Arafundi River

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

The Arafundi River family, also known as Alfendio, consist of four closely-related languages, Andai, Tapei, Nanubae and Awiakay, spoken along the Arafundi and Konmei rivers, tributaries of the Karawari river which in turn feeds the Sepik, in Papua New Guinea's East Sepik Province just across the border from Enga Province to the south. According to Kassell (2005: 2-4,) a fifth language Mongolo, also known as Meakambut after the name of one of their former villages, might be distinguished, but no data was collected to verify this and Kassell, MacKenzie and Potter offer conflicting reports from speakers in Imboin and Kaiyam (Andai) villages (2017: 13.) Hoenigman (2015: 46) gathered data for the now-nomadic Meakambut and concludes their dialect to be immediately allied with Andai within the Arafundi family.

Subclassification

The internal classification of Arafundi River is as follows:

Arafundi River

Upper Arafundi River

Andai

Tapei

Lower Arafundi River

Awiakay

Nanubae

South Nanubae

North Nanubae (Tuaimunda)

These subgroups are very similar to one another and are differentiated by only a small number of mutually exclusive isoglosses. Hoenigman (2015: 46 after Hoenigman and Evans 2013) designates Nanubae as Lower Arafundi and Andai-Meakambut as Upper Arafundi, with what we guess to be Tapei labelled simply Imboin after the name of a village where Tapei (Awim) as well as Andai (Namata) and Awiakay (Karamba) are spoken (Kassell, MacKenzie and Potter 2017: 13.) However, she assigns the Tapei-speaking Awim village to the Lower Arafundi language, which contradicts our data from Haberland (1966: 62-64) and Kassell, MacKenzie and Potter (2017: 48-54.)

These subgroups are distinguished from one another by a small number of mutually exclusive isoglosses:

Upper ArafundiLower Arafundi
blood *kombet *endi[a]
breadfruit*ajiŋg *kamba
two *kamin *kondamin

Sources

Haberland (1966: 62-64) 98 comparative terms and (p. 66) number systems for Alfendio of Imbwain village (Andai,) Auvim and Angarat villages (Tapei) and Imanmeri and Wamblamas villages (Nanubae)

Dye (n.d.) survey vocabularies of Avambro village (Andai,) Wamblamas village (Nanubae) and Imboin and Kansomai villages (Awiakay,) provided in spreadsheet format by Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics

Davies and Comrie (1985: 283-311) 91 comparative terms for Alfendio (Nanubae) of Wamblamas village after Dye

Kassell, MacKenzie and Potter (2017) 158 comparative terms for Nanubae of Imanmeri, Wambrumas and Yamandim villages, Tapei of Awim and Imboin villages and Andai of Imboin and Kaiyam villages

Hoenigman (2015) grammar of Awiakay of Kanjimei village

Foley (2017: 232-238) Arafundi pronouns and grammar notes for Lower Arafundi (Nanubae) of Auwim and Imanmeri villages

Additionally, a vocabulary from the Penari (Penali) region was provided in comparative spreadsheet format by Paul Whitehouse via the Summer Institute of Linguistics, but it's undated and unattributed. According to Kassell (2005: 2,) the term Penali refers to both the region including the villages around the Arafundi and the Mongolo region as well as a tribe of which the Mongolo and others are members. As its vocabulary is most similar to Andai, it seems likely that this represents the speech of the nomadic Meakambut.

Historical phonology

[under construction]

Proto-Arafundi River had perhaps 13 consonants and 5 vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *s *k *kʷ
*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg
*w *j
*i *u
*e *o
*a



Apical non-stop [*ɺ] [ɺ ɾ l] appears to be an allophone of voiceless stop /*t/ as [*ɺ] is not found initally while medial and final /*t/ vary between the two values and palatal non-stop [j].



Initial consonants correspond as follows:

Arafundi Andai Tapei S. Nanubae N. Nanubae Awiakay
*m- m m m m m
*n- n n n n n
*p- p p p p p
*t- t t t t t
*s-
*k-
*k-/_i e
*kʷ- k k w w k
*w-
*j-
*j-/_N

Medial consonants correspond as follows:

Arafundi Andai Tapei S. Nanubae N. Nanubae Awiakay
*-m- m m m m m
*-n- n n n n n
*-p-
*-t-
*-T-
*-s-
*-k- k k k k k
*-k-/i e_ s ? k k ?
*-mb- mb mb mb mb mb
*-nd- nd nd nd nd nd
*-ŋg- ŋg ŋg ŋg ŋg ŋg
*-w-
*-j-

Final consonants correspond as follows:

Arafundi Andai Tapei S. Nanubae N. Nanubae Awiakay
*-m m m m m m
*-n n n n n n
*-p
*-t
*-s s s s s s
*-k k k k k k
*-k/i_ k k k k s
*-mb
*-nd
*-ŋg
*-w
*-j

Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:

Arafundi Andai Tapei S. Nanubae N. Nanubae Awiakay
*i
*u
*e
*o
*a

These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with …


Any consonant besides prenasalized voiced stops /*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg *ŋgʷ/ can occur initially.

Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri Kansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*m- m m m m m m
name *membi[a] memba mimbia mbia mbia mimbi
sago *men[k]Vs mɛnas mɨngis mɪnɪs mɪnɪs
heavy *meki[a] mɛsia mikiamba mikiamba
full *mambandzitmambandʒɛlmambandʒimambandʒi mambandʒit
old *matakat[a]malagal malakla
fruit/seed*maŋg[a] -maŋga -maŋga -maŋga -maŋga maŋga maŋga
short *maŋgumba mambʷanda mambandʒamaŋkumbandʒamaŋgumba maŋgumba
catch *moko- moko-t mogo-n moko-n moko-t
egg *mund[a] munda munda mɨnda mnda mɛndunda
claw *mundumb[a]mundumbʷa mundumba -mundumba mundumbʷa -mundumba

Initial apical nasal /*n/ s retained as such in all descendants:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*n- n n n n n n
1 sg. *niŋg niŋ niŋ niŋ niŋ niŋ ɲiŋ
eat/drink*nembV- nʌmbʌbʌn nɛmbɨbɨn nɨmbɨn nimbisik
2 dl. *nen nɛn- nɪn nin- nɪn neɲ
woman *nam nam nam nam nam nam nam
2 sg. *nan nan nan nan nan nan nan
stone *naŋgum naŋgum naŋgum naŋgum naŋgum
yesterday*naje nai nai nai nai nae
2 pl. *n[o/u]ŋg noŋ noŋ nuŋ nuŋ noŋ- ~ nuŋ-
person *numbam numbam nɪmbʷam
man *nuŋgum nuŋgum nuŋgum nuŋgum nuŋgum
elbow *nuŋgumuŋgnuŋg̵umuŋ-nig̵imɨŋ-anɨmɨŋ-ɨknuŋmun numugunuŋnumg-uk

Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim ImanmeriKansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*p- p p [p b]p [p b]p p [p b]p
long *piŋget[a]piŋgɛl piŋgi- piŋgia pigəla
star *piŋgup piŋgup puŋgusɨm puŋgusɨm puŋgusum
mountain *penduŋg pɛndəŋ pɨndɨŋ puntuŋ pundun bondoŋ pondoŋ
come *peki- biki biki bɛge
who? *peje pie pɛi
foot/leg *panamb[a] panba panba panamba panba/panben
stick (n.)*pas[a] -pasa -pasa -pasa
red *paWut[a] paul papua pauɛa paula bawi pawia
tomorrow *ponde pɛndɛ pɨndɛ pɨndi pɨndi ponde
nose *pok pok-ok pok-ok pok-ok bok pok-a
hit/kill *poko- poko-pɨn poko-ban poko-pɨn
bite *poko[t] pokol -puku-pɨn -pokwɛ pokot
fly (v.) *puta- pulaʔan puan
know *punde- pundʒebɪnpundubɨn pundi pundɛpɨm

Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri Kansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*t- t t t t t t
burn (intr.) *titoko- tloko-pel toko-pin tɾiogo-bɨntɾoko-pɨn
dry *tapokVt[a]tabugʷa [Imb]taupokuja [Imb]tapukɛa tapukut
tongue *taTumat[a]talmala tanmɛa taɾamʷan taɾmaɾ-ɨk
dog *tawa[m/mb]taum taum tam tam tam tam/tambaᴵ
hair/feather(s)*tum[a] tuma tuma tuma tuma tʰuma ~ tumatuma
skin *tut[a] -dua -tea -tɾa -dija tia

Initial laminal voiceless /*s/ is uncommon. …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*s- s [ts t]s s
cloud*su tsu su su

Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim ImanmeriKansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*k-/_a o uk k k k k [k kʰ g]k
two *kamin kamin kamin
flesh/meat *kamat[a] kamla kamea kamaɾa kʰamia kamia
morning *kandiŋg kantiŋ kandiŋin
white *kandoke[a] kandəga kandakɛa kandoga gandogʷej kandukja
tooth *kandz[a] kandʒa kandʒa kandʒɨn kandʒik gandʒɪniŋ kaɲɟa/kaɲɟin
cassowary *katima kaləma kaima kaima kalima gajɪma kaᴵma
new *kak kak kak kak
banana *kajik kaik kaik kaik kaik kas
three *komajin kamain kamaŋ kɨmain kumɛiŋ
head *kopa kaba kapa kapa kapɨn kobonʌŋ kopa/kopok/
kopon/koponuŋ
blood *kombet- kombɛt kɨmbɨt
earth/ground*kon kon kon
sit *koTo- koɾo-bɛn koɾo-pɨnkoɾo-pɨn koɾo-bɨnkʰolo-bon
hand/finger *koTok koɾok
two *kondamin kandamʷɨnkundamɨnkondamin kondamin
heart *kupus[a] kubusa- kubudʒik-kupusik-
skin *kumb[a]- kumbuk- kumba- kumbuk- kumbɨk-
ear *kund[a] kundu-bug̵ʷ-akund-a kund-uk kund-uk gʷund-un-tija
tail *kundum[a] kunduma kuntuma kuɾuma kuɾumʷa kunma
rat *kundok[aj] kundukai kuntukaikʷʊndok
wallaby *kuwijandok kʷiandɨk kʷiandʊkkʰiandok

When initial /*k/ is followed by front vowels /*i *e/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*k-/_i
fish *kinuŋg kɪnɪŋ kɪnɪŋ tɪɲuŋ
shoulder*kik gig- kik- kik-
sand *kiŋgim kiŋkim kiŋim tʃiŋim giɲim kiŋim
*k-/_e
moon *kepa kɛba tɨpɨ tɨpa tɨpa teba tepa
*k-/_e
bird *kenet kinɛl kɛnɛ kɛnɛ kɛnɛt tʰɪɲe tiɲe
*kVj-
sun *kVjom kjom kiom tum tum tem tem

Initial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ is deoccluded to /w/ in Nanubae and merged with plain velar /k/ in Tapei, Andai and Akwakay:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim ImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
Kassell KassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*kʷ- k k w w k k
laugh *kʷiŋg kiŋna wiŋinimbɨnwiŋipin
leaf *kʷaŋg[a] -waŋga waŋga gaŋgam kaŋga
areca nut*kʷumut mui mut kumi
root *kʷund[a]kundaɾaka-kunɾa -unɾa gunda kunda

Prenasalized voiceless stops /*mb *nd *ndz *ŋg *ŋgʷ/ do not occur intiially.

Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/is retained as such in all descendants:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*w- w w w w w w
net bag *wat wal wai waɛ wat wai
wind *wati wali waɾi waj wai
many *wakon wagon wagon
sugarcane*w[o/u]t wu wuɛ wut

Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri KansomaiKanjimai
Kassell KassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*j-
breast *ji[t/s] it-a jɨd-ɨn jil-a is-ik is-ik
see *jepV- -ibɛl jɛbɨ jɨbɛ jɪbɨn
tree/wood*jes jis ɛs ɛs jis ʔiʃ is
bone *jekimb[a]ɛgɪmba ɛgɨmba ɛkimba ~
-igimba
ig̵imba ~
-ɛgimba
egemba
pig *jat jaɛ jaɛ jat jaj jai
tobacco *jaki jaki jaiki jaiki jaiki jaki
house *jaw jau jau jau jaw jao/jaw-a
stand *jat[a]- jala-pɨnja-bɨn ja-bɨn jaɾa-bɨn ja-pon

When followed by a nasal /*m *n/ or a prenasalized voiced stop /*mb *nd *ndz *ng/ in the onset of the next syllable, initial /*j/ is often nasalized and occluded to apical nasal /*n/ in Andai:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri Kansomai Kanjimai
KassellKassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*j-/_VN VNCn jj j j j
vine *ji[m/mb] jɪm jɪmbandamjɪmbandamjɪmbandam
black *jimbit[a] jɪmbɪl imbia imbia jimbi imbia
lie down/sleep*jem… -jɛmi -jimbɨn jɪmbin jɪmbogolʌbun
arrow *jen ɛn en in jɪn
rain *jeŋg jiŋ jɨŋ
fire *jamb naʔam jam jam jam jam jam/jamba
hot *jambaŋgV jambaŋɛ jambaŋɛa jambaŋgo
ashes *jambum nambum jambumbuajambum jambum jambum jambum
wing *jaŋgat jaŋge
water *jomb nɛm jɛm jɪm jɪm jom jom/jomba
liver *jumuŋg jumuŋg-umjumuŋ-a jɪmuŋ-a jɛmuŋg-a jumg-a/jumg-uk
/jumg-uŋ

Any consonant can occur medially.

Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri Kansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-m- m m m m m m
louse *emuŋg omuŋ omuŋ jimuŋ umwiŋ emuŋ
mother *am[a] ama am amai ʔam
wallaby *amandzok amandʒok amandʒik
elbow *nuŋgumuŋg nuŋg̵umuŋ-nig̵imɨŋ-anɨmɨŋ-ɨk nuŋmun numugunuŋ numg-uk
tongue *taTumat[a]talmala tanmɛa taɾamʷan taɾmaɾ-ɨk
hair/feather(s)*tum[a] tuma tuma tuma tuma tʰuma ~ tumatuma
two *kamin kamin kamin
flesh/meat *kamat[a] kamla kamea kamaɾa kʰamia kamia
cassowary *katima kaləma kaima kaima kalima gajɪma kaᴵma
three *komajin kamain kamaŋ kɨmain kumɛiŋ
two *kondamin kandamʷɨnkundamɨn kondamin kondamin
tail *kundum[a] kunduma kuntuma kuɾuma kuɾumʷa kunma
areca nut *kʷumut mui mut kumi
liver *jumuŋg jumuŋg-um jumuŋ-a jɪmuŋ-a jɛmuŋg-a jumg-a/jumg-uk
/jumg-uŋ

Medial apical nasal /*n/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-n-/a_
foot/leg*panamb[a] panba panba panamba panba/panben

… /*n/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-n-/i_
fish*kinuŋg kɪnɪŋ kɪnɪŋ tɪɲuŋ
*-n-/e_
wind*enuŋg ɛnuŋ ɛnuŋ
sago*men[k]Vs mɛnas mɨngis mɪnɪs mɪnɪs
bird*kenet kinɛl kɛnɛ kɛnɛ kɛnɛt tʰɪɲe tiɲe

Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim ImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-p-
dry *tapokVt[a]tabugʷa [Imb]taupokuja [Imb]tapukɛa tapukut
head *kopa kaba kapa kapa kapɨn kobonʌŋ kopa/kopok/
kopon/koponuŋ
heart*kupus[a] kubusa- kubudʒik-kupusik-
moon *kepa kɛba tɨpɨ tɨpa tɨpa teba tepa
see *jepV- -ibɛl jɛbɨ jɨbɛ jɪbɨn

Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/… :

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri Kansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-t- l j [j Ø] j [j Ø]ɺ [l ɾ]j [j Ø] j [j Ø]
knife *etoŋg[a] loŋa eŋja ʔɛŋa
flying fox *atuŋgaŋg aimgʷaŋ (?) aiŋgʷaŋ aluŋgaŋ ajɪngʷaŋ aᴵŋgʷaŋ
old *matakat[a]malagal malakla
long *piŋget[a] piŋgɛl piŋgi- piŋgia pigəla
red *paWut[a] paul papua pauɛa paula bawi pawia
fly (v.) *puta- pulaʔan puan
burn (intr.)*titoko- tloko-pel toko-pin tɾiogo-bɨn tɾoko-pɨn
dry *tapokVt[a]tabugʷa [Imb]taupokuja [Imb]tapukɛa tapukut
tongue *taTumat[a]talmala tanmɛa taɾamʷan taɾmaɾ-ɨk
yellow *toTet[a] tɨdɛa tɨdɛa toriɛ tolia
skin *tut[a] -dua -tea -tɾa -dija ~ -tijatia
flesh/meat *kamat[a] kamla kamea kamaɾa kʰamia kamia
cassowary *katima kaləma kaima kaima kalima gajɪma kaᴵma
wind *wati wali waɾi waj wai
black *jimbit[a] jɪmbɪl imbia imbia jimbi imbia
stand *jat[a]- jala-pɨn ja-bɨn ja-bɨn jaɾa-bɨn ja-pon

Three examples in which medial /*t/ is lenited but not palatalized …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri Kansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-T- t [ɾ]t [ɾ]t [ɾ]t [ɾ]t [l]
tongue *taTumat[a]talmala tanmɛa taɾamʷan taɾmaɾ-ɨk
yellow *toTet[a] tɨdɛa tɨdɛa toriɛ tolia
sit *koTo- koɾo-bɛn koɾo-pɨn koɾo-pɨn koɾo-bɨn kʰolo-bon
hand/finger*koTok koɾok

Medial laminal voiceless /*s/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-s-
father*as[a] asa as asai

Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri Kansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-k-
frog sp. *embeket bɛkɛ mbikit ɛmbɛgɛ
hear *ek[i/e]- ɛgɛl ɛgi egi-gi ike-pɨn
not *aka aka-i aga -aka aka
old *matakat[a]malagal malakla
catch *moko- moko-t mogo-n moko-n moko-t
come *peki- biki biki bɛge
nose (1 sg.)*pok-ok pok-ok pok-ok pok-ok
hit/kill *poko- poko-pɨn poko-ban poko-pɨn
bite *poko[t] pokol -puku-pɨn -pokwɛ pokot
burn (intr.)*titoko- tloko-pel toko-pin tɾiogo-bɨn tɾoko-pɨn
dry *tapokVt[a]tabugʷa [Imb]taupokuja [Imb]tapukɛa tapukut
white *kandoke[a] kandəga kandakɛa kandoga gandogʷejkandukja
many *wakon wagon wagon
bone *jekimb[a] ɛgɪmba ɛgɨmba ɛkimba ~
-igimba
ig̵imba ~
-ɛgimba
egemba
tobacco *jaki jaki jaiki jaiki jaiki jaki

… /*k/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-k-/_is ? k k ? ?
heavy*meki[a] mɛsia mikiambamikiamba

Medial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-kʷ-
*…

Medial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri Kansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-mb-
frog sp. *embeket bɛkɛ mbikit ɛmbɛgɛ
walk/go *ambo- ambɨn ambɨn ambo-bon
name *membi[a] memba mimbia mbia mbia mimbi
full *mambandzitmambandʒɛlmambandʒimambandʒi mambandʒit
short *maŋgumba mambʷanda mambandʒamaŋkumbandʒa maŋgumba maŋgumba
foot/leg *panamb[a] panba panba panamba panba/panben
claw *mundumb[a]mundumbʷa mundumba -mundumba mundumbʷa -mundumba
eat/drink*nembV- nʌmbʌbʌn nɛmbɨbɨn nɨmbɨn nimbisik
person *numbam numbam nɪmbʷam
blood *kombet- kombɛt kɨmbɨt
skin *kumb[a]- kumbuk- kumba- kumbuk- kumbɨk-
black *jimbit[a] jɪmbɪl imbia imbia jimbi imbia
bone *jekimb[a] ɛgɪmba ɛgɨmba ɛkimba ~
-igimba
ig̵imba ~
-ɛgimba
egemba
hot *jambaŋgV jambaŋɛ jambaŋɛa jambaŋgo

Medial apical prenasalized voiced stop /*nd/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri Kansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-nd-
blood *endi[a] ndai india ɛndija endia
night *endiniŋg ɛndɪnɪŋ endɨniŋ
no *awunda aunɾa aunda awuda
egg *mund[a] munda munda mɨnda mnda mɛndunda
claw *mundumb[a]mundumbʷa mundumba-mundumbamundumbʷa-mundumba
mountain*penduŋg pɛndəŋ pɨndɨŋ puntuŋ pundun bondoŋ pondoŋ
tomorrow*ponde pɛndɛ pɨndɛ pɨndi pɨndi ponde
know *punde- pundʒebɪn pundubɨnpundi pundɛpɨm
morning *kandiŋg kantiŋ kandiŋin
white *kandoke[a] kandəga kandakɛa kandoga gandogʷej kandukja
two *kondamin kandamʷɨnkundamɨn kondamin kondamin
ear *kund[a] kundu-bug̵ʷ-akund-a kund-uk kund-uk gʷund-un-tija
rat *kundok[aj] kundukai kuntukai kʷʊndok
tail *kundum[a] kunduma kuntuma kuɾuma kuɾumʷa kunma
wallaby *kuwijandok kʷiandɨk kʷiandʊk kʰiandok
root *kʷund[a] kundaɾaka -kunɾa -unɾa gunda kunda

Medial laminal prenasalized /*ndz/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri Kansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-ndz- ndʒ ndʒ ndʒ ndʒ ndʒ ɲɟ
wallaby*amandzok amandʒok amandʒik
full *mambandzitmambandʒɛlmambandʒimambandʒimambandʒit
tooth *kandz[a] kandʒa kandʒa kandʒɨn kandʒik gandʒɪniŋkaɲɟa/kaɲɟin

Medial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim ImanmeriKansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-ŋg-
knife *etoŋg[a] loŋa eŋja ʔɛŋa
fruit/seed*maŋg[a] -maŋga -maŋga -maŋga -maŋga maŋga maŋga
short *maŋgumba mambʷanda mambandʒa maŋkumbandʒamaŋgumbamaŋgumba
long *piŋget[a]piŋgɛl piŋgi- piŋgia pigəla
star *piŋgup piŋgup puŋgusɨm puŋgusɨm puŋgusum
stone *naŋgum naŋgum naŋgum naŋgum naŋgum
man *nuŋgum nuŋgum nuŋgum nuŋgum nuŋgum
elbow *nuŋgumuŋgnuŋg̵umuŋ-nig̵imɨŋ-anɨmɨŋ-ɨk nuŋmun numugunuŋnumg-uk
sand *kiŋgim kiŋkim kiŋim tʃiŋim giɲim kiŋim
leaf *kʷaŋg[a] -waŋga waŋga gaŋgam kaŋga
hot *jambaŋgV jambaŋɛ jambaŋɛa jambaŋgo
wing *jaŋgat jaŋge

… [*ŋgʷ] …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
Kassell KassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-ŋg/u_-
flying fox*atuŋgaŋg aimgʷaŋ (?) aiŋgʷaŋ aluŋgaŋ ajɪngʷaŋaᴵŋgʷaŋ

Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-w-
*…

… /*p/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-W-
red*paWut[a]paul papua pauɛa paula bawi pawia

Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-j-
*…

… final consonants …

Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants. In some instances apparent final /*m/ might really be prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ (below):

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-m m m m m m m
woman *nam nam nam nam nam nam nam
stone *naŋgum naŋgum naŋgum naŋgum naŋgum
person*numbam numbam nɪmbʷam
man *nuŋgum nuŋgum nuŋgum nuŋgum nuŋgum
sand *kiŋgim kiŋkim kiŋim tʃiŋim giɲim kiŋim
sun *kVjom kjom kiom tum tum tem tem
ashes *jambum nambum jambumbuajambum jambum jambum jambum

Final apical nasal /*n/ is generally retained as such in all descendants, though is ocassionally heard as velar [ŋ] or palatal [ɲ]:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri KansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-n n n [n ŋ]n n [n ŋ]n n p[n ɲ ]
2 dl. *nen nɛn- nɪn nin- nɪn neɲ
2 sg. *nan nan nan nan nan nan nan
two *kamin kamin kamin
three *komajin kamain kamaŋ kɨmain kumɛiŋ
earth/ground*kon kon kon
two *kondamin kandamʷɨnkundamɨn kondaminkondamin
many *wakon wagon wagon
arrow *jen ɛn en in jɪn

Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-p p
star*piŋgup (?)piŋgup puŋgusɨmpuŋgusɨmpuŋgusum

Final apical voicelss stop /*t/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim Imanmeri KansomaiKanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-t
frog sp. *embeket bɛkɛ mbikit ɛmbɛgɛ
smoke *omut omul omua -muja mulaŋ ʔɛmwi
full *mambandzitmambandʒɛl mambandʒi mambandʒimambandʒit
bite *poko[t] pokol -puku-pɨn -pokwɛ pokot
dry *tapokVt tabugʷa [Imb]taupokuja [Imb]tapukɛa tapukut
yellow *toTet[a] tɨdɛa tɨdɛa toriɛ tolia
bird *kʲenet kinɛl kɛnɛ kɛnɛ kɛnɛt tʰɪɲe tiɲe
areca nut*kʷumut mui mut kumi
net bag *wat wal wai waɛ wat wai
sugarcane*w[o/u]t wu wuɛ wut
pig *jat jaɛ jaɛ jat jaj jai
wing *jaŋgat jaŋge

Final laminal voiceless /*s/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomai Kanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-s s s s s s [iʃ]s
1 dl. *as as- as -as
sago *men[k]Vsmɛnas mɨngis mɪnɪs mɪnɪs
tree/wood*jes jis ɛs ɛs jis ʔiʃ is

Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ is generally retained as such in all decendants:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-k k k k k k k
wallaby *amandzok amandʒokamandʒik
nose *pok pok-ok pok-ok pok-ok bok pok-a
nose (1 sg.)*pok-ok pok-ok pok-ok pok-ok
new *kak kak kak kak
hand/finger *koTok koɾok
wallaby *kuwijandok kʷiandɨkkʷiandʊkkʰiandok

When final /*k/ is preceded by high front vowel /*i/ it is palatalized and fricated to laminal /s/ in Awiakay:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-k k k [k g]k k s
shoulder*kik gig- kik- kik-
banana *kajik kaik kaik kaik kaik kas

Final bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-mbm m m m m m ~ mb(-)
fire *jamb naʔam jam jam jam jam jam/jamba
water*jomb nɛm jɛm jɪm jɪm jom jom/jomba

Final apical prenasalized vioced stop ./*nd/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-nd
*…

Final velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ …:

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim Yamandim ImanmeriKansomai Kanjimai
Kassell Kassell Kassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-ŋg
louse *emuŋg omuŋ omuŋ jimuŋ umwiŋ emuŋ
wind *enuŋg ɛnuŋ ɛnuŋ
night *endiniŋg ɛndɪnɪŋ endɨniŋ
flying fox*atuŋgaŋg aimgʷaŋ (?) aiŋgʷaŋ aluŋgaŋ ajɪngʷaŋ aᴵŋgʷaŋ
mountain *penduŋg pɛndəŋ pɨndɨŋ puntuŋ pundun bondoŋ pondoŋ
1 sg. *niŋg niŋ niŋ niŋ niŋ niŋ ɲiŋ
2 pl. *n[o/u]ŋg noŋ noŋ nuŋ nuŋ noŋ- ~ nuŋ-
elbow *nuŋgumuŋgnuŋg̵umuŋ- nig̵imɨŋ-anɨmɨŋ-ɨk nuŋmun numugunuŋnumg-uk
fish *kinuŋg kɪnɪŋ kɪnɪŋ tɪɲuŋ
morning *kandiŋg kantiŋ kandiŋin
laugh *kʷiŋg kiŋna wiŋinimbɨnwiŋipin
rain *jeŋg jiŋ jɨŋ
liver *jumuŋg jumuŋg-um jumuŋ-a jɪmuŋ-a jɛmuŋg-a jumg-a/jumg-uk
/jumg-uŋ

Final bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-w
*…

Final palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*-j
*…

… vowels and diphthongs …

High front vowel /*i/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*i
*…

High back rounded vowel /*u/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*u
*…

High mid front vowel /*e/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*e
*…

High mid-back rounded vowel /*o/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*o
*…

Low central vowel /*a/ …:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*a
*…

…:

ArafundiAndai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
*…
*…

Pronouns

[under construction]

Arafundi Andai Tapei Nanubae Nanubae Awiakay Awiakay
Kayam Awim YamandimImanmeriKansomaiKanjimai
KassellKassellKassell Kassell Dye Hoenigman
1 sg.*niŋg niŋ niŋ niŋ niŋ niŋ ɲiŋ
2 sg.*nan nan nan nan nan nan nan
3 sg.*an an an an an
1 pl.*aŋg aŋ-
2 pl.*n[o/u]ŋgnoŋ noŋ nuŋ nuŋ ?
3 pl.
1 dl.*as as- as -as
2 dl.*nen nɛn- nɪn nin- nɪn neɲ
3dl. ?


Verbal morphology

[under construction]