Central Digul River
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
[under construction]
…
Subclassification
The internal classification of Central Digul River is as follows:
Central Digul River
Awyu
Ndeiram River-Wambon
Ndeiram River
Wambon
Voorhoeve (2000: 362) provides lexicostatistical figures for Awyu-Dumut as follows:
| Siagha | Pisa | Aghu | Kombai | Digul W. | Yong W. | Kaeti | |
| Siagha | — | 52 | 52 | 30 | 34 | 32 | 32 |
| Pisa | 52 | — | 68 | 32 | 36 | 35 | 33 |
| Aghu | 55 | 68 | — | 30 | 34 | 34 | 33 |
| Kombai | 30 | 32 | 30 | — | 36 | 38 | 40 |
| Digul W. | 34 | 36 | 34 | 36 | — | 50 | 51 |
| Yong. W. | 32 | 35 | 34 | 38 | 50 | — | 62 |
| Kaeti | 32 | 33 | 33 | 40 | 51 | 62 | — |
These are substantially lower than those given by Healey (1970: 1009):
| Syiagha | Yenimu | Pisa | Aghu | Yong. W. | Kaeti | |
| Syiagha | — | 86 | 78 | 73 | 62 | 54 |
| Yenimu | 86 | — | 83 | 78 | 62 | 55 |
| Pisa | 78 | 83 | — | 91 | 59 | 54 |
| Aghu | 73 | 78 | 91 | — | 54 | 50 |
| Yong. W. | 62 | 62 | 59 | 54 | — | 77 |
| Kaeti | 54 | 55 | 54 | 50 | 77 | — |
Sources
van Doorn (1931-1932) 429 comparative terms for (pp. 133-140) Digul Mappi (Mappi River Awyu) and (pp. 141-150) Digul Mandobo (Upper Mandobo) published in Stokhof ed. (1982)
Unattributed Holle comparative of vocabularies of (pp. 120-121) Upper Uwimerah [sic]/Upper Digul (Kenon or Kenyam) and (pp. 129-130) Uwimerah (observation post) (Kokenop) published in Stokhof ed. (1982)
Nevermann (1939) vocabulary of Oser
Drabbe (1947) grammar of Pisà (Wildeman River)
Boelaars (1950: 68-76) English language recension of Drabbe's Pisà grammar
Drabbe (1950) grammar and (pp. 131-142) 408 comparative terms for Sjìagha (Ia River,) Jénimu (Bamgi River) and Pisà
Drabbe (1954: 162-163) pronouns and (1954: 211- 214) grammar sketch of Oàmbon (Upper Mandobo) of Anggimòp village and Runggoanjàp and (pp. 214-229) 419 comparative terms and (pp. 231-255) 100 comparative terms for (Oàmbon) Dumùt, Sjìagha, Jénimu and Pisà
Drabbe (1957) grammar and (pp. 47-41) 408 comparative terms for Aghu
Drabbe (1959) grammar of Kaeti (Omba Rungwanjap i.e. Central Mandobo) and Wambon (Agayop) and (pp. 162-181) 431 comparative terms for Siàgha, Jénimu, Pisà, Aghu, Kaeti and Wambon
Healey (1970) reconstruction of Proto Awyu-Dumut
Voorhoeve (1975: 374-379) brief general descriptions of Awyu-Dumut languages
Voorhoeve (2000) revision of Healey's (1970) Awyu-Dumut, including (pp. 372-381) 108 reconstructed terms and 5 comparative terms for Kwem (Central Mandobo)
Voorhoeve (2005) comparison of Proto-Awyu-Dumut to Proto-Asmat and Proto-Ok
de Vries (1986) Wambon relators
de Vries (1987) Kombai kin terms
de Vries (1989) unpublished thesis on Wambon and Korowai (unobtained)
de Vries (1990) Kombai quotations
de Vries and de Vries-Wiersma (1992) grammar of (Kenon) Wambon of Sawagit village
de Vries (1993) grammar of Kombai
de Vries (1994) Awyu (i.e. Central Digul River) number systems
van Enk and de Vries (1997: 221-225) 200 comparative terms for Kombai
de Vries (2010) Dumut conjoined clauses
de Vries, Wester and van den Heuvel (2012) Greater Awyu (Digul River) comparative pronouns and verbal morphology
Jang (2003: 39-47) 239 comparative terms for Ketumof Ater village, Kenon of Klofkamp and Kokenop of Bukit
Jang (2008) grammar of (Kenon) Wambon of Klofkamp and Manggelum villages
Hughes (2009: 27-37) 239 comparative terms for Wanggom of Biwage village and Digul Wambon of Manggelum
Lebold, Kriens and de Vries (2010: 46-52) 97 comparative terms for South Awyu (Bamgi River) of Salamepe village
Kriens and Lebold (2010: 40-53) 239 comparative terms for Awyu (Pasue River) of Ketah, Nohon and Taim villages and Awyu (Wildeman River) of Busiri
Lebold, Kriens, de Vries and Rumaropen (2010: 54-66) 240 comparative terms for Asue Awyu of Juvo Besar/Kabu, Juvo Kecil, Keru and Khanami villages, 62 comparative terms for Asaren, Isage, Aboge, Kopi, Kiki, Eci, Homang, Amenda, Omuro, Khaibu and Kasima villages
Kriens, Lebold and Menanti (2011: 44-51) 239 comparative terms for Asue Awyu of Amagatsu village, 50 comparative terms for Sogope, Katage and Yagatsu villlages
Lebold, Kriens and Susanto (2013: 36-47) 239 comparative terms for South Awyu (Bamgi River) of Yeloba and Konebi (Jas) villages, Edera Awyu of Meto, Ujung Kia, Yame and Bhakti, Jair Awyu (Upper Kia River) of Ujung Kia and (Central) Mandobo of Kaisah, and (pp. 48-50) 60 comparative terms for Edera of Amk, South Awyu (Bamgi River) of Banamepe and Konebi (Homeme,) Jair (Upper Kia River) of Subur and (Central) Mandobo of Subur and Aiwat
Wester (2014) Awyu-Dumut comparative morphology including (pp. 195-210) 430 comparative terms for Shiaxa, Yenimu, Pisa, Aghu, (Kaeti) Mandobo, and Yonggom Wambon (Agayop) after Drabbe (1959: 162-181,) Digul Wambon (Kenon) after Jang (p.c.) Kombai after Chi (p.c.) and Korowai after van Enk and de Vries (1997 ibid.)
Groen (n.d.) unpublished vocabulary of Kombai obtained in comparative spreadsheet format from Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics
History of classification
Drabbe (1954: 214-229) compares Kati (Muyu,) Wambon and Awyu languages. Drabbe (1959: 4-5) joins the Awyu and Wambon languages in an Awyu group in explicit contrast to Kati, mentioning Wanggom as another member. This division is followed by Voorhoeve (1968: 4) in his subclassification of the Asmat-Awyu-Ok subgroup of his South and Central New Guinea Stock.
Healey (1970) distinguishes Awyu from Dumut (i.e. Wambon) within Awyu-Dumut.
Voorhoeve (1971: 89-90) adds Sawuy to Awyu-Dumut, suggesting that it may be closest to Sjiagha/Jenimu (South Awyu.) Voorhoeve (1975: 27-29) treats Sawuy as a third member alongside Healey's Awyu and Dumut, with Wanggom as a member of Dumut.
De Vries (1986: 9-10) identifies Digul Wambon as a Dumut language with a dialect-level relationship to Yonggom Wambon (Drabbe's 1959 Wambon, i.e. East Wambon)
De Vries (1989: 4, 1993: 1) identifies Kombai, Wanggom and Tayan as dialects of a single language.
Voorhoeve (2000: 362) treats de Vries' (1993) Kombai as a third branch of proto-Awyu-Dumut, but does not mention Sawuy. De Vries' Digul Wambon is treated as a separate language from Yonggom Wambon.
De Vries, Wester and van den Heuvel (2012: 299-300) reiterate Voorhoeve's tripartite division with Kombai-Wanggom-Tayan renamed Ndeiram River. Voorhoeve's (1971) Sawuy is included in Awyu-Dumut (p. 276) but is not explicitly placed relative to the other three branches.
Greenberg (1971: 825-826) includes both Awju and Dumut in his Southwestern subgroup of Indo-Pacific; however Dumut is wrongly treated as a subgroup of Ok, and both Awju and Ok are given as coordinate to Marind, Tirio (Lower Fly River) and Kukukuku (Kratke Range) groups.
Historical phonology
[under construction]
The presentation which follows is inevitably deeply indebted to the reconstruction presented in Healey (1970) and to its modification and expansion by Voorhoeve (2000.) De Vries, Wester and van den Heuvel (2012) and Wester (2014) add some valuable points of comparative morphology, but their phonological system, to the extent there can be said to be one, is not reliable.
Proto-Central Digul River had 14 to 16 consonants and 9 or 10 vowels as follows:
| *m | *n | |||
| *p | *t | *s | *k | *kʷ |
| *mb | *nd | [*ndz] | *ŋg | *ŋgʷ |
| [*hʷ] | ||||
| *w | *ɾ | *j |
| *i | *u | |
| *e̝ | *ɵ̝ | *o̝ |
| *ɛ | [*ɜ] | *ɔ |
| *a | *ɒ |
In addition to the simple vowels given above, a number of diphthongs are found as follows:
…
Only a restricted set of consonants occurs finally:
| *m | *n | ||
| *p | *t | *k | |
| *ɾ | *j |
This system is substantially different from Healey's (1970: 998-1000) Proto-Awyu Dumut inventory of 13 or 14 consonants and 8 vowels, with Healey's segments given in their original orthography:
| *m | *n | ||
| [*p] | *t | *k | |
| *b | *d | *g | |
| *f | *s | *x | |
| *w | *r | *y |
| *i | *ü | *u |
| *e | *ö | *o |
| *ɛ | *ɔ | |
| *a |
…
The values proposed here correlate to Healey's as follows:
| Usher | Healey |
| *m | *m |
| *n | *n |
| *p | *f |
| — | *p |
| *t | *t |
| *s | *s |
| *k | *k |
| *k | *x |
| *kʷ | *k |
| *mb | *b |
| *nd | *d |
| *ndz | — |
| *ŋg | *g |
| *ŋgʷ | *w |
| *hʷ | *f |
| *w | *w |
| *ɾ | *r |
| *j | *y |
| *i | *i |
| *u | *ü |
| *e̝ | *e |
| *ɵ̝ | *ö |
| *o̝ | *u |
| *ɛ | *ɛ |
| *ɜ | … |
| *ɔ | *o |
| *a | *a |
| *ɒ | *ɔ |
…
Initial and medial consonants correspond as follows:
| C. Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey |
| *m | *m | m | *m | |
| *n | *n | n | *n | |
| *p | *ɸ | ɸ | *p | |
| *t | *t | r | *t | |
| *s | *s | r | *s | |
| *k | *k | x | *k | |
| *k/a ɒ ɔ | *x | x | *k | |
| *kʷ | *kʷ | xʷ | *kʷ | |
| *mb | *b | mb | *mb | |
| *nd | *d | nd | *nd | |
| *ndz | r | *ndz | ||
| *ŋg | *g | ŋg | *ŋg | |
| *ŋgʷ | *w | ŋgʷ | *ŋgʷ | |
| *hʷ | *xʷ | ɸ | ||
| *w | ||||
| *ɾ | *ɾ | l | *ɾ | |
| *j | *j | *j |
Final consonants correspond as follows:
| C. Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey |
| *… |
Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:
| C. Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey |
| *i | *i | i | *i | |
| *u | *u | y | *ʉ | |
| *e̝₂ | *e̝ | i | *e | |
| *e̝₁ | *e̝ | e | *e | |
| *o̝ | *o̝ | u | *ɵ̝ | |
| *ɛ | *ɛ | e | *e | |
| *ɜ | *ɜ | |||
| *ɔ | *ɔ | o | *o | |
| *a | *a | a | *a | |
| *ɒ | *ɔ | a | *ɒ | |
| *uⁱ | *uⁱ | uⁱ | ||
| *ɛⁱ | *ɛⁱ | eⁱ | ||
| *ɔⁱ | *ɔⁱ | *oⁱ | ||
| *aⁱ | *aⁱ | aⁱ | ||
| *aⁱ/kʷ_ | *ɔⁱ | aⁱ | *uⁱ | |
| *ɔᵘ | *ɔᵘ | oʸ oᵘ | *u |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows. Since not much Wanggom data is available, Kombai is used to exemplify Ndeiram River, with most forms drawn from de Vries (1993,) van Enk and de Vries (1997: 221-225) and Voorhoeve (2000: 372-381;) those drawn from Groen (n.d.) are designated [jg]:
There is one known comparison involving a sound found in Awyu as a rounded velar fricative /*xʷ/, which appears only in loans from Marind or Marind-Yaqay, where the western dialects of Marind realize /*w/ as [hʷ]. The Mandobo reflex has an [*h], retained in van Doorn's Digul Mandobo, which is found only in loans:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | ;Healey | |
| *hʷ | *xʷ | ɸ | *p | *f | |
| canoe | *jahʷun | *jaxʷuN | jaɸu(n) | *japʉn | *jofün |
High front vowel /*i/ …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *i | *i | i | *i | *i | |
| drink (realis) | *mi- | *mi[N/C]- | mi- | *mi- | *mik- |
| mother | *ni | *ni | ni | *noy | |
| plait | *ti- | *ti- | *ti- | *ti- | |
| earth/ground | *ip | i(ɸ) | *ip | — | |
| star/firefly | *min | *miN | mi | *min | — |
| thought | *pin(-pin) | *piN- | ɸimbi-ma- [rw] | *pin(-pin) | — |
| shin | *mbin | *biN | *mbin | *bin | |
| coconut | *mbij[ɒ/ɔ]n | mbijo | *mbijɒn | — | |
| dog | *tit | *tit | — | ||
| rattan/rope | *tik | ri | *tik | — | |
| nose/beak | *sim | *siN | *sim | — | |
| bathe/swim | *kim- | *kiN- | *kim- | *kim- | |
| rib(s) | *ɾin | *ɾiN | *ɾin | *rin | |
| hand/arm | *wit | i(t) | *wit | — | |
| thigh | *mindin | *midiN | mindi [rw] | *mindin | — |
| thick | *pinim | ɸini [rw] | *pinim | — | |
| turtle/tortoise | *mbiɾip | mbi ~ mbli | *mbiɾip | — | |
| sand | *ŋgiɾim | *giɾiN | *ŋgiɾim | *girim | |
| tail | *minu | *minu | miny | — | |
| swallow | *mi[m/n] kɵ̝m- | *miko̝N | *mi[m/n] kɵ̝m- | *mi köm- | |
| wind | *kip[ɛⁱ] | *kiɸɛⁱ | xiɸeⁱ | *kijapoj | **kifuy |
| torch | *sijaC | *sija | riˈja | — | |
| tooth | *imban | imba | *imban | — | |
| sour | *tɔᵘŋgi | *t[ɔᵘ]ŋgi | roᵘŋgi [rw] | — | |
| snake | *ŋgʷati | *wati | ˈŋgʷari | *ŋgʷati | **wati |
| bamboo knife | *waki | *waki | waxi [rw] | *waki | *waki |
| bite | *atik- | *atiC- | *atik- | *atik- | |
| sneeze (n.) | *asin | *asiN | *asin | *asin | |
| bow | *mbandit | mbandi [rw] | *mbandit | — | |
| cuscus | *takip | … | *takip | — | |
| night | *wamin | *wamiN | *wamin | *wɔmin | |
| egg | *wandin | indi | *wandin | — | |
| path | *jandit | *jadi | *jandit | — | |
| male | *mbaktim | *baxtiN | *mbatim | *baxtim | |
| buy/sell | *taki-mɔ | raxi-mo- | *taki-mɔ- | — |
High central rounded vowel /*ʉ/ …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *ʉ | *ʉ | y | *u | *ü | |
| heart | *ndʉ[m/mb]-ɾɔp | *dʉb-ɾɔ | ndymo | *ndum-ɾop | *dümrop |
One example …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *[i/ʉ] | *i | i | *ʉ | *ü | |
| name | *p[i/u]p | *ɸi | ɸi | *pup | *füp |
High back rounded vowel /*u/ is fronted to [y ʉ] …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *u | *u | y | *u | *ü | |
| back | *mu | *mu | *mu | *mü | |
| stab/kill (fut.) | *pu- | *ɸu- | *pu- | — | |
| expel from body | *tu- | *tu- | ry- | *tu- | *tü(k)- |
| cook/burn | *ndu- | *du- | andy- ~ andu- | *(a-)ndu- | — |
| sing | *ɾu- | ly- | *ɾu- | *rük- | |
| chop down | *ɾu[C]- | *ɾu[C]- | *ɾu- | *rük- | |
| smell | *pup | *ɸu- | *pup-(mɔ)- | *füp | |
| banana | *tut | *tu | ry(l) | *tut | *tüt |
| sugarcane | *k[ʷ]um | *kuN | *kum | *kün | |
| brain | *un | *guN | *ŋgun | *gün | |
| boil (n.) | *ɾun | *ɾuN | *ɾun | *rün | |
| egg | *muŋgɔ | *mugɔ | — | ||
| dig | *kuwɔ- | *kuwɔ- | xywo- | — | |
| tail | *minu | *minu | miny | — | |
| rain | *mo̝ɾup | muly ~ my | *mo̝ɾup | — | |
| village | *mbo̝tup | *bo̝tu | byry | *mbo̝tup | *bütüp |
| black | *ŋgo̝num | ŋguny | *ŋgo̝num | — | |
| son/child | *amut | *amut | *amut | — | |
| yesterday | *aɾup | *aɾup | — | ||
| body | *anduɾ | *adu | *anduɾ | *ɔdü | |
| hot | *mamun | mamy | *mamun | — | |
| beard | *matut | *matu | *matut | *matit | |
| elbow/eight | *ŋgambum | ŋgamby | *ŋgambum | — | |
| tail | *wambut | *wɔbu | *wambut | *wɔbüt | |
| middle/inside | *wamup | *w[ɔ]mu | wamy | *wamup | — |
When following rounded velars /*kʷ *hʷ/ or non-stop /*w/, /*u/ is not fronted in Kombai but is retained as /u/:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *u/Cʷ w_ | *u | u | *u | *ü | |
| die | *kʷum- | *kuN- | xumo- | *kum- | *küm- |
| hit/kill | *wu[n]- | *wu- | u- | *[w]un- | *wü- |
| canoe | *jahʷun | *jaxʷuN | jaɸu(n) | *japun | *jofün |
One example …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *[o̝/u] | *u | *o̝ | *ü | ||
| navel | *ŋg[o̝/u]m | *guN | *ŋgo̝m | *güm |
High mid front vowel /*e̝/ …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *e̝₁ | *e̝ | e | *e | *e | |
| be | *ke̝₁- | *ke̝[C]- | xe- | *ke- | *ke- |
| lie down | *ɾe̝₁- | *ɾe̝- | le- ~ leⁱ- | *ɾe- | — |
| chest | *mbe̝[m/n] (-man) | *be̝N | be-ma [rw] | *mb[e̝][m/n] (-man) | — |
| flower | *ke̝₁t | *ke̝t | xe | *ket | *ket |
| tree/fire | *je̝₁n | *je̝N | e(n) | *jen | *yin |
| bird | *je̝₁t | *je̝(t) | e(l) | *jet | *yet |
| urine | *je̝₁t | *je̝(t) | … | *jet | *yet |
| rope | *ke̝₁ke̝₁n | *ke̝ke̝n | — | ||
| 3 sg. | *ɛke̝₁p | *ɛke̝ | xe | *ekep | *ɛge |
| penis | *t[e̝/ɛ]ŋge̝₁t | *t[e̝/ɛ]ge̝ | reˈŋge | *teŋget | *teget |
| sharp | *[k/ŋg][e̝/ɛ]te̝₁n | *k[e̝/ɛ]te̝n | ŋgere(n) | *[k/ŋg]eten | *geten/*keten |
| eat (future) | *ande̝₁- | *a[n]de̝- | ande- | *ande- | — |
| good | *jape̝₁[C] | *jaɸe̝ | jaɸe | — |
…:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *e̝₂ | *e̝ | i | *e | *e | |
| foot | *ke̝₂nɔp | *ke̝nɔ | xino | *kenop | — |
| ashes | *se̝₂na | *se̝na | rino-xʷari | — | |
| nape | *ŋg[o̝]mbe̝₂n | *go̝be̝N | gubin-o | *ŋg[o]mben | — |
| mosquito | *sɒpe̝₂n | reɸij-o | *sɒpen | — | |
| sweat | *kʷate̝₂n | *kʷate̝N | xʷari | *kʷaten | *koten |
…:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *e̝ | *e̝ | ? | *e | *e | |
| rainbow | *e̝ɾe̝n | *e̝ɾe̝n | *e̝ɾe̝n | *eren/*irin | |
| bamboo | *pe̝kɔp | *pe̝[j]ɔp | *pe̝kɔp | — | |
| marsupial | *ke̝sɔ[t/ɾ] | *ke̝sɔ | *k[e]so[t/ɾ] | — | |
| eye | *ke̝ɾɔp | *ke̝ɾɔ | xo-ro ~ xlo-ro | *keɾop | *kerop |
| that | *ɛwe̝ | *ɛwe̝ | *ewe | *ɛwɛ | |
| enough | *kaɾe̝ | *xaɾe̝- | *kaɾe | *xare | |
| spirit | *mbake̝t | *mbake̝t | — | ||
| lime | *kame̝n | *xame̝N | — | ||
| friend | *kambe̝n | *xabe̝N | *kamben | — | |
| saliva | *kate̝t | *xate̝ | *katet | *xatet |
High mid central rounded vowel /*ɵ̝/ …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *ɵ̝ | *o̝ | u | *ɵ̝ | *ö *u | |
| dream | *ɵ̝ɾ | u | *ɵ̝ɾ | — | |
| hair | *mɵ̝k | *mo̝x | *mɵ̝k | *möx | |
| 1 sg. | *nɵ̝p | *no̝ | nu(ɸ) | *nɵ̝p | *nop |
| go up | *tɵ̝ɾ | *to̝C | *tɵ̝ɾ | — | |
| and/also | *-kɵ̝p | *-ko̝ | -xu | *-kɵ̝p | — |
| wall | *kɵ̝k | *kɵ̝k | *kük | ||
| 2 sg. | *ŋgɵ̝p | *go̝ | ŋgu(ɸ) | *ŋgɵ̝p | *göp |
| voice/speech | *ɾɵ̝k | *ɾo̝ | lu | *ɾɵ̝k | *röx/*rux |
| kunai grass | *mbɵ̝p | mbuɸ-o | *mbɵ̝p | — | |
| black | *mbɵ̝kɵ̝n | *bo̝xo̝N | — | ||
| fly (v.) | *mbɵ̝ɾɵ̝n | *bo̝ɾo̝N | *mbɵ̝ɾɵ̝n | *börön | |
| fat/grease | *tɵ̝kɵ̝ɾ | *to̝ko̝ | *tɵ̝kɵ̝ɾ | — | |
| hide | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝k-mɔ- | *to̝ɾo̝-mɔ- | *tɵ̝ɾɵ̝k-mo- | *turuk-mo- | |
| ear | *t[u/ɵ̝]ɾɵ̝N | *to̝ɾo̝N | ru-ro | *t[u/ɵ̝]ɾɵ̝n | *turun |
| swallow | *mi[m/n] kɵ̝m- | *miko̝N | *mi[m/n] kɵ̝m- | *mi köm- | |
| wing | *mb[ɔ]ɾɵ̝ɾ | *mboɾɵ̝ɾ | — | ||
| thunder | *kVmɵ̝t | xumu | *komɵ̝t | — | |
| flesh | *kʷandɵ̝ | *kʷado̝ | ˈxundo | *kandɵ̝ | *kɔdö |
| raw/new | *aɾɵ̝[n] | alu | *aɾɵ̝[n] | — | |
| get up/stand up | *matɵ̝ɾ | *mato̝[ɾ] | maru | *matɵ̝ɾ | — |
| phlegm | *ŋg[a]nɵ̝m | *ŋg[a]nɵ̝m | —- | ||
| chin | *ŋgandɵ̝m | *gando̝N | ŋgandu [rd] | *ŋgandɵ̝m | *gandöm |
High mid back rounded vowel /*o̝/ …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *o̝ | *o̝ | u | *o̝ | *u | |
| louse | *[aN]ŋgo̝t | *[aŋ]g[o̝] | ŋgu | *ŋgo̝t | *gut |
| rain | *mo̝ɾup | muly ~ my | *mo̝ɾup | — | |
| black | *ŋgo̝num | ŋguny | *ŋgo̝num | — | |
| nose | *taŋgo̝t | raŋgu | *taŋgo̝t | — | |
| sleep (n.) | *kino̝m | *ko̝no̝m | xunu(m) | *kino̝m | *kinum |
| inside | *kaɾo̝p | xalu(ɸ) | *kaɾo̝p | — |
…:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *o̝ | *[o̝/u] | y | *o̝ | *ü | |
| village | *mbo̝tup | *b[o̝/u]tu | byry | *mbo̝tup | *bütüp |
Low mid front vowel /*ɛ/ …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *ɛ | *ɛ | e | *e | *ɛ | |
| 3 sg. | *ɛ- | *ɛ- | *e- | *ɛ- | |
| eat | *ɛn- | *ɛN- | en- | *en- | *ɛn- |
| tendon | *mɛt | *mɛ | *met | *mɛt | |
| forearm/seven | *mbɛn | *mben | — | ||
| red | *tɛn | re(n) | *tenop | — | |
| this | *mɛnɛ | mene | *mene | — | |
| side | *mɛɾɛn | *mɛɾɛn | — | ||
| skinny | *pɛt-pɛt | ɸeɸe | *pet-pet | — | |
| cowrie shell | *takɛt | raxe | *taket | — | |
| laughter | *ambɛn | *abɛN | *amben | — | |
| upper arm/nine | *ndzapɛt | raɸe | *ndzapet | — | |
| ashes | *kʷasɛp | rino-xʷare | *kʷasep | *gosop/*kosep |
Low mid central vowel /*ɜ/ …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *ɜ | *ɜ | *a | *aa | ||
| left | *wɜk | *wɜ | *wak | *wa | |
| butterfly | *aCpɜp | *apɜ | *aCpap | apaap |
Low mid back rounded vowel /*ɔ/ …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *ɔ | *ɔ | o | *o | *o | |
| burn (intr.) | *ndɔ- | *dɔ- | *ndo- | *do- | |
| walk/go | *kɔ- | *xɔ- | *ko- | *xox- | |
| water | *ɔk | *ɔxɔ | o(x) | *ok | *ox |
| mother's br. | *mɔm | momo(ɸ) | *mɔm | — | |
| hole | *tɔp | *tɔ | ro | *top | *top |
| come (imper.) | *ndɔ[k] | *dɔ | *ndɔk | — | |
| nail | *ndɔk | *dɔx | ndo-ndo | *ndɔk | — |
| dry | *sɔk | *sɔ | ro-xe | *sɔk | |
| blood | *ŋgɔm | *ŋgɔN | ŋgo(m) | *ŋgom | *gom |
| song | *ŋgɔm | ŋgo | *ŋgom | — | |
| wrist/six | *ŋgɔn | ŋgo(n) | — | ||
| weep/cry | *ɾɔm- | *ɾɔN- | lo- | *ɾom- | *rom- |
| fruit/seed | *ɾɔp | *ɾɔ | lo(ɸ) | *ɾop | *rop |
| hair/leaf/feather | *ɾɔn | *ɾɔN | lo | *ɾon | *ron |
| say/speak | *ɾɔk- | *ɾɔ[x]- | *ɾok- | *rox- | |
| roof | *mɔndɔm | mondo | *mondom | — | |
| lightning | *mbɔmba | mbomba | *mbomba | — | |
| incorrect | *ŋgɔmbam | *gɔbaN | *ŋgomban | *goban | |
| egg | *muŋgɔ | *mugɔ | — | ||
| dig | *kuwɔ- | *kuwɔ- | xywo- | — | |
| leg | *kVndɔk | xuˈndo | *kondok | — | |
| bamboo | *pe̝kɔp | *pe̝[j]ɔp | *pe̝kɔp | — | |
| foot | *ke̝₂nɔp | *ke̝nɔ | xino | *kenop | — |
| marsupial | *ke̝sɔ[t/ɾ] | *ke̝sɔ | *k[e]so[t/ɾ] | — | |
| eye | *ke̝ɾɔp | *ke̝ɾɔ | ˈxo-ro ~ xˈlo-ro | *keɾop | *kerop |
| stone | *[ɛⁱ]ɾɔp | *ɛⁱɾɔ | *iɾop | *irop | |
| short/blunt | *mbaŋgɔ | *bagɔ | mboŋgo | — | |
| white | *kajɔ | *xajɔ | — | ||
| story | *matɔm | *matom | — | ||
| bird of paradise | *pandɔ[ɾ/j] | *ɸɔdɔ | *pando[ɾ/j] | *fadoy | |
| armpit | *ta[N]ŋgɔn | *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN | *taŋgon | *tɔgon/*tɔngon | |
| finger | *taɾɔn | *tɔɾɔN | *taɾon | — | |
| widow | *kamɔk | *xamɔ | *kamok | *xamɔk | |
| moon | *wakɔɾ | *wakoɾ | — | ||
| breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔt | *[ɾ/j]awɔt | *ɾawot | *rɔwot/*jɔwot | |
| 3 pl. | *jakɔp | *jɔxɔ | *jakɔp | *jogup | |
| sick/ill | *jambɔɾɔ | jamˈbo ~ jambˈlo | *jamboɾo | — |
One example …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *[ɒ/ɔ] | *ɔ | a | *ɔ | *o | |
| do/make | *m[ɒ/ɔ]- | *-mɔ- | -ma- | *-mɔ- | *mo- |
…
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *ɔCa | *aCa | *oCa | *ɔCa | ||
| far | *kɔmam | *x[a]maN | *komam | *xɔman | |
| *aCɔ | *ɔCɔ | *aCo | … | ||
| bird of paradise | *pandɔ[ɾ/j] | *ɸɔdɔ | *pando[ɾ/j] | *fadoy | |
| go (imperative) | *na-kɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *na-koⁱ | — | |
| armpit | *ta[N]ŋgɔn | *tɔ[ŋ]gɔN | *taŋgon | *tɔgon/*tɔngon | |
| finger | *taɾɔn | *tɔɾɔN | *taɾon | — | |
| 3 pl. | *jakɔp | *jɔxɔ | *jakɔp | *jagup | |
| *aCɔ | *aCɔ | oCo | — | ||
| short/blunt | *mbaŋgɔ | *bagɔ | mboŋgo | — | |
| *aCɔ | *aCa | oCo | *aCo | *aCɔ | |
| mouth/teeth | *maŋgɔt | *maga | moŋgo-ro | *maŋgot | *magɔt |
It's conceivable that Awyu /*maga/ “tooth” above is a loan from the ultimately cognate Marind-Yaqay /*maŋg[a]t/, which, unlike the other Digul River-Ok forms, specifically means “tooth” rather than “mouth.”
Low central vowel /*a/ is generally preserved as such in all three subgroups:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *a | *a | *a | *a | *a *aa | |
| sit/stay | *mba- | *ba- | mba- | *mba- | *bax-/*bɔx- |
| 1 sg. poss. | *na- | *na- | na- | *na- | *na |
| walk/go (fut.) | *ka- | xa- | *ka- | — | |
| 2 sg. poss. | *ŋga- | *ŋga- | *ŋga- | *gɔ | |
| house/nest | *ap | *a | a(ɸ) | *ap | *aap |
| hear | *ndat- | *daC- | *nd[a]t- | *dat- | |
| skin/bark | *kat | *xa | xa | *kat | *xa(t) |
| take/hold | *ɾap- | *ɾa- | *ɾap- | *rax-/*rap- | |
| woman | *ɾan | *ɾaN | la(n) | *ɾan | *ran |
| thumb/five | *amba | amba-lo(ɸ) | *amba-ɾop | — | |
| dog | *aNŋg[a]j | *aŋg[i] | *aŋgaj | *angay | |
| palate | *kana[m/n] | *xa[na]N | *kana[m/n] | — | |
| snake | *ŋgʷati | *wati | ˈŋgʷari | *ŋgʷati | **wati |
| bamboo knife | *waki | *waki | *waxi [rw] | *waki | *waki |
| bite | *atik- | *atiC- | *atik- | *atik- | |
| sneeze (n.) | *asin | *asiN | *asin | *asin | |
| bow | *mbandit | mbandi [rw] | *mbandit | — | |
| cuscus | *takip | … | *takip | — | |
| night | *wamin | *wamiN | *wamin | *wɔmin | |
| egg | *wandin | indi | *wandin | — | |
| path | *jandit | *jadi | *jandit | — | |
| male | *mbaktim | *baxtiN | *mbatim | *baxtim | |
| head | *kambijan | *xaⁱbaN | xambijã | *kambijan | *xaiban |
| buy/sell | *taki-mɔ | raxi-mo | *taki-mɔ | ||
| son/child | *amut | *amut | *amut | — | |
| body | *anduɾ | *adu | *anduɾ | *ɔdü | |
| yesterday | *aɾup | *aɾup | — | ||
| thorn | *aɾun | aly | *aɾun | — | |
| hot | *mamun | mamy | *mamun | — | |
| beard | *matut | *matu | *matut | *matit | |
| elbow/eight | *ŋgambum | ŋgamby | *ŋgambum | — | |
| canoe | *jahʷun | *jaxʷuN | jaɸu(n) | *japʉn | *jofün |
| eat (future) | *a[N]nde̝₁ | *a[n]de̝ | ande | *ande | — |
| enough | *kaɾe̝ | *xaɾe̝- | *kaɾe | *xare | |
| good | *jape̝₁[C] | *jaɸe̝ | jaɸe | — | |
| lime | *kame̝n | *xame̝N | — | ||
| friend | *kambe̝n | *xabe̝N | *kamben | — | |
| saliva | *kate̝t | *xate̝ | *katet | *xatet | |
| sweat | *kʷate̝₂n | *kʷate̝N | xʷari | *kʷaten | *koten |
| flesh | *kʷandɵ̝ | *kʷado̝ | ˈxundo | *kandɵ̝ | *kɔdö |
| raw/new | *aɾɵ̝[n] | alu | *aɾɵ̝[n] | — | |
| get up/stand up | *matɵ̝ɾ- | *mato̝[ɾ]- | maru- | *matɵ̝ɾ- | — |
| chin | *ŋgandɵ̝m | *gando̝N | ŋgandu [rd] | *ŋgandɵ̝m | *gandöm |
| crocodile | *kajaNmb[ɵ̝/o̝]t | *xajambo̝ | *kajamb[ɵ̝/u]t | *xayambut | |
| nose | *taŋgo̝t | raŋgu | *taŋgut | — | |
| inside | *kaɾo̝p | xalu(ɸ) | *kaɾup | — | |
| spirit | *mbake̝t | *mbake̝t | — | ||
| laughter | *ambɛn | *abɛN | *amben | — | |
| cowrie shell | *takɛt | raxe | *taket | — | |
| upper arm/nine | *ndzapɛt | raɸe | *ndzapet | — | |
| white | *kajɔ | *xajɔ | — | ||
| vagina | *a-tɔp | *a-tɔ | *a-top | *aatop | |
| tie/bind | *and[ɔ]p- | *and[a/ɔ]C- | andaɸe | *and[a/o]p- | *adɔp- |
| story | *matɔm | *matom | — | ||
| mouth/teeth | *maŋgɔt | *maga | moŋgo-ro | *maŋgot | *magɔt |
| widow | *kamɔk | *xamɔ | *kamok | *xamɔk | |
| moon | *wakɔɾ | *wakoɾ | — | ||
| breadfruit | *[ɾ/j]awɔt | *[ɾ/j]awɔt | *ɾawot | *rɔwot/*jɔwot | |
| sick/ill | *jambɔɾɔ | jamˈbo ~ jambˈlo | *jamboɾo | — | |
| torch | *sijaC | *sija | riˈja | — | |
| neck | *kVman | xuma | *k[ɔ]man | — | |
| lightning | *mbɔmba | mbomba | *mbomba | — | |
| knowledge | *n[ɔ]pam | *n[a/ɔ]ɸaN | *n[ɔ]pam | — | |
| far | *kɔmam | *x[a]maN | *komam | *xɔman | |
| white | *kɔwat | xuwar-u | *kɔwat(-ɔp) | — | |
| incorrect | *ŋgɔmbam | *gɔbaN | *ŋgomban | *goban |
…:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *uwa | *ɔ | o | *uwa | *o | |
| man/person | *kuwap | *xɔ | xo(ɸ) | *kuwap | *xop |
Low back rounded vowel /*ɒ/ is merged with mid back /*ɔ/ in Awyu and with low central /a/ in Kombai:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *ɒ | *ɔ | a | *ɒ | *o | |
| breast | *ɒm | *ɔm | a(m) | *ɒm | *om |
| excrement | *ɒɾ | *ɔɾ | a | *ɒɾ | *or |
| lip(s) | *mbɒn (kat) | *mbɔn (xa) | mbaŋga [jg] | *mbɒn (kat) | *bon(-xa) |
In one example, /*ɒ/ is fronted to /e/ in Kombai when followed by /*e̝/ in the next syllable:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *ɒ/_e̝₂ | e | *ɒ | — | ||
| mosquito | *sɒpe̝₂n | reɸij-o | *sɒpen | — |
Diphthongs /*uⁱ *ɛⁱ *ɔⁱ *aⁱ *ɔᵘ …/ …:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | Healey | |
| *uⁱ | *uⁱ | uⁱ | — | ||
| theft | *kʷuⁱ | *kʷuⁱ | xʷuⁱ | *kʷ[uj] | — |
| *ɛⁱ | *ɛⁱ | eⁱ | *eⁱ (?) | ||
| wind | *kip[ɛⁱ] | *kiɸɛⁱ | xiɸeⁱ | *kijapoj | **kifuy |
| river | *wandɛⁱ | *wadɛⁱ | wondeⁱ | — | |
| *ɔⁱ | *ɔⁱ | *oⁱ | |||
| go (imperative) | *na-kɔⁱ | *nɔxɔⁱ | *na-koⁱ | — | |
| *aⁱ | *aⁱ | — | |||
| men's house | *kaⁱm | *xaⁱN | — | ||
| wallaby | *sVmb[a]kaⁱ | *sVb[a]xaⁱ | rombai [rw] | — | |
| *aⁱ/kʷ_ | *ɔⁱ | aⁱ | *uⁱ | ||
| ghost | *kʷaⁱ | *xɔⁱ | xʷaⁱ ~ kʷaⁱ | *kuⁱ | *xɔxuy |
| *ɔᵘ | *ɔᵘ | oʸ oᵘ | *o̝ | *u *ü *ui | |
| sago | *ddɔᵘ | *dɔᵘ | ndoʸ | *ndo̝[…] | *du/*dü |
| milk | *kɔᵘn | *xɔᵘn | *ko̝n | *xun | |
| cloud/sky | *kɔᵘt | *xɔᵘ | xoᵘ ~ xoʸ | *ko̝t | **xuit |
| placenta | *ŋgɔᵘm | ŋgoᵘ [rw] | *ŋgo̝m | — | |
| liver | *wɔᵘm | *wɔᵘN | wɔᵘ [jh] | *o̝m | — |
| husband | *(ka-)kɔᵘp | *(xa)xɔᵘ | *kako̝p | **kaxup | |
| sour | *tɔᵘŋgi | *t[ɔᵘ]ŋgi | roᵘŋgi [rw] | — |
Pronouns
[under construction]
Central Digul River free pronouns are reconstructed as follows:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | |
| 1 sg. | *nɵ̝p | *no̝ | nu(ɸ) | *nɵ̝p |
| 2 sg. | *ŋgɵ̝p | *go̝ | ŋgu(ɸ) | *ŋgɵ̝p |
| 3 sg. m. | *ɛ(-ke̝₁p) | *ɛ(-ge̝), *ɛ(-ke̝) | xe | *ekep |
| 3 sg. f. | *jɵ̝p | *jɵ̝p | ||
| 1 pl. | *naŋgVp | *n[o̝/u]go̝ | naŋgu(ɸ) | *naŋgVp |
| 2 pl. | *ŋgaŋgVp | *g[o̝/u]go̝ | naŋge(ɸ) | *ŋgaŋgVp |
| 3 pl. | *ja(-kɔp) | *jɔxɔ | ja | *jakVp |
…
Singular possessive forms are reconstructed as follows:
| Central Digul | Awyu | Kombai | Wambon | |
| 1 sg. poss. | *na- | *na- | na- | *na- |
| 2 sg. poss. | *ŋga- | *ŋga- | *ŋga- | |
| 3 sg. poss. |
Verbal Morphology
[under construction]