Central Ok
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
The Central Ok family consists of two or three closely-related languages spoken in villages along the Sauw River and its tributaries in the Merauke Regency of Indonesia's Papua province (Hughes 2009: 11-14.) The designations Nakai, Naki and Tangko are the words for “what?” in each language (q.v. Wilbrink 2004: 109f, 110f, Hughes 2009: 37.)
Subclassification
The internal classification of Central Ok is as follows:
Central Ok
Tangko
Nakai-Naki
Nakai
NakI
Sources
Jang (2003: 39-47) 239 comparative terms for Nagi of Kawor 2 village
Wilbrink (2004: 109a-110f) 239+ comparative terms for Sait (Nagi) and Nakai after Menanti
Hughes (2009: 27-37) 239 comparative terms for Tangko of Kawemaot village and Nakai of Burunggop
Williamson (2010) grammar of Nagi
History of classification
The Central Ok family was first recognized by Hughes (2009: 3,) who calculated a 29-32% lexicostatistical resemblance between Tangko of Kawemaot and Nakai of Burunggop.
Historical phonology
Proto-Central Ok had perhaps 14 consonants and 6 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | |||
*p | *t | *s | *k | [*kʷ] |
*mb | *nd | *ŋg | [*ŋgʷ] | |
*w | *r | *j |
*i | *ʉ | *u |
*e | *o | |
*a |
Any consonant except apical non-stop /*r/ can occur initially. Prenasalized apical stop /*nd/ is found in only a small number of examples, in which it is initial. Even though this is in complementary distribution with /*r/, and medial reflexes of Ok /*nd/ have merged those with /*r/, for historical reasons they are not shown here as allophones of a single phoneme, although such an equivalence may be synchronically justified.
Consonant clusters do not occur except across morpheme boundaries in compounds.
Only a restricted set of consonants occurs finally:
*m | *n | ||
*p | *t | *k | |
*ŋg | |||
*r | *j |
Initial consonants correspond as follows:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Naki |
*m- | m | m | m |
*n- | n | n | n |
*p- | p [ɸ] | ø | ø |
*t- | t | t | t |
*s- | s | s | s |
*k- | k | k | k |
*kʷ- | |||
*mb- | mb | mb | mb |
*nd- | nd | nd | nd |
*ŋg- | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg |
*j- | j | j | j |
*w- | w | w | w |
Medial consonants correspond as follows:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Naki |
*-m- | m | m | m |
*-n- | n | n | n |
*-p- | ? | ? | ? |
*-t- | r | t | t |
*-s- | s | s | s |
*-k- | k | k | k |
*-mb- | mb [b] | w | w |
*-ŋg- | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg |
*-r- | r | r | ø |
*-j- | j | j | j |
*-w- | w | w | w |
Final consonants correspond as follows:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Naki |
*-m | m | m | m |
*-n | n | n | n |
*-p | p | p | p |
*-t | s ø | t | t |
*-k | k | k | k |
*-ŋg | ŋg [ŋ] | ŋg [ŋ] | ŋg [ŋ] |
*-r | r | t | j |
*-j | ø | j | j |
Vowels generally correspond as follows:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Naki |
*i | i | i | i |
*ʉ | ɯ | i | i |
*u | u | u | u |
*e | e | e | e |
*o | o | o | o |
*a | a | a | a |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Tangko attestations drawn from Hughes (2009: 27-37,) Nakai from Hughes (2009: 27-37) and Wilbrink (2004: 110a-110f) and Naki from Jang (2003: 39-47) and Williamson (2011 ibid.) Jang's, Wilbrink's and Hughesˈ survey vocabularies are phonetic transcriptions; Williamson's are orthographic. For clarity of presentation, the general dispositions of initial consonants will presented first, then those of medial consonants, then those of final cononants, followed by those of vowels. Some details of the forms which follow are necessarily tentative.
[under contruction – Hughesˈ Nagi to be replaced with Jang]
Any consonant except apical non-stop /*r/ can occur initially.
Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*m- | m | m | m | m | ||
star | *mit-kor | mir-kor | ˈmiːt-qɔt̚ | ˈmiɾ-qo | ||
nose | *mito | ˈmɛɾu | mitɔ | ˈmitɔ | ˈmiʔtɔʔ | mito |
burn/cook | *mij- | miˈɾ- | ˈmiɽ- | mir- | ||
near | *mep | mep- | ||||
net bag | *men | mɛn | mɛn | mɛn | men | |
that/there | *me-te | mɛtɛ- | mɛtɛ- | ˈmɛtɑ | ||
blue (?) | *mʉk | mɯq | mik | mik | ||
hot | *mamʉn | mæˈmɯn | mamɪn | ˈmæmin | mɑˈmin | mamin |
come | *man- | man- | ˈmɑːn- | ˈmɑn- | mane- | |
grandchild | *makop | ˈmɑʁɔp | mɔˈʔɔp | magop | ||
ten | *maji[n/ŋg] | malɪŋ | mɑːˈl̪in | mɑˈɽiŋ | mariŋ | |
big | *maja[t/r] | mɑⁱˈjɑɾ | malar | mæˈʝæt | mɑˈjɑr | mazar |
mother's br. | *mom | mom | ||||
spittle | *mok | mal-moq | mɑɢ-mɔk | |||
blunt/dull | *mo[r/j]o | molo | ˈmɔɽɔ | ˈmoɽo | moro | |
behind | *m[o/y]t | mɯ-qɔl̪ɔ-ˈbɔɾ | mɔˈɽ-ɑɽɛt | mor | ||
breast | *muk | muq | mʊk | muk̚ | muk̚ | |
one/all | *muwim | ˈmʷɪɴ-ɢi | ˈmim-ki | mʷim(-ki) |
Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
*n- | n | n | n | n | ||
tooth | *n[i]ŋgi | ˈnɑɴi | ˈniŋgi | ˈniŋgi | niŋgi | |
1 sg. | *ne | nɛ-ɾ | nɛ | ne | nɛ̃ | ne |
mother | *naŋg | nɑn | nɛ-naŋ | nɑ̃ŋ | nɑ̃ŋ | naŋ |
crocodile | *naŋgarup | nɑɴqɑˈl̪up | nɑˈɴɢɑlup̚ | |||
rattan/rope | *n[a/o]ŋg | nɑɴ-ˈqɯ | nɔ̃ŋ | nɔɴ | ɴɔŋ | noŋ |
bird | *noj | nɔh | ˈnø̃ɛ | nɔˈɛ | nʷɛ | nʷe |
1 pl. | *nu(-p) | nɥ-ɽ | nup̚ | nup̚ | nu(-p) |
Initial bilabial plain stop /*p/ is fricated to [ɸ] in Tangko and dropped in Nakai, a pattern of loss shared with West Ok and Lowland Ok:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*p- | ɸ | ø [ʔ ʕ] | ø | ø | ||
this/here | *pe | ɸɛ- | ˈʔɛ- | |||
forearm/seven | *pet | et̚ | er | |||
sharp | *pʉt | ɸɯ-ˈjæn | ir | it̚ | ||
new | *pap | ɸɑːp-ˈqɔ | ab-nɪm | ˈɑːb-im | ˈɑw-iˈˈgi | |
wind | *paptʉ | ɸɑɸˈtɯ | ||||
mountain | *pa[r/j]ʉm | ɸɑˈlɯm | alɪm | ˈʕɑɽim | ɑːɽim | |
tongue | *poŋg | ɸɔŋ | ɔŋ | ʔɔŋ | ||
wind | *pup | up̚ | ʔuː | up̚ |
Initial apical plain stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*t- | t | t | t | t | ||
get up/stand up | *tip- | ˈtiβ- | tiˈw- | |||
child | *tena | ˈtenɑ | ˈtɛna | tena | ||
hole | *t[a]mon | ˈtɑmɔn | ||||
bite | *tam- | tɑn- | ˈtɑm- | |||
child | *tan[i/e] | tɑˈne | tani | ˈtɑni | tani | |
cuscus | *takip | tɑˈɢip | ˈtɑɢip | ˈtɑʁip | ||
shame/shy | *… | tarmor | ||||
tie | *taj- | tɑⁱdɛm | tirɛm | taze- | ||
seven | *tajap | tɑⁱˈɾɑp | tadab | tɑˈdʒɑp | ||
down/below | *to(-te) | tɔ-le | ˈtɔː-te | ˈto-tɛ | to- | |
flint | *toŋg | toŋ- | ||||
stone | *tum | tum | tum |
Initial velar plain stop /*k/ is retained in both as such in all descendants. It is often realized as uvular [q] and occasionally as voiced velar [g]:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*k- | k [k q g] | k | k [k q] | k [k q g] | k | |
body | *kit | kit̚ | ||||
eye | *kir | kiɾ | ˈki-wɛ | ki-we | ||
coconut (?) | *kitot | qiˈso | ˈqitɔt | kiˈtor ~ ˈkitor | ||
scratch | *k[i]ŋg | qiɴ-qiɴɢuˈd- | ||||
finger | *kiri | kiɾi | ˈhil̪i | ˈkiɾi | ||
ear | *kiroŋg | kiˈl̪ɔŋ ~ qil̪ɔɴ | kera-su-kat | kɛˈrɛ-su | ˈki-su | ki-su |
do | *ke | ke- | ||||
2 sg. m. | *kep | qɛp | kɛp | kɛp | qɛp | kep |
hair | *kep | qɛp | kɛp | kɛp̚ | qɛp̚ | kep |
pinkie/one | *ket-ket | kɛr-kɛr | ˈkɛt-kɛt | ker-ket | ||
sago | *kero | qɛˈɾɔ | kɛˈɽɔ | tʃo | keo | |
far | *kam | qɑːm | kam | qɑm | qɑm | kam |
who? | *kama | kama | ˈqɑmɑ | kɑˈmɑ | ||
cough | *kanom | kanom | ˈkɑnɔm | kɑˈnɔm | ||
skin/bark | *kat | qɑ ~ qɑː | kat ~ kar | qɑt̚ ~ ˈkɑt | qɑt̚ ~ kɑr | |
knowledge | *kat | qɑː | qɑt̚ | kɑt̚ | kar | |
who? | *katep | qɑˈɾɛp-qɔ | ||||
person | *kara | ˈqɑɾɑ | kala | ˈqɑɽɑ ~ qɑˈɽɑ | qɑː | ka |
bandicoot | *kajet | ˈkɑɽɛr | ˈkɑˈʝɛt | |||
white | *kajak | kalaq̚ | qɑːʝɑq | qɑjɑk̚ | ||
stone | *kawit | qɑⁱⁱs | kawi | ˈqɑβit | ||
young | *kombet | qɔˈbɛs | ˈqɔwɛt | |||
belly | *komba | kɔwa | ˈkowɐ | kowa | ||
leaf | *kon | qɔːn | kɔn | ˈqɔn(-su) | kon | |
ashes | *kotep | kɔtɛp | ˈkɔtɛp | qotɛp | kotep | |
smoke | *kok | ˈqɔq | ||||
pig | *koŋg | qɔŋ | kɔŋ | qɔŋ | kɔŋ | koŋ |
bone | *koro | ˈqɔɾɔː | kɔrɔ ~ kɔlɔ | ˈqɔɽɔ | kɔ ~ qɔ | ko |
long | *k[o/y][r/j]aŋg | qɯˈɾæɴ | kɔˈlaŋ | qɔˈɽɑɴ | qoɽɑŋ | koraŋ |
2 sg. f. | *kup | kup | ||||
sweat | *k[u]sin | kusin | ||||
heavy | *k[u]kun | kuɣun | ||||
woman/wife | *kur | qut ~ quɾ | kut̚ ~ kur | qut̚ | ||
die | *kuwi- | kɔˈdʲɔɾ | ʍui-ˈsɛt | ˈkʷi-sɛ | kʷi-sɛr | kui- ~ kʷi- |
louse | *kuwip | gɯp̚ | kʷip̚ | qʷip | kʷip̚ | |
night | *kuwin- | qɯnɔˈɾɛɾ | kʷinɛsɛr | ˈgunese | kʷine- |
Initial laminal /*s/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*s- | s | s | s | s | s | |
hear | *(weŋg-)s- | βɛŋ-sɛsiɸ | ˈβɛɴ-sɛm | ˈwɛŋ-sɛm | veŋ-se | |
up/above | *sip(-te) | si-te | ˈsiːp-te | ˈsip-tɛ | sip- | |
old/before | *sin | ˈsiːn-qɔ | siŋ-gɪ | sin | sin(-ˈki) | sin- |
right | *sinim | siˈniːn | sinim | ˈsinim | ˈsiːnim | |
mud | *sambit-tek-tek | sæbi-teˈteq | sɑbit̚-tɛk̚tɛk̚ | |||
bandicoot | *sakor | ˈsɑʁoɽ | sɑɢʷɛ | |||
three | *sa[r/j]ep-kut | sɑɾɔ-ˈquɾ | sali-kud-ɛn | ˈsɑːlip-ut̚ | ˈsɑrop-kur | sarop-kur |
sit | *sup-n- | ?sɔɴ- | subn- | ˈsun- | ˈsubn- | supne- |
One apparently irregular example is likely a loan from Dumut:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*[t/s]- | t | s | s | |||
leech | *[t/s]eren | teˈɾen | ˈsɛl̪ɛn | sɛn |
Initial prenasalized bilabial stop /*mb/ is as in other subgroups of Ok typically realized as plain voiced [b]:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*mb- | mb [mb b] | mb [mb b] | mb [b] | mb [b] | ||
wing | *mbiru | ˈbiɾu | mbɪru | ˈbiɽu | bju | |
older brother | *mb[e] | bɛ | ||||
elbow/knee/8 | *mbaŋgup | bɑˈɴup ~ bɑɴup̚ | baŋgup | ˈbɑɴɢup | ˈbɐɴɢup | |
mosquito | *mbajeŋg | bɑⁱɴ | ᵐbɛ̃ŋ | |||
lip(s) | *mbon-kat | mbɔɴ-qɑ | bon-koɾ | |||
run | *mbʉr- | bɯl-ɑˈn- |
Initial prenasalized apical stop /*nd/ is uncommon:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*nd- | nd [d] | nd [d] | nd [nd d] | nd [ɖ] | nd [d] | |
dig | *ndik-m- | digmisib | digˈmɛm | dikmɛm | ||
cloud | *ndep | dɛːp | dɛp | ndɛp̚ | ɖɛp̚ | |
not/no | *ndo | -ndɔ | -dɔ | ɖɔ | do |
Several examples known to have initial /*nd/ or /*r/ in other Ok subgroups are here indeterminate between /*nd/ and /*j/ (below):
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*[nd/j]- | d | d | d | |||
sand | *[nd/j]ikin | diɣin | ˈdiɢin | digin | ||
path | *[nd/j][y]jip | diriɸ | diˈl̪ip | |||
*[nd/j]- | l | |||||
heart | *[nd/j][y] | lubɪb |
“Heart” might be thought a loan, as expected vowel /*y/ is reflected as /u/ in Nakai rather than as /i/ (below.)
Initial prenasalized velar stop /*ŋg/ is somewhat more common than it is in other Ok subgroups. As with /*k/, it is often realized as uvular [ɴɢ ɢ], or in Tangko as nasal [ɴ]:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*ŋg- | ŋg [ɴ k] | ŋg [ŋg g ;k] | ŋg [ɴɢ ɢ] | ŋg [ɴɢ ɢ k] | ||
cold | *ŋgit | gir | ɢit | kiːɾ | gir | |
ant | *ŋgasom | ɴɑˈsɔm | ˈɴɢɑːsɔm | ˈŋɢɑsom | ||
garden | *ŋgosan | kɔˈsɑn | kɔsan | ˈɴɢɔsɑn | ||
wrist/joint/six | *ŋgoŋg | ɴɔɴ | ŋgom | ɴɢɔɴ ~ ɴɢoŋ | ɢɔŋ ~ -ɴɢoŋ | ŋgoŋ |
“Cold” and “wrist/joint” can be traced to proto-Ok, or alternately are loans from Mountain Ok. “Ant” may be a loan from Dumut or vice-versa. The examples of “cold” and “garden” suggest that the contrast between initials /*k *ŋg/ is disappearing.
One example is a loan from Indonesian:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
g- | ŋg [ɴ] | ŋg [g] | ||||
salt | garam | ɴɑˈɾɑm | garam | garam |
Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is occluded to [β] in Tangko and Nakai but not Naki, especially when followed by front vowels /*i *e/:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*w- | w [w β] | w [w β] | w [w β] | w | v ø | |
name | *wini | wiˈni | ˈwini | vini | ||
egg | *wirin | βiˈɾin | βirim | βiˈl̪in | ˈwiɾin | |
speech | *weŋg | wɛɴ | βɛŋ | βɛɴ ~ βɛŋ | wɛŋ ~ weŋ | veŋ |
left | *wasot | wasor | ˈwɑːsɔt | ˈwɑsor | ||
mud | *wasuk | βɑsuq | ||||
bamboo knife | *waki | ˈwɑʔɑⁱ | ˈwɑɣi | vaki ~ vagi | ||
left | *waŋg[a]n | wɑˈɴɑn | ||||
vomit | *wajan | βalan | ||||
grass skirt | *w[o]n[o]m | onom |
Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is is occluded in all descendants:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*j- | j [j dʲ d] | j [d dð l] | j [dʒ dz] | j [d ɖ ɽ ɺ] | z | |
red | *jamu | damu | ˈdʒɑːmu | ˈjɑmu | ||
urine | *jamun | ˈjæmuːn | ˈdzæmun | ˈdɑmun | ||
good | *jap | jæp̚ | dðap | dʒæp | ɖɑp | zap |
female | *… | zaŋgʷi | ||||
breadfruit | *jawot | jɑˈwɔs | ˈdʒɑːβɔt | ˈɺɑwor | ||
fishnet | *… | zarum | ||||
seed | *jop | dʒɔp | ||||
foot/leg | *jon | diˈjɔn | dɔn ~ lɔn | dʒɔn | ˈdon | zon |
handle | *joko | zoko | ||||
garden | *joŋg | ɽoŋ-ˈbip̚ | zoŋ-bip | |||
banana | *jup | dup̚ | dʒup̚ | dup̚ | ||
thorn | *jʉk | dɯq | dðɪk̚ | dʒik | dɪk |
The occlusion of /*j/ is shared with Ninggerum to the southeast, where Lowland Ok /*j/ is realized as [d r].
The quality attested by the following correspondence is not yet known. It remains a problem in Lowland Ok as well, from which it is conceivably a loan:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*… | ndʒ | ŋgʲ | dz | ŋge | ||
flesh/meat | *…om | ndʒɔm | ŋgjɔm | dzɔm | ŋgeom |
Any consonant can occur medially except rounded velar /*kʷ/, which didnˈt occur medially in Proto-Ok, and prenasalized apical stop /*nd/, which has been merged with non-stop /*r/. Medial bilabial stop /*p/ was rare in Ok, and has not been found to occur.
Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-m- | m | m | m | m | ||
weep/cry | *am- | ʔɑm- | am- | ˈʔɑm- | ˈɑʔm- | |
see | *ak-m- | ʔɑˈm- | ˈʕɑʕm- | ˈɑk̚m- | ||
hot | *mamʉn | mæˈmɯn | mamɪn | ˈmæmin | mɑˈmin | mamin |
bite | *tam- | tɑn- | ˈtɑm- | |||
hole | *t[a]mon | ˈtɑmɔn | ||||
shame/shy | *… | tarmor | ||||
who? | *kama | kama | ˈqɑmɑ | kɑˈmɑ | ||
red | *jamu | damu | ˈdʒɑːmu | ˈjɑmu | ||
urine | *jamun | ˈjæmuːn | ˈdzæmun | ˈdɑmun |
Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
*-n- | n | n | n | n | ||
eat/drink | *en- | ɛn- ~ an- | ʔɛˈn- | eˈn- | ene- | |
dog | *anon | ʔɑnɔːn | anɔn | ʔɑnɔːn | ˈɑnon | anon |
bush/forest | *anoŋg | ʔɑˈnɑɴ | anɔŋ | ɑˈnɔŋ | anoŋ | |
walk/go | *on- | ʔɔˈn- | on- | ʔɔn- | oˈn- ~ ˈɔʔn- | one- |
come | *man- | man- | ˈmɑːn- | ˈmɑn- | mane- | |
child | *tena | ˈtenɑ | ˈtɛna | tena | ||
child | *tan[i/e] | tɑˈne | tani | ˈtɑni | tani | |
right | *sinim | siˈniːn | sinim | ˈsinim | ˈsiːnim | |
sit | *sup-n- | ?sɔɴ- | subn- | ˈsun- | ˈsubn- | supne- |
cough | *kanom | kanom | ˈkɑnɔm | kɑˈnom | ||
night | *kuwino-ser | qɯnɔˈɾɛɾ | kʷinɛsɛr | ˈgunese | ||
name | *wini | wiˈnio | ˈwin | vini | ||
grass skirt | *w[o]n[o]m | onom |
No native examples of root-medial plain bilabial stop /*p/ have been identified.
Medial plain apical stop /*t/ is merged with /*r/ in Tangko:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-t- | r [ɾ l] | t | t | t | ||
locative | *-te | -le | -te | -tɛ | ||
father | *itaŋg | itaŋ | ˈʔitɑŋ | ʔiˈtɑŋ | itaŋ | |
hand/arm | *itu | iˈtu | ˈʔutu | ˈʔituʔ ~ ˈitu | ||
short | *atu[p/k] | ʔɔˈɾuq | atup | ʔɑːtup̚ | ɑʔˈtuk̚ | |
sun | *aton | ʔɑˈɾɑn | aˈtɔn | ˈʔɑtɔn | ɑʔˈʈon | aton |
sharp/bad | *atut | ˈɑtur | atur | ˈʔɑːtut | atur | |
nose | *mito | ˈmɛɾu | mitɔ | ˈmitɔ | ˈmiʔtɔʔ | mito |
who? | *katep | qɑˈɾɛp-qɔ | ||||
ashes | *kotep | kɔtɛp | ˈkɔtɛp | qotɛp | kotep |
In one example, /*t/ is fricated to /s/, probably due to preceding /*i/ as is the rule in Ngalum:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-t- | s | t | t | |||
coconut (?) | *kitot | qiˈso | ˈqitɔt | kiˈtor |
Medial laminal /*s/ is generally preserved as such in all descendants:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-s- | s | s | s | s | ||
fire | *asi[n/ŋ] | ˈʔæsin ~ ɑˈsiɴ | aˈsin | ˈʔɑsiɴ | ɑˈsiŋ | asiŋ |
sweat | *k[u]sin | kusin | ||||
ant | *ŋgasom | ɴɑˈsɔm | ˈɴɢɑːsɔm | ˈŋɢɑsom | ||
garden | *ŋgosan | kɔˈsɑn | kɔsan | ˈɴɢɔsɑn | ||
left | *wasot | wasor | ˈwɑːsɔt | ˈwɑsor | ||
mud | *wasuk | βɑsuq |
Medial plain velar stop /*k/ is generally lenited between vowels in all descendants:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-k- | k [ɢ ʁ] | k [ɣ ø] | k [ʁ ʔ ʕ] | k [g ɣ ɢ ʁ] | k [k g] | |
this/here | *iki | ˈiɣi ~ iːˈɣi | ||||
sleep | *ak- | ʔɑˈɢ- | aɣ- | ʕɑˈʕ- | ɑˈʁ- | akai-/akore- |
pitpit sp. | *akup | agup | ||||
moon | *okor | ˈʔɔʁɔl | ɔr | ʕɔˈʕɔt | oʔɢʷɛ | okoe |
grandchild | *makop | ˈmɑʁɔp | mɔˈʔɔp | magop | ||
cuscus | *takip | tɑˈɢip | ˈtɑʁip | ˈtɑɢip | ||
dig | *ndik-m- | digmisib | digˈmɛm | dikmɛm | ||
bandicoot | *sakor | ˈsɑʁoɽ | sɑɢʷɛ | |||
heavy | *k[u]kun | kuɣun | ||||
bamboo knife | *waki | ˈwɑʔɑⁱ | ˈwɑɣi | vaki ~ vagi | ||
sand | *jikin | diɣin | ˈdiɢin | digin | ||
handle | *joko | zoko |
The general loss of medial /*k/ in the Lowland Ok languages to the southeast should be viewed as a continuation of ths areal trend.
Medial prenasalized bilabial stop /*mb/ is reflected as plain voiced [b] in Tangko and merged with the reflexes of /*w/ [w β] in Nakai, a development shared with Ninggerum:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-mb- | b | w | w [w β ø] | w [w ø] | v | |
hit | *amb- (?) | ʔɑⁱɛm | βɛm | ɑim | ve- | |
laugh | *ambian | ʔæbiæɴ- | ʔɑβiɑn | ɑjɑˈn- | ajane- | |
village | *ambʉp | ˈʔɑbɯ-bɔɾ | ɑⁱp̚ | ˈɑip̚ | ||
sky | *ambʉr | ɑˈbuɾ | awir | ʔɑːˈβit | ɑˈwi | |
head | *amb[o/u][t] | ˈʔɑbuɾ | awor | ʔɑˈβɔt | ɑwo-qɔ | avo |
umbilicus | *[k]ambin | gavin | ||||
young | *kombet | qɔˈbɛs | ˈqɔwɛt | |||
belly | *komba | kɔwa | ˈkowɐ | kowa | ||
tail | *[w][e/a]mbʉ | ʔɛˈbɯ | wawi | ˈwɑːβi | ˈwɑwi |
As in Mountain Ok, the reflexes of medial apical prenasalized stop /*nd/ have merged with those of /*r/ (below).
Medial prenasalized velr stop /*ŋg/ is often reflected as uvular [ɴɢ], or as merely [ɴ] in Tangko:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-ŋg- | ŋg [ɴ ɴq] | ŋg | ŋg [ŋg ɴɢ] | ŋg [ŋg ɴɢ] | ||
tooth | *n[i]ŋgi | ˈnɑɴi | ˈniŋgi | ˈniŋgi | niŋgi | |
crocodile | *naŋgarup | nɑɴqɑˈl̪up | nɑˈɴɢɑlup̚ | |||
elbow/knee/8 | *mbaŋgup | bɑˈɴup ~ bɑɴup̚ | baŋgup | ˈbɑɴɢup | ˈbɐɴɢup | |
left | *waŋg[a]n | wɑˈɴɑn | ||||
female | *… | zaŋgʷi |
Medial apical non-stop /*r/ is typically dropped in Naki, a loss shared with Ninggerum:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-r- | r [r ɾ ] | r [r l] | r [r ɽ l l̪] | ø | ø | |
wing | *mbiru | ˈbiɾu | mbɪru | ˈbiɽu | bju | |
crocodile | *naŋgarup | nɑɴqɑˈl̪up | nɑˈɴɢɑlup̚ | |||
leech | *[t/s]eren | teˈren | ˈsɛl̪ɛn | sɛn | ||
ear | *kiroŋg | kiˈl̪ɔŋ | kera-su-kat | kɛˈrɛ-su | ˈki-su | ki-su |
sago | *kero | kɛˈɾɔ | kɛˈɽɔ | tʃo | keo | |
person | *kara | ˈqɑɾɑ | kala | ˈqɑɽɑ ~ qɑˈɽɑ | qɑː | ka |
bone | *koro | ˈqɔɾɔː | kɔrɔ ~ kɔlɔ | ˈqɔɽɔ | kɔ ~ qɔ | ko |
There is at least one exception:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-r- | r [ɾ] | r | r [l̪] | r [ɾ] | ||
egg | *wirin | βiˈɾin | βirim | βiˈl̪in | ˈwiɾin |
Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ is typically occluded, becoming nearly indistinguishable from the reflexes of /*r/ (above):
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-j- | j [j dʲ ɾ ø] | j [r l d] | j [ʝ dʒ ɽ l̪] | j [j ɽ] | j | |
canoe | *ajep | ʔɑˈɛp | ˈʔɑːɽɛp | ɑˈɽɛp̚ | ||
hold | *ajep- | ʔɑˈɸ- | aɾ- | ʔɑːr- | ɑɾew- | |
bow | *ajVn | ʕɑⁱn | ɑˈɽɛdzɔn | ɑˈɽon | azon | |
many | *ajup | ʔɑɾup̚ | alu | ʔɑːˈl̪up | ˈɑɽup̚ | arup |
burn/cook | *mij- | miˈɾ-u | mir- | ˈmiɽ- | ||
ten | *maji[n/ŋg] | malɪŋ | mɑːˈl̪in | mɑˈɽiŋ | mariŋ | |
big | *maja[t/r] | mɑⁱˈjɑɾ | malar | mæˈʝæt | mɑˈjɑɾ | mazar |
mosquito | *mbajeŋg | bɑⁱɴ | ᵐbɛ̃ŋ | |||
tie | *taj- | tɑⁱdɛm | tirɛm | taze- | ||
path | *[nd/j][y]jip | diriɸ | diˈl̪ip | |||
bandicoot | *kajet | ˈkɑˈʝɛt | ˈkɑɽɛr | |||
white | *kajak | kalaq̚ | qɑːʝɑq | qɑjɑk̚ | ||
death | *k[o]jor | kɔˈdʲɔɾ | kʷi-sɛr | ʍui-ˈsɛt | ˈkʷi-sɛ | |
seven; | *tajap | tɑⁱˈɾɑp | tadab | tɑˈdʒɑp | ||
vomit | *wajan | βalan |
Because the reflexes of medials /*r *j/ overlap in range, it's possible that some forms shown here with one really had the other.
Medial /*w/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-w- | w [w ɓ ø] | w | w [w β] | w [w ø] | w | |
father's father | *awi | ʔɑˈɓɯ | ˈʔɑβui | ˈɑwi | awi | |
cassowary | *awon | ʔɑˈwɔn | aɣom [sic] | ʔɑˈwɔn | ˈɑwɔn | awon |
stone | *kawit | qɑⁱⁱs | kawi | ˈqɑβit | ||
breadfruit | *jawot | jɑˈwɔs | ˈdʒɑːβɔt | ˈɺɑwor |
Only a restricted set of consonants occurs finally, including nasals /*m n/, plain stops /*p *t *k/, prenasalized velar stop /*ŋg/, which as in other Ok subgroups is invariably realized as [ŋ], and non-stops /*r *j/.
Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is preserved as such in all descendants, excepting some instances when it is assimilated to [ŋ] when followed by a velar stop /*k *ŋg/ in a compound:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-m | m | m | m | m | ||
male/husband | *im | iŋ-gi | im-ki | |||
rain | *am | ʔɔm | am-ga | ˈʔæm-ɢɑ | ˈɑm-ɢɑ | am-ga |
taro | *om | ʔɔm | ||||
mother's br. | *mom | mom | ||||
one/all | *muwim | ˈmʷɪɴ-ɢi | ˈmim-ki | mʷim(-ki) | ||
mountain | *pa[r/j]ʉm | ɸɑˈlɯm | alɪm | ˈʕɑɽim | ɑːɽim | |
stone | *tum | tum | tum | |||
right | *sinim | siˈniːn [sic] | sinim | ˈsinim | ˈsiːnim | |
far | *kam | qɑːm | kam | qɑm | qɑm | kam |
cough | *kanom | kanom | ˈkɑnɔm | kɑˈnom | ||
side of neck/11 | *kum | kum | ||||
ant | *ŋgasom | ɴɑˈsɔm | ˈɴɢɑːsɔm | ˈŋɢɑsom | ||
fishnet | *… | zarum | ||||
flesh/meat | *…om | ndʒɔm | ŋgjɔm | dzɔm | ŋgeom |
Final apical nasal /*n/ is preserved as such in all descendants, excepting some instances when it is assimilated to [ŋ] when followed by a velar stop /*k *ŋg/ in a compound:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
*-n | n | n | n | n | ||
laugh | *ambian | ʔæbiæɴ-kɛˈɾ- | ʔɑβiɑn | ɑjɑˈn- | ajane- | |
dog | *anon | ʔɑnɔːn | anɔn | ʔɑnɔːn | ˈɑnon | anon |
sun | *aton | ʔɑˈɾɑn | aˈtɔn | ˈʔɑtɔn | ɑʔˈʈon | aton |
bow | *ajVn | ʕɑⁱn | ɑˈɽɛdzɔn | ɑˈɽon | azon | |
cassowary | *awon | ʔɑˈwɔn | aɣom [sic] | ʔɑˈwɔn | ˈɑwɔn | awon |
older sister | *on | ʔɔn | ʔɔ-ˈɽɔp | ɔ-ˈɾɔp | ||
net bag | *men | mɛn | mɛn | mɛn | men | |
hot | *mamʉn | mæˈmɯn | mamɪn | ˈmæmin | mɑˈmin | mamin |
hole | *t[a]mon | ˈtɑmɔn | ||||
old/before | *sin | ˈsiːn-qɔ | siŋ-gɪ | sin | sin(-ˈki) | sin- |
umbilicus | *[k]ambin | gavin | ||||
leaf | *kon | qɔːn | kɔn | ˈqɔn | kon | |
sweat | *k[u]sin | kusin | ||||
heavy | *k[u]kun | kuɣun | ||||
garden | *ŋgosan | kɔˈsɑn | kɔsan | ˈɴɢɔsɑn | ||
egg | *wirin | βiˈɾin | βirim [sic] | βiˈl̪in | ˈwiɾin | |
left | *waŋg[a]n | wɑˈɴɑn | ||||
vomit | *wajan | βalan | ||||
grass skirt | *w[o]n[o]m | onom | ||||
sand | *jikin | diɣin | ˈdiɢin | digin | ||
urine | *jamun | ˈjæmuːn | ˈdzæmun | ˈdɑmun | ||
foot/leg | *jon | diˈjɔn | dɔn ~ lɔn | dʒɔn | ˈdon | zon |
…:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-[n/ŋ] | n ŋ [n ɴ] | n | ŋ [ɴ] | ŋ | ŋ | |
fire | *asi[n/ŋ] | ˈʔæsin ~ ɑˈsiɴ | aˈsin | ˈʔɑsiɴ | ɑˈsiŋ | asiŋ |
*-[n/ŋ] | n | n | ŋ | ŋ | ||
ten | *maji[n/ŋg] | malɪŋ | mɑːˈl̪in | mɑˈɽiŋ | mariŋ |
Final plain bilabial stop /*p/ is typically retained as such in all descendants:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-p | p [p p̚] | p | p [p p̚] | p [p p̚] | p | |
inclusive | *-p | -p ~ -p̚ | -p | -p ~ -p̚ | -p ~ -p̚ | -p |
canoe | *ajep | ʔɑˈɛp | ˈʔɑːɽɛp | ɑˈɽɛp̚ | ||
pitpit sp. | *akup | agup | ||||
many | *ajup | ʔɑɾup̚ | alu | ʔɑːˈl̪up | ˈɑɽup̚ | arup |
house | *[a/o]p | ʔɑːp̚ | ɔp | ʔɔp | ɔp̚ | op |
near | *mep | mep- | ||||
grandchild | *makop | ˈmɑʁɔp | mɔˈʔɔp | magop | ||
new | *pap | ɸɑːp-ˈqɔ | ab-nɪm | ˈɑːb-im | ˈɑw-iˈˈgi | |
wind | *pup | up̚ | ʔuː [sic] | up̚ | ||
elbow/knee/8 | *mbaŋgup | bɑˈɴup ~ bɑɴup̚ | baŋgup | ˈbɑɴɢup | ˈbɐɴɢup | |
crocodile | *naŋgarup | nɑɴqɑˈl̪up | nɑˈɴɢɑlup̚ | |||
cuscus | *takip | tɑˈɢip | ˈtɑʁip | ˈtɑɢip | ||
seven | *tajap | tɑⁱˈɾɑp | tadab | tɑˈdʒɑp | ||
up/above | *sip(-te) | si-te | ˈsiːp-te | ˈsip-tɛ | sip- | |
cloud | *ndep | dɛːp | dɛp | ndɛp̚ | ɖɛp̚ | |
path | *[nd/j][y]jip | diriɸ | diˈl̪ip | |||
hair | *kep | qɛp | kɛp | kɛp̚ | qɛp̚ | kep |
who? | *katep | qɑˈɾɛp-qɔ | ||||
ashes | *kotep | kɔtɛp | ˈkɔtɛp | qotɛp | kotep | |
good | *jap | jæp̚ | dðap | dʒæp | ɖɑp | zap |
seed | *jop | dʒɔp | ||||
banana | *jup | dup̚ | dʒup̚ | dup̚ |
Final plain apical stop /*t/ is fricated to [s], which is not otherwise known to occur finally, or dropped in Tangko:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-t | s [s ø] | t [t r ø] | t [t t̚] | t [t t̚ r] | ||
sharp/bad | *atut | ˈɑtur | atur | ˈʔɑːtut | atur | |
behind | *m[o/y]t | mɯ-qɔl̪ɔ-ˈbɔɾ | mɔˈɽ-ɑɽɛt | mor | ||
forearm/seven | *pet | et̚ | er | |||
body | *kit | kit̚ | ||||
coconut (?) | *kitot | qiˈso | ˈqitɔt | kiˈtor ~ ˈkitor | ||
pinkie/one | *ket-ket | kɛr-kɛr | ˈkɛt-kɛt | ker-ket | ||
skin/bark | *kat | qɑ ~ qɑː | kat ~ kar | qɑt̚ ~ ˈkɑt | qɑt̚ ~ kɑr | |
knowledge | *kat | qɑː-qɛˈɾ- | qɑt̚ | kɑt̚ | kar | |
bandicoot | *kajet | ˈkɑˈʝɛt | ˈkɑɽɛr | |||
stone | *kawit | qɑⁱⁱs | kawi | ˈqɑβit | ||
young | *kombet | qɔˈbɛs | ˈqɔwɛt | |||
cold | *ŋgit | gir | ɢit | kiːɾ | gir | |
breadfruit | *jawot | jɑˈwɔs | ˈdʒɑːβɔt | ˈɺɑwor | ||
left | *wasot | wasor | ˈwɑːsɔt | ˈwɑsor |
It's conceivable that these represent two correspondences reflecting finals /*t *nd/ respectively, as “young” and “breadfruit” are known to continue final /*t/ while “skin” is thought to continue /*nd/; if so these would be distinguished only in Tangko.
One example in which this does not occur may be a loan into either Tangko or Naki:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-[t/r] | ɾ | t | r | ɾ | ||
big | *maja[t/r] | mɑⁱˈjɑɾ | malar | mæˈʝæt | mɑˈjɑɾ | mazar |
Final plain velar stop /*k/ is often realized as uvular [q q̚]:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-k | k [q] | k [k k̚ q] | k [k k̚ q ħ] | k [k k̚ q̚] | ||
water | *ok | ʔɔːq | ɔ̄q | ħɔħ | oq̚ | ok |
blue (?) | *mʉk | mɯq | mik | mik | ||
spittle | *mok | mal-moq | mɑɢ-mɔk | |||
breast | *muk | muq | mʊk | muk̚ | muk̚ | |
white | *kajak | kalaq̚ | qɑːʝɑq | qɑjɑk̚ | ||
smoke | *kok | ˈqɔq | ||||
thorn | *jʉk | dɯq | dðɪk̚ | dʒik | dɪk | |
mud | *wasuk | βɑsuq |
Prenasalized stops /*mb *nd/ do not occur finally because they have been merged with /*p *t/ (above).
Final prenasalized stop /*ŋg/ is realized as nasal [ŋ] in all descendants, as it is throughout the Ok family, or as uvular [ɴ]:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-ŋg [ŋ] | ŋg [ŋ ] | ŋg [ŋ] | ŋg [ŋ ɴ] | ŋg [ŋ] | ||
father | *itaŋg | itaŋ | ˈʔitɑŋ | ʔiˈtɑŋ | itaŋ | |
bush/forest | *anoŋg | ʔɑˈnɑɴ | anɔŋ | ɑˈnɔŋ | anoŋ | |
tongue | *poŋg | ɸɔŋ | ɔŋ | ʔɔŋ | ||
mosquito | *mbajeŋg | bɑⁱɴ | ᵐbɛ̃ŋ | |||
mother | *naŋg | nɑn [sic] | nɛ-naŋ | nɑ̃ŋ | nɑ̃ŋ | naŋ |
rattan/rope | *n[a/o]ŋg | nɑɴ-ˈqɯ | nɔ̃ŋ | nɔɴ | ɴɔŋ | noŋ |
flint | *toŋg | toŋ- | ||||
pig | *koŋg | qɔŋ | kɔŋ | qɔŋ | kɔŋ | koŋ |
long | *k[o/y][r/j]aŋg | qɯˈɾæɴ | kɔˈlaŋ | qɔˈɽɑɴ | qoɽɑŋ | koraŋ |
wrist/joint/six | *ŋgoŋg | ɴɔɴ | ŋgom [sic] | ɴɢɔɴ ~ ɴɢoŋ | ɢɔŋ ~ -ɴɢoŋ | ŋgoŋ |
garden | *joŋg | ɽoŋ-ˈbip̚ | zoŋ-bip | |||
speech | *weŋg | wɛɴ | βɛŋ | βɛɴ ~ βɛŋ | wɛŋ ~ weŋ | veŋ |
In one example. final /*ŋg/ is lost in Nakai when followed by /su/ “leaf”:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-ŋg | ŋg [ŋ ɴ] | ŋg [ø] | ŋg [ø] | ŋg [ø] | ||
ear | *kiroŋg | kiˈl̪ɔŋ ~ qil̪ɔɴ | kera-su-kat | kɛˈrɛ-su | ki-su | ki-su |
Final apical non-stop /*r/ is distinguishable from /*t/ by its palatalization and loss in Naki:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-r | r [ɾ ɽ l] | t [t̚ r] | t [t t̚] | j [ɛ ø] | j | |
emphatic | *-r | -ɾ ~ -ɽ | ||||
sky | *ambʉr | ɑˈbuɾ | awir | ʔɑːˈβit | ɑˈwi | |
moon | *okor | ˈʔɔʁɔl | ɔr | ʕɔˈʕɔt | oʔɢʷɛ | okoe |
fall (?) | *ser | -sɛr | -sɛt ~ -set | -ˈsɛ | ||
bandicoot | *sakor | ˈsɑʁoɽ | sɑɢʷɛ | |||
eye | *kir | kiɾ | ˈki-wɛ | ki-we | ||
star | *mit-kor | mir-kor | ˈmiːt-qɔt̚ | ˈmiɾ-qo | ||
shame/shy | *… | tarmor | ||||
death | *k[o]jor | kɔˈdʲɔɾ | ||||
side of neck/11 | *kum | kum | ||||
woman/wife | *kur | qut ~ quɾ | kut̚ ~ kur | qut̚ | ||
night | *kuwino-ser | qɯnɔˈɾɛɾ | kʷinɛsɛr | ˈgunese |
Nakai's merger of final /*r/ with the reflexes /*t/ is shared with Muyu-Yonggom to the southeast.
The reconstruction of final laminal glide /*j/ in the following two roots is highly tentative, as outcomparison to other Ok subgroups suggests /*r/; however in none of these does /*j/ otherwise occur finally, so it's possible that Central Ok preserves a distinction which has been neutralized in other subgroups. The alternative would seem to be that both Nakai words are loans from Naki:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*-j | ø | j [ɛ] | j [ɛ] | j [ɛ] | ||
excrement | *oj | ʔɔː | wɛ̄ | wɛ̃ | ŋgʷe | |
bird | *noj | nɔh | ˈnø̃ɛ | nɔˈɛ | nʷɛ | nʷe |
No examples of bilabial non-stop /*w/ are known to occur finally.
High central vowel /*ʉ/ is retained as [ɯ] in Tangko and merged with high front /i/ in Nakai and Naki:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*ʉ | ɯ [ɯ u] | i | i | i | i | |
sky | *ambʉr | ɑˈbuɾ | awir | ʔɑːˈβit | ɑˈwi | |
blue (?) | *mʉk | mɯq | mik | mik | ||
hot | *mamʉn | mæˈmɯn | mamɪn | ˈmæmin | mɑˈmin | mamin |
wind | *paptʉ | ɸɑɸˈtɯ | ||||
mountain | *pa[r/j]ʉm | ɸɑˈlɯm | alɪm | ˈʕɑɽim | ɑːɽim | |
sharp | *pʉt | ɸɯ-ˈjæn | ir | it̚ | ||
run | *mbʉr- | bɯl-ɑˈn- | ||||
thorn | *jʉk | dɯq | dðɪk̚ | dʒik | dɪk | |
tail | *[w][e/a]mbʉ | ʔɛˈbɯ | wawi | ˈwɑːβi | ˈwɑwi |
Sequence /*uwi/ is reduced to /ɯ/ in Tangko:
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
*uwi | ɯ | uwi [ʷi] | uwi [ui ʷi] | uwi [ʷi i u] | uwi [ʷi ui] | |
one/all | *muwim | ˈmʷɪɴ-ɢi | ˈmim-ki | mʷim(-ki) | ||
die | *kuwi- | kɔˈdʲɔɾ | ʍui-ˈsɛt | ˈkʷi-sɛ | kʷi-sɛr | kui- ~ kʷi- |
louse | *kuwip | gɯp̚ | kʷip̚ | qʷip | kʷip̚ | |
night | *kuwin- | qɯnɔˈɾɛɾ | kʷinɛsɛr | ˈgunese | kʷine- |
Pronouns
Central Ok free pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with Tangko forms drawn from Hughes (2009: 28-29,) Nakai from Hughes (2009: 28-29) and Wilbrink (2004: 110a) and Nagi from Jang (2003: 40) and Williamson (2011: 12-14):
Central Ok | Tangko | Nakai | Nakai | Nagi | Nagi | |
Hughes | Wilbrink | Hughes | Jang | Williamson | ||
1 sg. | *ne | nɛ-ɾ | nɛ | ne | nɛ̃ | ne |
2 sg. m. | *ke-p | qɛp | kɛp | kɛp | qɛp | kep |
2 sg. f. | *ku-p | ? | ? | ? | ? | kup |
3 sg. m. | *e | ɛ-ɾ | ɛ | ? | ? | e |
3 sg. f. | *u | ? | ? | ? | ? | u |
1 pl. excl. | *nu | nɥ-ɽ | ? | ? | ? | nu |
1 pl. incl. | *nu-p | ? | ? | nup̚ | nup̚ | nup |
2 pl. | *i-p | ʔip̚ | ? | ʔip | ʔip | ip |
3 pl. | *i | ʔi-ɾ | i | ? | ? | i |
Verbal morphology
[under construction]