d
*d-/_iV d d g g ? d
*g- g g g g g g
*ɸ- h ɸ h h h ɸ
*s- h s h h h s
*w- v w w w w w
*w-/_i ? w w w ? b
*j- h/ɾ ɾ l l d d
*j-/_VN ? n n n ? d
*ɣ̃- v ɣ̃ g w g g

Medial consonants correspond as follows:

Inland Gulf Ipiko Foia Foia Hoia Hoia Hoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
*-m- m m m m m m
*-n- n n n n ɾ l
*-p- p p p p p p
*-t- t t t t t t
*-k- ʔ k k k k ʔ
*-b- b b b b b b
*-d- d d d d d d
*-g- g g g g g g
*-ɸ- h ɸ h h h ɸ
*-s- h s h h h h
*-w- v w w w w w
[*-ɾ-] ɾ ɾ l l ɾ l
*-j- h/ɾ ɾ l l ? l
*-ɣ̃- n n n n n n
*-ɣ̃-/mV_ n m n ? ? ?

Vowels and vowel sequences correspond as follows:

Inland Gulf Ipiko Foia Foia Hoia Hoia Hoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
*i i i i i i i
*u u u u u u u
*e e e e e e e
*o o o o o o o
*a a a a a a a
*eCi
*eCu
*aCi
*aCu
*
*
*
*
*
*

These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Ipiko attestations drawn from Petterson (2007: 17-32, 2014) unless otherwise indicated. Petterson's Ibigo dialect forms are indicated [ib]. Those drawn from Chance (1925-1926: 91) are indicated [sc]; those drawn from Franklin (1973: ) are indicated [kf]. Foia Foia forms are phonemicizations based upon Johnston's (1919-1920: 120) Eme-Eme, Franklin's (1973: 577-578) Minanibai, Carr's (1991) Foyafoya, Carr's (2006) Pepeha and Petterson's (2014) Foeafoea. Hoia Hoia attestations are drawn from Carr (1991.) Hoyahoya attestations are drawn from Carr (1991, 2006.) Mahigi attestations are drawn from Cridland (1923-1924: 58.) Mubami forms are phonemicizations based upon Franklin's (1973: 578) Tao-Suamato, Reesink's (1976: 31-34) Tao-Suamato and MacKenzie's (2002) Mubami.

West Inland Gulf forms unaccompanied by an Ipiko word and without outcomparisons may not have dated to proto-Inland Gulf, but are presented as Inland Gulf for the sake of convenience.


Bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
*m- m m m m m m
two *measi mèáhì masi 'mahi mahi mahi
fire *maɸi maɸi 'mahi mahi
pig *maɸa màhá maɸa 'maga maʁa ~ ma'ha
mouth *maɣ̃oto mānótò mamoto mo'noto mogoto
seed *moko momoko (mo)'moko momoko momoʔo
neck *​mogo mògó mogo
heart *muki múmúʔí muʔi
*-m- m m m m m m
singular (m.)*-eame -eme -ame -ame
singular (f.)*-eamu -emu
see *[e]meto emeto
spread mat *[e]m[e]so emeho
sing *ami ame ami
girl *ameno ameno amelo
come (sg.) *amV ama -amo-
people *animi animi
man *aneme ànèméá
woman *anumu ànúmu
person *ama ama ama ami ama
seed *momoko momoko mo'moko momoko momoʔo
all *bautVkumi botakumi batokimebautoʔumi
come *bam- -bam- -bam-
sun *nowumu nowumu nowumu
nape *tumuku tumuʔu
navel *dukumu duʔum-onidukumu dukumu
knee *kemuku ke'muku ke'muku omuʔu
cold *kokamo kokamo ko'kamo
big (m.) *gamise gamise ga'mihe
big (n.) *gamiso gamiso gamiho
thumb/five *weak[e]mu vēāʔúmú wak[e]mu wakumu waʔumo
bush fowl *wak[o]m[o]vaʔomo

Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Inland Gulf Ipiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*n- n n n n n n
1 pl. *ni ni ni ni ni
skin *nikopi nikopi ni'kopi ni'kopi niʔoɸi
1 sg. obj.*na- na- na- na-
banana *napeto nàpétònapeɾo napero
excrement *nag[e] nage
mosquito *n[a/o]ɣ̃itinanitinoniti nonoti noniti
1 sg. *no no no no no
sun *nowumu nowumu nowumu

Medial /*n/ is denasalized to non-stop /ɾ/ in Mahigi and to lateral /l/ in Mubami:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*-n- n n n n ɾ l
leg *idini idini idili
weep/cry *iwino ivino
meat *ainu ainu ailu
girl *ameno ameno amelo
people *animi animi
man *aneme ànèméá
woman *anumu ànúmu
get on (?) *atino atino
louse *uani úānì uali
shoulder *beno bénò beno 'beno 'beno bero belo
lie down/sleep*teno ténô telo
egg/seed *kane ánè
eye *kuɸino uhino kuɸino ku'hino kuhino kuhiruuɸilo
sand *gini gini gili
bandicoot *geneɸo gènèhógeneɸo 'genoho 'geneho gerepogeleɸo
breast *jono nono 'nono 'nono dolo

Bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
*p- p p p p p p
forearm *pipiɣ̃i pìpínì pipini pipini pipini
leaf *peas[a/o] pèhá paso
vine/rope *pai pai pai
dry *paetV paetV patea
hot *papato pàpátò papato pa'pato pa'pato papato
ash​es *pawo pavo pawo
white ash​es *paɣ̃eɸ[o] paneɸo panɛhɛ panehe
*-p- p p p p p p
lip(s) *itupu imu tutupu itaubo [sic]
star *op[o]po o'popo [kf]
forearm *pipiɣ̃i pìpínì pipini pipini pipini
hot *papato pàpátò papato pa'pato pa'pato papato
banana *napeto nàpétò napeɾo napero
foot/lower leg*tepeje tepeɾe te'pele
fish/meat *tope tòpé tope to'pe tope ~ topɛ
knee *kaipoki aipoʔi ~ eipoʔi
ipoʔi
kaipo
skin *ko[j]ipo oipo kɔɾipɔ
night *ɣ̃apo vápò

In one example, medial /*p/ is unexpectedly reflected as fricative /ɸ/ in MacKenzie's Mubami:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*-p- ?p p p ? ɸ
skin*nikopi nikopi ni'kopi ni'kopi niʔoɸi

Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya MahigiMubami
*t- t t t t t t
root *titi tìtí titi
foot/lower leg*tepeje tepeɾe te'pele
lie down/sleep*teno ténô telo
tooth *ta ta [ib]ta
fire *tae tae tairi taeli
fish/meat *tope tòpé tope to'pe tope ~ topɛ
ear *tu tu tu-
nape *tumuku tumuʔu

Medial /*t/ is sporadically lenited to [d r] in Hoyahoya and Mahigi:

Inland Gulf Ipiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
*-t- t t t t [t r]t [t d r]t
sleep *iboto iboto iboto
lip(s) *itupu imu tutupu itaubo
see *[e]meto emeto
3 pl. *eti ítì eti iti eti
3 sg. m. *ete étè ete 'ete ete
yellow *eta e'ta [rp] eta
3 sg. n. *eto étò eto
3 sg. f. *etu itu etu etu
get on (?) *atino atino
mouth *maɣ̃oto mānótò mamoto mo'noto mogoto
dry *paetV paetV patea
hot *papato pàpátò papato pa'pato pa'pato papato
chest *bita bìtá bita bita bita
all *bautVkumi botakumi batokime bautoʔumi
earth/ground*boti boti 'boti bɔ'ti boti boti
wind *ɸubato hubato ɸubato
egg *ɸutu utu ɸutu
banana *napeto nàpétò napeɾo napero
mosquito *n[a/o]ɣ̃itinaniti noniti nonoti noniti
root *titi tìtí titi
shin *dete dete dedi
old *duta duta duta duta
smoke *kaɸuto ahuto koɸuto kohuto kohuɾi kahuri oɸuto
belly *kuti ùtí kuti 'kuti ku'ti uti
who? *wotei wotei wo'tei wɔtene wotei

Velar voiceless stop /*k/ is reflected as glottal stop /ʔ/, heard as zero initially, in Ipiko and in Mubami (Franklin 1973: 272):

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia Hoia Hoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
*k- ø k k k k ø
woman/wife*kiɸa kiɸa 'kiha kihaiu iɸa
woman/wife*kiwaju ìvóhi kiwolu ~ ki'wɔɾu
knee *kemuku ke'muku ke'muku omuʔu
knee *kaipoki aipoʔi ~ eipoʔi
ipoʔi
egg/seed *kane ánè
areca nut *ka[n/ɣ̃]ioanio kanio
smoke *kaɸuto ahuto koɸuto kohuto kohuɾi kahuri oɸuto
cassowary *koibo koibo 'koibo 'koibo
tongue *koda koda koda koda oda
cold *kokamo kokamo ko'kamo
skin *ko[j]ipo oipo kɔɾipɔ
belly *kuti ùtí kuti 'kuti ku'ti uti
*-k- ʔ k k k k ʔ
lime *eka eʔa eka
seed *moko momoko (mo)'moko momoko momoʔo
heart *muki múmúʔí muʔi
throat *ɸoko hoʔo ɸoko ho'kolɛ ho'kolɛ hokori
all *bautVkumi botakumi batokimebautoʔumi
skin *nikopi nikopi ni'kopi ni'kopi niʔoɸi
nape *tumuku tumuʔu
heavy *dioku dioku 'gʲoku ki'oku dioʔu
bamboo *diki diʔi diki
navel *dukumu duʔum-oni dukumu dukumu
hand *saki haki aki saʔi
knee *kemuku ke'muku ke'muku omuʔu
cold *kokamo kokamo ko'kamo
snake *wike wikewe 'βike ~ 'wike'wike biʔe
thumb/five*weak[e]mu vēāʔúmú wak[e]mu wakumu waʔumo
bush fowl *wak[o]m[o]vaʔomo
night *jika ɾika 'dikɔ dikʷa ~ dika di'ka diʔa

Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ ia retained as such in all descendants:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
*b- bb b b b b
chest *bita bìtá bita bita bita
shoulder *beno bénò beno 'beno 'beno bero belo
tooth *bese 'behe behe ~ bɛhɛbehe behe
come *bam- -bam- -bam-
leaf *basai ba'hai bahai
all *bautVkumi botakumi batokimebautoʔumi
thigh *boɸo bóhò boɸo boɸo
canoe *bo[n/ɣ̃]iobone bonio
earth/ground*boti boti 'boti bɔ'ti boti boti
moon *bubei bubei bubei bubei
*-b- bb b b b b
sleep *iboto iboto iboto
fish *ebi ebi ebi
wind *ɸubato hubato ɸubato
cassowary *koibo koibo 'koibo 'koibo

Apical voiced stop /*d/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

Inland Gulf Ipiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya MahigiMubami
*d- d d d d d d
bamboo *diki diʔi diki
tree *de de de de de de
shin *dete dete dedi
nose *dasi dahi desi 'dɛhi 'dɛhi dehi dehi
good (n.) *dajo daɾo dalo
good (m.) *dajoe daɾoe dale
sago *dou du dou
afternoon *dodoso doɾoho dodoho
yesterday *doso doho doso doho 'doho doho
old *duta duta duta duta
navel *dukumu duʔum-onidukumu dukumu
*-d- d d d d [d ɾ]d d
leg *idini idini idili
older brother(1)*ade (no-)ade (no-)ede
short *didiɸi[n/ɣ̃]o didiɸino didi'hinodidi'hino
afternoon *dodoso doɾoho dodoho
tongue *koda koda koda koda oda

…:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya MahigiMubami
*d-/_i dd g g ? d
heavy *dioku dioku 'gʲoku ki'oku [sic] dioʔu
tomorrow*di[o]ɸu dihu diɸu 'gʲo'hu diɸu

Initial velar voiced stop /*g/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia Foia Hoia Hoia Hoyahoya MahigiMubami
*g- g g g g g g
head *gia gia gʲa gʲa gia gia
new *gia gia[i]gewogʲagewo gʲa giala
sand *gini gini gili
bandicoot*geneɸo gènèhógeneɸo 'genoho 'geneho gerepogeleɸo
big (m.) *gamise gamise ga'mihe
big (n.) *gamiso gamiso gamiho
not *gasai gasai ga'hai gahai
dog *gaso gáhò gaso 'gaho 'gaho gaholagaho
long *g[a]ɾiwo gàɾívògoɾiwo goli'goliwogoligoliwo golioliwo

Medial /*g/ undergoes subphonemic lenition in Mubami, a development shared with the Kerewo and northeastern dialects of Kiwai (q.v. Shafer 1965: CITE):

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigi Mubami
*-g- g g g g g g [g ɣ ø]
give *-[a]go -ago -ago -ag[o]
water *ogo ògó 'ogo
hear *ug[i/e] uge -ugi- -ugʲ- -ugi- -ugV-
neck *​mogo mògó mogo
excrement*nag[e] nage
cut up *​ɣ̃asugo vahugo
path *jigei jigei 'dige 'digei
name *jiga hìgá ɾiga 'ligɔ li'ga diga
one (n.) *jaigio ɾaigio 'lagio laigio dago-
one (m.) *jaige ɾaige 'lage lagei ~ -dage
one (f.) *jaigu ɾaigu
cut up *​j[a]sugo hahugo

Unlike anterior voiced stops /*b *d/ which reflect Fly River prenasalized /*mb *nd/, Inland Gulf /*g/ probably cannot reflect /*ŋg/, which instead yields /*ɣ̃/ (below) both initially and medially. Only one example of /*g/, /*mogo/ “neck”, is known to have a potential outcomparison in Zimakani (Begua) [mɔŋgo] (Voorhoeve 1970: 11;) it seems simplest to assume this resemblance a coincidence.

Bilabial fricative /*ɸ/ is deccluded to /h/ in Ipiko, Hoia Hoia, Hoyahoya and Mahigi, and sporadically to /ɸ/ [h] in Mubami (Franklin 1973: 272):

Inland Gulf Ipiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
*ɸ- h ɸ h h h [h ø]ɸ
throat *ɸoko hoʔo ɸoko ho'kolɛ ho'kolɛ hokori
wind *ɸubato hubato ɸubato
egg *ɸutu utu ɸutu
*-ɸ- h ɸ h h h ɸ [ɸ h]
mountain *iɸia iɸia iɸia
house *aɸo àhó 'oho
fire *maɸi maɸi 'mahi mahi
white ash​es*paɣ̃eɸ[o] paneɸo panɛhɛ panehe
thigh *boɸo bóhò boɸo boɸo
wing *taɸu taɸu 'tahu 'tahu tataɸu
tomorrow *di[o]ɸu dihu diɸu 'gʲo'hu diɸu
short *didiɸi[n/ɣ̃]o didiɸino didi'hinodidi'hino
woman/wife *kiɸa kiɸa 'kiha kihaiu iɸa
smoke *kaɸuto ahuto koɸuto kohuto kohuɾi kahuri oɸuto
eye *kuɸino uhino kuɸino ku'hino kuhino kuhiru uɸilo
bandicoot *geneɸo gènèhógeneɸo 'genoho 'geneho gerepo (?) geleɸo

One example …:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*ɸ-/_ia ɸ s s
bone*ɸia ɸia sa sa

…:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya MahigiMubami
*ɸ/a_a hɸ h [g]h [ʁ h]
pig*maɸa màhá maɸa 'maga maʁa ~ ma'ha

Initial fricative /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/ in Ipiko, Hoia Hoia, Hoyahoya and Mahigi (Franklin 1973: 272):

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigi Mubami
*s- hs h h h [h ø]s
cassowary*siɣ̃ia híníá henia sinia
tongue *sasa háhá
hand *saki haki aki saʔi
hand *saɣ̃a hàná sania 'hana

Medial /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/ in Mubami as well, being preserved as such only in Foia Foia:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya MahigiMubami
*-s- h s h h h h
spread mat*[e]m[e]so emeho
bird *ewesa ewesa 'ɛβɛha eweha ~ 'ɛwiha eveha
egg *usu usu uhu
two *measi mèáhì masi 'mahi mahi mahi
leaf *peas[a/o] pèhá paso
tooth *bese 'behe behe ~ bɛhɛ behe behe
leaf *basai ba'hai bahai
nose *dasi dahi desi 'dɛhi 'dɛhi dehi dehi
afternoon *dodoso doɾoho dodoho
yesterday *doso doho doso doho 'doho doho
big (m.) *gamise gamise ga'mihe
big (n.) *gamiso gamiso gamiho
not *gasai gasai ga'hai gahai
dog *gaso gáhò gaso 'gaho 'gaho gaholagaho
tail *wasV wasiɾi wa'huli wahe
cut up *​j[a]sugo hahugo
cut up *​ɣ̃asugo vahugo

Bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia Hoia Hoyahoya MahigiMubami
*w- v w w w w w
thumb/five *weak[e]mu vēāʔúmúwak[e]mu wakumuwaʔumo
tail *wasV wasiɾi wa'huli wahe
bush fowl *wak[o]m[o]vaʔomo
mango sp. *w[o]iwi voivi
who? *wotei wotei wo'tei wɔtene wotei
*-w- v w w [β] w w w
father *-we -ve -we -we
mother *-wu -vu -wu -wu -wu
weep/cry *iwino ivino
liver *iwa ìvá iwa iwa iwo
weep/cry *iwo ivo
paddle (v.)*[e]w[ea] evea
bird *ewesa ewesa 'ɛβɛha eweha ~ 'ɛwiha eweha
ashes *pawo pavo pawo
sun *nowumu nowumu nowumu
woman/wife *kiwaju ìvóhi kiwolu ~ ki'wɔɾu
long *g[a]ɾiwo gàɾívò goɾiwo goli'goliwogoligoliwo golioliwo
mango sp. *w[o]iwi voivi

One example …:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia Hoia HoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*w-/_i vw w w b
snake*wike wikewe 'βike ~ 'wike'wike biʔe

Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ …:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia Hoia Hoyahoya MahigiMubami
-ɾ- ɾ ɾ l l ? l
long*g[a]ɾiwo gàɾívògoɾiwo goli'goliwogoligoliwo golioliwo

Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is apirated to /h/ in the Eva dialect of Ipiko, occluded to /ɾ/ in the Ibigo dialect of Ipiko (q.v. Petterson 2014 ibid.) and in Foia Foia, and occluded to /d/ in Mahigi and Mubami:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia Hoia Hoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
*j- ɾ/h ɾ l [l d]l [l d] d [d l] d
night *jika ɾika 'dikɔ dikʷa ~ dikadi'ka diʔa
path *jigei jigei 'dige 'digei
name *jiga hìgá; ɾiga [ib]ɾiga 'ligɔ li'ga diga
ear *jeja ɾeɾa i'ela
one (n.)*jaigio ɾaigio 'lagio laigio dago-
one (m.)*jaige ɾaige 'lage lagei ~ -dage
one (f.)*jaigu ɾaigu
cut up *​j[a]sugo hahugo
leaf *jaji -lali -rari
2 pl. *jo ho; ɾo [ib] ɾo lo lo do

When /*j/ is followed by a nasal consonant in the next syllable onset, it is occluded to apical nasal /n/ in Foia Foia:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*j-/_Vn n n n d
breast*jono nono 'nono 'nono dolo

…:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya MahigiMubami
*-j- h; ɾ [ib] ɾ l l [l ɾ] ? l
foot/lower leg*tepeje tepeɾe te'pele
good (n.) *dajo daɾo dalo
woman/wife *kiwaju ìvóhi
ivoɾi [ib]
kiwolu ~ ki'wɔɾu
good (m.) *dajoe daɾoe dale
ear *jeja ɾeɾa i'ela
leaf *jaji -lali -rari
rain *ɣ̃[o/u]jV goi-oigoloi

…:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*…
fire*tae tae tairi taeli

The development of initial velar nasalized non-stop /*ɣ̃/ is visible only in the second person singular:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*ɣ̃- w [β v w]ɣ̃ g w g g
night *ɣ̃apo vápò
cut up*​ɣ̃asugo vahugo
2 sg. *​ɣ̃o vo ɣ̃o go wo go
rain *ɣ̃[o/u]jV goi-oigoloi

Medial /*ɣ̃/ is reflected as apical nasal [n], presumably via velar nasal [*ŋ], in all descendants. Unlike the reflexes of apical /*n/, these aren't denasalized in Mahigi and Mubami:

Inland Gulf Ipiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*-ɣ̃- n n n n n n
forearm *pipiɣ̃i pìpínìpipini pipinipipini
white ash​es*paɣ̃eɸ[o] paneɸo panɛhɛ panehe
mosquito *n[a/o]ɣ̃itinanitinoniti nonoti noniti
cassowary *siɣ̃ia híníá henia sinia
hand *saɣ̃a hàná sania 'hana

In one example, medial /*ɣ̃/ is reflected as /m/ in Foia Foia, preseumably because it is preceded by /*m/ in the onset of the previous syllable. It's not clear if Mubami's medial /g/ is a similarly-conditioned reflex of /ɣ̃/ or an immediate loan from Kiwai /*magota/:

Inland Gulf Ipiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*-ɣ̃-/*mV_n m n ? ? g
mouth*maɣ̃oto mānótòmamoto mo'noto mogoto

“Cassowary” is a loan from Turama River /*sigina/ (q.v. Franklin 1968: 32,) allowing us to confirm the original value of /*(ŋ)g/. This is supported by Fly River /*maŋgot/ “mouth”, /*piŋgi/ “arm”, /*n[a/o]ŋgit/ “moquito”, /*s[e/a]ŋga/ 'hand', from which the development of /*g/ might be expected. A lenition similar to that which must have occurred in pre-Inland Gulf is found in Kuni dialect of Boazi, in which Fly River /*ŋg/ is reflected as [ŋɣ]; e.g. [maŋɣat] “language” < /*maŋgot/ (q.v. Fumey 2006: 2.)


… vowels …/*i *u *e *o *a/ …

High front vowel /*i/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

Inland Gulf Ipiko Foia FoiaHoia Hoia Hoyahoya MahigiMubami
*i i i i i i i
1 pl. *ni ni ni ni ni
root *titi tìtí titi
bamboo *diki diʔi diki
sand *gini gini gili
leg *idini idini idili
forearm *pipiɣ̃i pìpínìpipini pipinipipini
snake *wike wikewe 'βike ~ 'wike'wike biʔe
path *jigei jigei 'dige 'digei
weep/cry *iwo ivo
sleep *iboto iboto iboto
skin *nikopi nikopi ni'kopi ni'kopi niʔoɸi
liver *iwa ìvá iwa iwa iwo
chest *bita bìtá bita bita bita
woman/wife *kiɸa kiɸa 'kiha kihaiuiɸa
night *jika ɾika 'dikɔ dikʷa ~ dika di'ka diʔa
name *jiga hìgá ɾiga 'ligɔ li'ga diga
mountain *iɸia iɸia iɸia
cassowary *siɣ̃ia híníá henia sinia
woman/wife *kiwaju ìvóhi kiwolu ~ ki'wɔɾu
heart *muki múmúʔí muʔi
belly *kuti ùtí kuti 'kuti ku'ti uti
eye *kuɸino uhino kuɸino ku'hino kuhino kuhiruuɸilo
fish *ebi ebi ebi
earth/ground*boti boti 'boti bɔ'ti boti boti
mosquito *n[a/o]ɣ̃itinanitinoniti nonoti noniti
louse *uani úānì uali
two *measi mèáhì masi 'mahi mahi mahi
nose *dasi dahi desi 'dɛhi 'dɛhi dehi dehi
hand *saki haki aki saʔi
leaf *jaji -lali -rari
people *animi animi
big (m.) *gamise gamise ga'mihe
big (n.) *gamiso gamiso gamiho
long *g[a]ɾiwo gàɾívògoɾiwo goli'goliwo goligoliwo golioliwo

One example …:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*i/_Cu ui ? u ? ?
elbow*i[n/ɣ̃]u unu inu unu

High back vowel /*u/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*u u u u u u u
ear *tu tu tu-
mother *-wu -vu -wu -wu -wu
egg *usu usu uhu
egg *ɸutu utu ɸutu
nape *tumuku tumuʔu
navel *dukumu duʔum-onidukumu dukumu
heart *muki múmúʔí muʔi
belly *kuti ùtí kuti 'kuti ku'ti uti
eye *kuɸino uhino kuɸino ku'hino kuhino kuhiruuɸilo
hear *ug[i/e] uge -ugi- -ugʲ- -ugi- -ugV-
moon *bubei bubei bubei bubei
old *duta duta duta duta
wind *ɸubato hubatoɸubato
elbow *i[n/ɣ̃]u unu inu unu
meat *ainu ainu ailu
knee *kemuku ke'muku ke'muku omuʔu
thumb/five *weak[e]mu vēāʔúmú wak[e]mu wakumuwaʔumo
sun *nowumu nowumu nowumu
heavy *dioku dioku 'gʲoku ki'oku dioʔu
tomorrow *di[o]ɸu dihu diɸu 'gʲo'hu diɸu
singular (f.)*-eamu -emu
wing *taɸu taɸu 'tahu 'tahu tataɸu
woman *anumu ànúmu
smoke *kaɸuto ahuto koɸuto kohuto kohuɾi kahurioɸuto

Mid front vowel /*e/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia Hoia Hoyahoya MahigiMubami
*e e e e e e e
tree *de de de de de de
father *-we -ve -we -we
3 sg. m. *ete étè ete 'ete ete
tooth *bese 'behe behe ~ bɛhɛ behe behe
shin *dete dete dedi
fish *ebi ebi ebi
3 sg. n. *eto étò eto
shoulder *beno bénò beno 'beno 'beno bero belo
lie down/sleep*teno ténô telo
bandicoot *geneɸo gènèhó geneɸo 'genoho 'geneho gerepogeleɸo
yellow *eta e'ta [rp] eta
lime *eka eʔa eka
ear *jeja ɾeɾa i'ela
bird *ewesa ewesa 'ɛβɛha eweha ~ 'ɛwiha eweha
singular (m.) *-eame -eme -ame -ame
snake *wike wikewe 'βike ~ 'wike'wike biʔe
fish/meat *tope tòpé tope to'pe tope ~ topɛ
egg/seed *kane ánè
man *aneme ànèméá
girl *ameno ameno amelo
white ash​es *paɣ̃eɸ[o] paneɸo panɛhɛ panehe
banana *napeto nàpétò napeɾo napero

… /*eCi/ …:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*e/_Ci iCieCi iCi ? eCi
3 pl.*eti ítì eti iti eti

… /*eCu/ …:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigi Mubami
*e/_Cu iCueCu ? eCu
3 sg. f. *etu itu etu etu
*e/_Cu iCuiCu ? iCu ? iCu
mother (3 sg.)*e-wu i-vu i-wu i-wu i-wu
*e/_Cu ? ? ? eCu eCuoCu
knee *kemuku ke'muku ke'muku omuʔu

Mid back vowel /*o/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia Hoia Hoyahoya MahigiMubami
*o o o o o o o
1 sg. *no no no no no
2 pl. *jo ho ɾo lo lo do
2 sg. *ɣ̃o vo ɣ̃o go wo go
water *ogo ògó 'ogo
seed *moko momoko (mo)'moko momokomomoʔo
neck *mogo mògó mogo
thigh *boɸo bóhò boɸo boɸo
throat *ɸoko hoʔo ɸoko ho'kolɛ ho'kolɛ hokori
yesterday *doso doho doso doho 'doho doho
breast *jono nono 'nono 'nono dolo
afternoon *dodoso doɾoho dodoho
earth/ground *boti boti 'boti bɔ'ti boti boti
canoe *bo[n/ɣ̃]iobone bonio
sun *nowumu nowumu nowumu
fish/meat *tope tòpé tope to'pe tope ~ topɛ
tongue *koda koda koda koda oda
cold *kokamo kokamo ko'kamo
weep/cry *iwo ivo
sleep *iboto iboto iboto
skin *nikopi nikopi ni'kopi ni'kopi niʔoɸi
skin *ko[j]ipo oipo kɔɾipɔ
cassowary *koibo koibo 'koibo 'koibo
eye *kuɸino uhino kuɸino ku'hino kuhino kuhiruuɸilo
long *g[a]ɾiwo gàɾívògoɾiwo goli'goliwogoligoliwo golioliwo
smoke *kaɸuto ahuto koɸuto kohuto kohuɾi kahurioɸuto
3 sg. n. *eto étò eto
shoulder *beno bénò beno 'beno 'beno bero belo
lie down/sleep*teno ténô telo
bandicoot *geneɸo gènèhógeneɸo 'genoho 'geneho gerepogeleɸo
girl *ameno ameno amelo
banana *napeto nàpétònapeɾo napero
house *aɸo aho 'oho
ashes *pawo pavo pawo
good (n.) *dajo daɾo dalo
dog *gaso gáhò gaso 'gaho 'gaho gaholagaho
night *ɣ̃apo vápò
mouth *maɣ̃oto mānótòmamoto mo'noto mogoto
hot *papato pàpátòpapato pa'pato pa'pato papato
wind *ɸubato hubatoɸubato

Low central vowel /*a/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
*a a a a a a a
1 sg. obj. *na- na- na- na-
tooth *ta ta [ib] ta
come (sg.) *am[V] ama -amo-
come *bam- -bam- -bam-
person *ama ama 'ama 'ama ami (?)ama
pig *maɸa màhá maɸa 'maga maʁa ~ ma'ha
tongue *sasa háhá
leaf *basai ba'hai bahai
people *animi animi
big (m.) *gamise gamise ga'mihe
big (n.) *gamiso gamiso gamiho
not *gasai gasai ga'hai gahai
wing *taɸu taɸu 'tahu 'tahu tataɸu
woman *anumu ànúmu
egg/seed *kane ánè
man *aneme ànèméá
girl *ameno ameno amelo
banana *napeto nàpétò napeɾo napero
white ash​es*paɣ̃eɸ[o] paneɸo panɛhɛ panehe
house *aɸo aho 'oho (?)
ashes *pawo pavo pawo
good (n.) *dajo daɾo dalo
dog *gaso gáhò gaso 'gaho 'gaho gahola gaho
night *ɣ̃apo vápò
hot *papato pàpátò papato pa'pato pa'pato papato
mouth *maɣ̃oto mānótò mamoto mo'noto mogoto
liver *iwa ìvá iwa iwa iwo
chest *bita bìtá bita bita bita
woman/wife *kiɸa kiɸa 'kiha kihaiu iɸa
night *jika ɾika 'dikɔ dikʷa ~ dika di'ka diʔa
name *jiga hìgá ɾiga 'ligɔ li'ga diga
old *duta duta duta duta
wind *ɸubato hubato ɸubato
yellow *eta e'ta [rp] eta
lime *eka eʔa eka
ear *jeja ɾeɾa i'ela
bird *ewesa ewesa 'ɛβɛha eweha ~ 'ɛwiha eweha
tongue *koda koda koda koda oda
cold *kokamo kokamo ko'kamo

… /*aCi/ …:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*a/_Ci ae e e e e
nose*dasi dahi desi 'dɛhi 'dɛhi dehi dehi

…:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*a/_i a
*a/_i a
people*animi animi

…:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*a/_i a a a a a
fire*maɸi maɸi 'mahi mahi
hand*saki haki aki saʔi
leaf*jaji -lali -rari

… /*aCu/ …:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya MahigiMubami
*a/_u ao o o a o
woman *anumu ànúmu
smoke *kaɸuto ahutokoɸuto kohuto kohuɾi kahurioɸuto
*a/_u o
woman/wife*kiwaju ìvóhi kiwolu ~ ki'wɔɾu

… vowel sequences …

The sequence /*ia/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia Foia Hoia HoiaHoyahoya MahigiMubami
*ia ieia ia ia iaia
bone *ɸia ɸia sa [< /hia/]
head *gia gia gʲa gʲa gia gia
new *gia gia[i]gewogʲagewo gʲa giala
mountain *iɸia iɸia iɸia
cassowary*siɣ̃ia híníá henia sinia

… /*ia/ …:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*… aia a
hand*saɣ̃a hàná sania 'hana

… /*io/ …:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*io eio io io ? o
canoe *bo[n/ɣ̃]iobone bonio
sun *siwio hive siwio siwo
one (n.)*jaigio ɾaigio 'lagio laigio dago-

One exception in Mubami is likely due to stress:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*io ?io io io ? io
heavy*dioku dioku 'gʲoku ki'oku dioʔu

… /*ua/ …:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*ua ua ua
louse*uani úānì uali

… /*ei/ …:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia Hoia Hoyahoya MahigiMubami
*ei ei ei [ei e]ei [ei e]eiei
path*jigei jigei 'dige 'digei
moon*bubei bubei bubei bubei
who?*wotei wotei wo'tei wɔtene wotei

The sequence /*ea/ is simplified to /*a/ in the western languages, and is merged with /e/ in Ipiko under unknown conditions:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*ea ea a a a a a
two *measi mèáhì masi 'mahi mahi mahi
thumb/five *weak[e]mu vēāʔúmúwak[e]mu wakumuwaʔumo
*ea₂ e a a
singular (f.)*-eamu -emu
singular (m.)*-eame -eme -ame -ame
leaf *peas[a/o] pèhá paso

… /*oi/ …:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*oi oi oi oi
cassowary*koibo koibo 'koibo 'koibo

… /*ou/ …:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*ou u ou
sago*dou du dou

… /*ai/ …:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*ai aiai ai ai ? ai
father *ai ai ai alai
vine/rope*pai pai pai
meat *ainu ainu ailu
leaf *basai ba'hai bahai
not *gasai gasai ga'hai gahai

… /*au/ …:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigi Mubami
*au o a au
all*bautVkumi botakumi batokimebautoʔumi

… /*ae/ …:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*ae ae
fire*tae tae tairi taeli

…:

Inland GulfIpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
*…
*…

Gender ablaut

Inland Gulf languages indicate gender in (at least) some human nominals and agreeing adjectives according to same vocalism as Marind-Yaqay and Boazi (q.v. Drabbe 1954: CITE, 1955: CITE,) with masculine singular indicated by /*e/, feminine singular by /*u/, animate plural by /*i/ and neuter by /*o/:

Inland Gulf Ipiko Foia Foia Hoyahoya Mubami
*e/*u/*i/*oe/u/i/oe/u/i/oe/u/i/oe/u/i/o
singular (m.)*-eame -eme -ame -ame
singular (f.)*-eamu -emu
3 sg. m. *ete étè ete 'ete ete
3 sg. f. *etu itu etu etu
3 pl. *eti ítì eti iti eti
3 sg. n. *eto étò eto
man *aneme ànèméá
woman *anumu ànúmu
people *animi animi
big (m.) *gamise gamise
big (n.) *gamiso gamiso gamiho
father *we -ve -we -we
mother *wu -vu -wu -wu -wu
one (m.) *jaige ɾaige
one (f.) *jaigu ɾaigu
one (n.) *jaigio ɾaigio laigio dago-

Pronouns

Inland Gulf free pronouns are reconstructed as follows:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMubami
1 sg. *no no no no no
2 sg. *ɣ̃o vo ɣ̃o go wo go
3 sg. m.*ete étè ete 'ete ete
3 sg. f.*etu itu; utu [ib]etu etu
1 pl. *ni ni ni ni ni
2 pl. *jo ho; ɾo [ib] ɾo lo lo do
3 pl. *eti ítì eti iti 'eti

Object and inalienable possessive prefixes are based primarily upon comparison of Ipiko forms to those of other subfamilies of Fly River, and are reconstructed as follows:

Inland GulfIpiko Foia FoiaHoyahoyaMubami
1 sg. obj./poss.*na- na- na- na-
2 sg. obj./poss.*ɣ̃a- va-
3 sg. obj./poss.*a-/*e- a-/e- e- e- e-
1 pl. obj./poss.*ni- ni-
2 pl. obj./poss.*ja- ha-; ɾa- [ib]
3 pl. obj./poss.*ja- ha-

It's probable that a full set of prefixes is present in all Inland Gulf languages but is simply not visible in the brief survey vocabularies.

Loans from neighboring families

[under construction]

Loans from Kiwai …:

Kiwai Ipiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoya Mahigi Mubami
breast *amo amo
know *umoɾo- umoɾo-umoɾo- umoɾo- umo'ɾo-
heavy *mikibo miibo
cloud *bubu bubu
louse *nimo nimo nimo ni'mo
belly *niɾo niɾo diro (?)
fish *na(-keɾe) nakeɾe 'nakeɾe
smoke *tema 'tɛma
men's house*daɾimo daɾimo dalimo
banana *dubaɾi dubaɾi dubaɾi dubali ~ dubaɾi
root *sipi hipi 'hipi
sun *siwio hive siwio siwo
sun *saɾiki 'heiki seki seiʔi
bone *soɾo hoɾo
blood *kaɾima kaɾima kalima 'kalima karimo
boy *kosio 'ohi-ama 'ohio
fat/grease *gadi gadi 'gadi 'gadi gadi
ear *gaɾe 'gaɾe
sand *wio vio wio
rain *wisaɾe vúhá

Loans to Kiwai and Tabo:

Inland GulfNE. KiwaiMorigiKerewoBamuTabo
*…

Loans from Dibiyaso or the ancestor or close relative thereof are found in Mubami, Mahigi and Hoyahoya:

Dibiyaso Hoia HoiaHoyahoya MahigiMubami
path iti idi idi
toothbese-ɾepa'behe behe ~ bɛhɛbehe behe

Loans from Kikori River:

IpikoFoia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami

Loans from Motu:

Motu Ipiko Foia FoiaHoia HoiaHoyahoyaMahigiMubami
cloud oɺi oɾi oɾi
wallabymaganimaganimagani