Lower Fly River

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

The Lower Fly River family is comprised of four or five languages spoken along the south bank of the Fly River, just west of its delta, in Papua New Guinea's Western Province (Jore and Alemán 2002, q.v. p. 10.) The Fly River delta is one of the most linguistically complicated regions on earth, with five very different families and two isolated languages spoken in a small area and many words exchanged between them. Lower Fly River was separated from its nearest relatives, Inland Gulf to the northeast and Lake Murray to the northwest, by the expansions of Kiwai and Suki respectively.

Subclassification

The internal classification of Lower Fly River is as follows:

Lower Fly River

Baramu

Bitur

Giribam-Makayam

Giribam

Makayam

Were

This is the same as the subclassification given in Jore and Alemán (2002,) except that Abom is excluded. Baramu shows the highest degree of lexical independence. Further subclassification may be possible, but the influence of loans from neighboring families (below) warrants caution. There are also elements of a chain, with Baramu at the eastern end and Were at the western end, hence the order of presentation above. Abom is sharply distinct from all of these, and despite its location and a number of shared terms (below) is not a member of Lower Fly River or of Fly River.

Jore and Aleman (2002: 14) provide lexical similarity figures between eight Lower Fly River villages alongside Abom as follows:

Abom Baramu Bituri Giribam Makayam Were
[none] Tirio #2 Upiara Bisuaka Tewara Janor Aduru Lewada Dewala
Abom [none] 12 14 14 14 11 11 11 9
Baramu Tirio #2 12 33 33 34 30 34 32 27
Bituri Upiara 14 33 98 98 56 51 50 35
Bisuaka 14 33 98 100 56 52 51 35
Tewara 14 34 98 100 57 52 52 35
GiribamJanor 11 30 56 56 57 79 78 47
MakayamAduru 11 34 51 52 52 79 98 47
Lewada 11 32 50 51 52 78 98 47
Were Dewala 9 27 35 35 35 47 47 47

Sources

[under construction]

Chalmers (1897: 139-144) 93 terms for Tagota (Makayam) (unobtained)

Ray (1907: 391-412) … comparative terms for Pisirami (Makayam) after Riley (n.d.) and Tagota after Chalmers (1897)

Ray (1923) …

Riley (1931-1932: 172-189) 415 comparative terms for Tirio (Baramu)

Williams (1936: 30-31) 7 comparative terms for Arama (Were) and Anima (Makayam)

Jore (2002) 190 comparative terms for Bituri of Upiara, Bisuaka and Tewara villages

Jore (2002) 190 comparative terms for Were of Dewala village

Jore (2002) 190 comparative terms for Makayam of Lewada and Aduru villages and Baramu of Tirio #2

Jore (2002) 190 comparative terms for Abom and Giribam of Janor village

Jore and Alemán (2002: 43-48) 162 comparative terms for Bituri of Upiara, Bisuaka and Tewara villages, Giribam of Janor, Makayam of Lewada and Aduru, Were of Dewala, Baramu of Tiro #2 and Abom

History of classification

[under construction]

Ray (1923: 336) placed Makayam (Tagota and Pisirami) and Baramu (Tirio) in two separate families, called the Tagota group and the Tirio group respectively

Wurm (1970) …

Greenberg'(1971: 825-829) places the Tirio group, including both Baramu and Makayam, alongside his Marind (including Yaqay and Boazi,) Ok, Awju and Kukukuku (Kratke Range) groups in a Southwestern subgroup of Indo-Pacific


Ross …

Historical phonology

[under construction]

Proto-Lower Fly River had 13 consonants and 5 vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *s *k
*b *d *g
*w *j
*i *u
*e *o
*a

Velar non-stop /*ɣ/ reflects two different Fly River phonemes, initial / and medial /*k/     Any consonant can occur initially, medially or finally. Consonant clusters occur only accross morpheme boundaries.

Any vowel can occur initially, medially or finally, but the cooccurance of different vowels is restricted by vowel height harmony such that a high vowel /*i *u/ and a mid vowel /*e *o/ cannot appear in the same root. Low central vowel /*a/ is harmonically neutral, and can cooccur with any other vowel.

In addition to the five full vowels /*i *u *e *o *a/ given above, a final destressed archiphonemic vowel is found which is represented here as schwa /*ə/ [ɐ]. This is needed to explain the differences between the dispositions of final consonants (below.)



Initial and medial consonants correspond as follows:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*m m m m m m
*n n n n n n
*p p p p p p
*t t t t t t
*s s s s s s
*-s s s t t t
*k k k k k k
*b b b b p p
*d d d d t t
*g g g g k k
*w w w w w w
ɾ ɾ ɾ ɾ ɾ
*j/_a z z dz s s
*j/_i e ø j dz dz dz
ø ɢ ø ø ø

Subfinal and final consonants correspond as follows:



Vowels and vowel sequences correspond as follows:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*i i i i i i
*u u u u u u
*e e e e e e
*o o o o o o
*a a a a a a
*V₁CV₁ V₁CV₁ V₁CV₁ V₁CV₁ V₁CV₁ V₁CV₁
*iCu ? iCu iCu iCu iCu
*uCi ? uCi uCi uCi uCi
*eCo eCo eCo eCo eCo eCo
*oCe oCe oCe oCe oCe oCe
*aCV₂ aCV₂ aCV₂ aCV₂ aCV₂ aCV₂
*iCa iCa aCa iCa ? ?
*uCa uCa uCu uCu ? uCa
*eCa eCa ? eCa eCa eCa
*oCa ? ? oCa oCa oCa
*…

These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with attestations drawn from Jore and Alemán (2002: 43-48, ibid.) unless otherwise indicated. Baramu (Tirio) forms drawn from Riley (1931-1932: 172-189) are designated by [er], as are Pisirami (Makayam) forms from Riley (n.d.) as excerpted in Ray (1907: 391-412, 1923: ….) Tagota (Makayam) forms from Chalmers as excerpted in Ray are designated by [jc]. All of these trasncriptions are phonetic, not phonemic.




Bilabial nasal /*m/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*m- m m m m m
root *mit mi:t ni:t˺
two *mis misə-gə mis-du mi:ta ≈ mijita mi:t-ɨg mit-ɨg
nose *miw mi:p(˺) miu meu ≈ miu
sand *miɾi mi(:)ɾi(ʔ)
pig *m[i/e]nawə minaᵘ: mena:wa mɛnaᵘ
voice/speech*meanə meane [er] meana
water *mau[g/k]ə maᵘg maᵘka maᵘka ≈ mauk
snake *manig mani:g manit˺ ≈ mani(:)manik˺ manik˺
old *mane-ageə managegmaneagija mena:giamena:gia(g)
moon/sun *manom mano:m manom mano:m
good *masi masi:- masi:- masi:- masi(:)-
chin *magot mago:t mako:t mako:tʰ
foot *magoɾ magoɾ mako:ɾ
light/dry *maɾaɾ maɾaɾ- maɾaɾ- maɾaɾ-
baby *mod[o] modo: moda moda moto: mot(ʰ)o:
cloud *mogawə mugaᵘ: mogawa mokaᵘ mogaw ≈mogaᵘ
ashes *moɾ mo:ɾ mo:ɾ mo:ɾ
seed *moɣom mo:m mo:m mo:m
fat/grease *muɾaɾ muɾa:ɾ muɾuɾ muɾuɾ moɾoɾ ≈ muɾwaɾ
*-m- m m m m m
earth/ground*tamagə t(ʰ)ama:ga tama:gə tʰama(:)g
eat *tamu t(ʰ)amu(:)-ma tamu:-m tamu(:)-m
mountain *somog somog somog somog somok˺
stomach *ɣamaɾ amaɾa [er]kʰamaɾ

Apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*n- n n n n n
sand *ninaɣai ni:naⁱ nanaɢaⁱ
seed *nein nene [er] neⁱn nɛ:n
tree *naukə naᵘkʰa ≈ naukʰa naᵘka naᵘkʰ(a)
blood *nauɾə naᵘɾa ≈ nauɾa naᵘɾa naᵘɾ(a)
1 pl. *naoj[ə] nauz nuin ≈ noⁱn no:zə no:z
1 sg. *naoɣ[ə] noga naᵘg no: no:gə no:g
bone *naɾakə naɾa: naɾaka naɾak(˺)
sleep *nu nua [er]
*-n- n n n n n
people *animə ani anima ani(:)m anim
man *anemə anɛ: ane(:)ma ane:m anɛ:m
older sister *anan j-anan dz-anan-tum
≈ z-anan-tum
woman *anumə anu(:)ma anu:m anu:m
claw *unik unik unit˺ ≈ unik˺ unik˺ uni:k˺
pig *m[i/e]nawə minaᵘ: mena:wa mɛnaᵘ
snake *manig mani:g manit˺ ≈ mani(:) manik˺ manik˺
old *mane-ageə managegmaneagija mena:giamena:gia(g)
moon/sun *manom mano:m manom mano:m
sand *ninaɣai ni:naⁱ nanaɢaⁱ
lie down/sleep*tene tɛnɛ:
night *duniau[ə] diniu duni(:)wi tuniᵘ tuniaᵘ

Bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is preserved as such in all descendants:

Lower Fly BaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
*p- p p [p pʰ ]p p p [p pʰ ]
shoulder*paunə paun pʰaun paᵘna p(ʰ)aᵘn(a)
swim *papaɾ papa:ɾ-am papa:ɾa-dɨɾpapaɾ-dɛɾ
white *padə pʰa:d-aɾ p(ʰ)ada-p(ʰ)adapadə-təɾ padə-taɾ
boy *pasiw pasi: masiu [sic] p(ʰ)asip˺ pasiᵘ pasiu
leaf *pasajə pasaⁱ pasaⁱja pasaⁱ pasaⁱ
wallaby *paɾVwai paɾuwaⁱ: paɾoaⁱ ≈ paɾawaⁱ
wind *poweɾ pʰowɛ:ɾ po(:)weɾ poɛ:ɾ powɛ:ɾ
fly (v.)*pup[u]ɾuɾ pupɾuɾ pupuɾuɾ
*-p-
not *epa e(:)pa epa
forehead*apiɾə ap(ʰ)i(:)ɾa api:ɾa ≈ apʰiɾə
swim *papaɾ papa:ɾ-am papa:ɾa-dɨɾpapaɾ-dɛɾ
fly (v.)*pup[u]ɾuɾ pupɾuɾ pupuɾuɾ

Apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri GiribamMakayam
*t- t t [tʰ]t [t tʰ] t t [t tʰ]
particle (pl.)*ti ti ti ti ti ti
arm/leg (?) *tigiɾ tigiɾi [er] tiki:ɾ tikiɾ
particle (m.) *te te te te te te
brother *-tem -tʰim -tɛm ≈ -ten -te:m -tɛ(:)m
smoke *temə tɛ:m- te:ma tɛma-tɛm
lie down/sleep*tene tɛnɛ:
when? *tewet tʰɛwɛtʰ te:wet tɛ(:)wɛ(:)t˺
vine/rope *taukə tʰaᵘ:kʰ tʰɔkʰ to:kʰa to:kʰ(a)
earth/ground *tamagə t(ʰ)ama:ga tama:gətʰama(:)g
eat *tamu t(ʰ)amu(:)-ma tamu:-mtamu(:)-m
that *tatə ta-koɾɛ tʰatʰa ta:ta ta:ta t(ʰ)a:tʰ
mouth *tawaɾ tʰawaɾ t(ʰ)awaɾ tawa:ɾ tʰawaɾ
hot *totaɾ totaɾ-ga tota:ɾ-totaɾə-
≈ totaɾɨ-
ear *towap tʰowap ≈ towap˺
≈ toap
tuəp˺ tʰuəp˺ ≈ tuap˺
particle (f.) *tu tu
sister *-tum -tum -tum -tu(:)m
*-t- t t t t
hot *totaɾ totaɾ- tota:ɾ-totaɾə-
≈ totaɾɨ-
neck *kote kʰotɛ: kote: k(ʰ)otɛ(:)
who/what? *watei wateⁱ ≈ wate(:)
sugarcane *ɣatimə kati:m ati:ma

Laminal voiceless /*s/ …:

Lower Fly BaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
*s- s s s s s
morning *ɣap-sinə ap-sin ap-si:nəapʰ-si:n
≈ apə-sin
bark (of tree)*sigua[p/b] sigu:b siguap˺ sikuap˺ sikʰuap
banana *seimə simɛ seⁱma
dog *s[eae] sea sija(ⁱ)ja
fat/grease *seg-segə sɛk-sɛg seg(a)-seg
egg *sVɣaɾə sa:ɾ saɢaɾ sia(:)ɾa sa:ɾa sɛaɾ
hand *saga saga: sakoa [er]
mountain *somog somog somog somog somok˺
meat/fat *sowajə suaⁱ sowaⁱja sowaⁱ(ja)
tail *sumə su:m su:m su:ma su:ma su:m(a)
tooth *suwə su: su: sua
bad *suɾ sul- su:- sə-su:ɾ-susuɾ(ə)-
*-s- s s s s
old woman *aus-abeɾ asɨbɛɾ ausabeɾ aᵘsabe:ɾasubɛ:l
≈ asubɛ:ɾ
good *masi masi:- masi:- masi:- masi(:)-
boy *pasiw pasi: masiu p(ʰ)asip˺pasiᵘ pasiu
leaf *pasajə pasaⁱ pasaⁱja pasaⁱ pasaⁱ
short *ɣasub kʰasub-dag asu:-dɨgasu:-dɨg

…:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-s s s t t [t t˺]t [t t˺]
sit*agas agaso aga:s agaɾa akat˺ ak(ʰ)at(˺)
two*mis misə-gəmis-dumi:ta ≈ mijitami:t-ɨg mit-ɨg

One exception may indicate a loan into Giribam and Makayam:

Lower FlyBaramu Were BituriGiribam Makayam
*-s s s s s
basket*aɾus j-aɾu:saɾu:s aɾu:sɨk̚aɾu:s(a)

…:

Lower Fly Baramu WereBituri GiribamMakayam
*-s(-) s s -s
full*kusu[k]isəkusu:s-taɾ kusuisa
≈ kusuⁱsa
kusuks-taɾ

Velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*k- k [k kʰ]k [k kʰ]k [k kʰ] k [k kʰ]k [k kʰ]
tooth *kam ka:m kʰam
old man *kadeɾe kʰadɛɾɛ kadɛ:ɾ k(ʰ)adeɾɛ
≈ kʰadeɾe
kʰadeɾe kadɛɾe
≈ kadɛ:ɾɛ
elbow *kakipə kʰakʰi:p kʰakʰip k(ʰ)ak(ʰ)ipa kakip kʰakʰip
girl *kakoə kʰakʰo kakoa kako: kʰakʰo:
tusk *kaɾitə kʰaɾitʰ kʰaɾit k(ʰ)aɾi(:)ta kaɾi:tə kʰaɾitʰ
stick (n.)*kaɾeə k(ʰ)aɾia kʰaɾe kʰaɾea
neck *kote kʰotɛ: kote: k(ʰ)otɛ(:)
full *kusu[k]isəkusu:s-taɾ kusuisa
≈ kusuⁱsa
kusuks-taɾ
*-k- k [k kʰ]k [k kʰ]k [k kʰ] k k [k kʰ]
elbow *kakipə kʰakʰi:p kʰakʰip k(ʰ)ak(ʰ)ipa kakip kʰakʰip
girl *kakoə kʰakʰo kakoa kako: kʰakʰo:
full *kusu[k]isəkusu:s-taɾ kusuisa
≈ kusuⁱsa
kusuks-taɾ

Voiced stops /*b *d *g/ are merged with the reflexes of voiceless stops /*p *t *k/ in Giribam and Makayam.

Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ …:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*b- b b b p p [p pʰ]
eye *baɾid baɾi:d baɾit˺ ≈ baɾipaɾit˺ pʰaɾit˺
breast *bub bu:b pup pʰupʰ
feather *bubu[s/k]bubusa:bubu:k pupuk˺
≈ pʰupʰukʰ
thumb *budub-duɾ budub-duɾ putub-duɾputubɨ-duɾ
heavy/wet*buduɾ buduɾ-buduɾ- putu(:)ɾ-putuɾ(ə)-
≈ putuɾɨ-
cold *buɾuɾ buɾuɾ-ga puɾu-bɾuɾp(ʰ)u-bɾuɾ
*-b- b b b p p [p pʰ]
feather *bubu[s/k]bubusa:bubu:k pupuk˺
≈ pʰupʰukʰ
arrow *gobeɾ gobɛ:ɾ gabɛ:ɾ
cough *ɣabudə abu:d kʰabudabu(:)da apu:də apu:d

Exceptions can only be loans into Giribam-Makayam, /*b₂aigə/ for example being a loan from Aramia River /*boiga/ “back” (below,) and /*ab₂eɾ/ and /b₂aɾab/ most likely loans from Were or Bituri:

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
*b₂- b b b
back/bone *b₂aigə baig baⁱgə:
flying fox*b₂aɾab baɾa:b baɾap˺ baɾap˺
taro *b₂ajə bai: baⁱ:ja ≈ beⁱ(:)jabaⁱ:ja baⁱ
*-b₂-b b b b b
old woman *ab₂eɾ abɛ:ɾ asɨbɛɾausabeɾ aᵘsabe:ɾasubɛ:l
≈ asubɛ:ɾ

Apical voiced stop /*d/ …:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*d- d d d t t [t tʰ]
back *dinə di:n di(:)na ti:na ti:na ≈ tʰi:n
stone *didigə didi(:)ga titi:gə
dog *diɾean diɾæn teɾean ≈ taɾean
bird *dawod dawu:d daᵘwo ≈ dauwo tawot˺ taᵘwot˺
men's house *daɾimə daɾi:m taɾi:mə taɾi:m(a)
lie down *daɾeaɾVb daɾeaɾba taɾeap˺
long *dodɾap doɾa:p-gadodɾap do(:)ɾa-ga todɾapɨm todɾa:p(ʰ)əm
hair *duɾumə duɾuma tuɾu:m
navel *duɣumə duma [er] tumu [er]
night *duniau diniu duni(:)wi tuniᵘ tuniaᵘ
*-d- d d d t t [t tʰ]
baby *mod[o] modo: moda moda moto: mot(ʰ)o:
thumb *budub-duɾ budub-dur putub-durputubɨ-dur
heavy/wet *buduɾ buduɾ- buduɾ- putu(:)ɾ-putuɾ(ə)-
≈ putuɾɨ-
stone *didigə didi(:)ga titi:gə
old man *kadeɾe kʰadɛɾɛ kadɛ:ɾ k(ʰ)adeɾɛ
≈ kʰadeɾe
kʰadeɾe kadɛɾe
≈ kadɛ:ɾɛ
wallaby *j[i]adam jadam dʒa:dam
charcoal/black*ɣVdoum daᵘm-ga gudum-daɾdoᵘm-doᵘm
dom-dum

Velar voiced stop /*g/ … (Shafer 1965: 116):

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*g- g g k k [k kʰ]
knife *giɾi giɾi gi:ɾ gi:ɾi(ʔ) gi:ɾi gi:ɾi
red *gai gaⁱ-taɾ kaⁱa-təɾ kaⁱ(a)-t(ʰ)aɾ
name *gag gag gag kak kʰakʰ
feather *gawaɾ gawaɾ gawaɾ kawaɾ kawaɾ
arrow *gobeɾ gobɛ:ɾ gabɛ:ɾ
sweet potato *goɾ[oɾ]en goɾɛ:n koɾoɾe:ɛnkoɾoɾɛ(:)n
yellow *guɾug guɾu-guɾu(g)guɾuk-taɾguɾuk-taɾ
*-g- g g g [g ø] k k [k kʰ]
3 sg. *igiə igi: igi: igia ≈ igi:aiki:a ikʰi:
wing *agetə age:t age(:)ta ake:ta akɛ:ta ≈ akɛ:tʰ
sit *agas agaso aga:s agaɾa akat˺ ak(ʰ)at(˺)
chin *magot mago:t mako:t mako:tʰ
foot *magoɾ magoɾ mako:ɾ
arm/leg (?) *tigiɾ tigiɾi [er] tiki:ɾ tikiɾ
bark (of tree)*sigua[p/b] sigu:b siguap˺ sikuap˺ sikʰuap
hand *saga saga: sakoa [er]

…:

Lower FlyBaramuWere BituriGiribamMakayam
*-g- g g k g
cloud*mogawə mugaᵘ:mogawamokaᵘ mogaw ≈mogaᵘ

Bilabial non-stop /*w/ is retained as such in all descendants. It is not occluded as it is in other Fly River subfamilies:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*w- w w w w w
father *we a-wɛ: i-wɛ e-wija ≈ ɛ-wija e-we: ɛ-we: ≈ ɛ-wiɛ
hit/kill *wVɣVn[i]weⁱnɛ:nwaɢani wein-a ≈weⁱ:n-am weⁱn wɛⁱn ≈ weⁱn
who/what?*watei wateⁱ ≈ wate(:)
die *waɾeu waɾewa waɾeu waɾewa waɾeᵘ ≈ waɾɛom
mother *wu dʒi-wu-nu:mdʒi-(w)u-num
*-w- w w w w w
see *owe we-a:m - ow-a:m owe-am
path *ewean e:wan ewijan-
many/all *eweaɾ iuɾ-wɛɾ (z)ewijaɾ≈ɛwijaɾ ewiaɾ ɛwoɾ-wɛa(:)ɾ
fish *awi aᵘ aᵘwi ≈ awi aᵘ:wi a:wi
laugh *awedə aᵘwɛd ewe(:)da ewe:da ewe:d ≈ ewɛ:d
walk *awoɾ[o] awoɾo-mauɾo-m awoɾ(o)-ma awo:ɾə-m awoɾ(ə)-m
wallaby *paɾVwai paɾuwaⁱ: paɾoaⁱ ≈ paɾawaⁱ
wind *poweɾ pʰowɛ:ɾ po(:)weɾ poɛ:ɾ powɛ:ɾ
when? *tewet tʰɛwɛtʰ te:wet tɛ(:)wɛ(:)t˺
mouth *tawaɾ tʰawaɾ t(ʰ)awaɾ tawa:ɾ tʰawaɾ
ear *towap tʰowap ≈ towap˺
≈ toap
tuəp˺ tʰuəp˺ ≈ tuap˺
bird *dawod dawu:d daᵘwo ≈ dauwo tawot˺ taᵘwot˺
meat/fat *sowajə suaⁱ sowaⁱja sowaⁱ(ja)
feather *gawaɾ gawaɾ gawaɾ kawaɾ kawaɾ
big *jawe zawe-ga zawea-ga
≈ dzawea-ga

Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is retained as such in all descendants. It is much less common initially than medially or finally:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*ɾ- ɾ ɾ ɾ ɾ ɾ [ɾ l]
say *ɾe[ɾ] ɾɛ: ɾɛ ɾe:ɾ ɾɛɾ
belly *ɾainə ɾaⁱn ɾeina ≈ ɾeⁱjna ɾaⁱna laina ≈ ɾaina
star *ɾuɾupə ɾuɾu:p ɾuɾu:p ɾuɾu:pə ɾuɾu:pa ≈ ɾuɾupʰ
*-ɾ- ɾ ɾ ɾ ɾ ɾ
yam *eɾaw ɛɾaᵘ ɛɾaᵘb ɛɾaᵘ
walk *awoɾ[o] awoɾo-mauɾo-m awoɾ(o)-ma awo:ɾə-m awoɾ(ə)-m
meat *aɾin aɾi:n aɾi:n
basket *aɾus j-aɾu:saɾu:s aɾu:sɨk̚ aɾu:s(a)
louse *oɾ[eae]n oɾean oɾiaⁱn
sand *miɾi mi(:)ɾi(ʔ)
light/dry *maɾaɾ maɾaɾ- maɾaɾ- maɾaɾ-
fat/grease *muɾaɾ muɾa:ɾ muɾuɾ muɾuɾ moɾoɾ ≈ muɾwaɾ
wallaby *paɾVwai paɾuwaⁱ: paɾoaⁱ ≈ paɾawaⁱ
eye *baɾid baɾi:d baɾit˺ ≈ baɾi paɾit˺ pʰaɾit˺
cold *buɾuɾ buɾuɾ-ga puɾu-bɾuɾp(ʰ)u-bɾuɾ
bone *naɾakə naɾa: naɾaka naɾak(˺)
dog *diɾean diɾæn teɾean ≈ taɾean
men's house *daɾimə daɾi:m taɾi:mə taɾi:m(a)
lie down *daɾeaɾVb daɾeaɾba taɾeap˺
hair *duɾumə duɾuma tuɾu:m
old man *kadeɾe kʰadɛɾɛkadɛ:ɾ k(ʰ)adeɾɛ
≈ kʰadeɾe
kʰadeɾe kadɛɾe
≈ kadɛ:ɾɛ
tusk *kaɾitə kʰaɾitʰkʰaɾit k(ʰ)aɾi(:)ta kaɾi:tə kʰaɾitʰ
stick (n.) *kaɾeə k(ʰ)aɾia kʰaɾe kʰaɾea
knife *giɾi giɾi gi:ɾ gi:ɾi(ʔ) gi:ɾi gi:ɾi
sweet potato*goɾ[oɾ]en goɾɛ:n koɾoɾe:ɛnkoɾoɾɛ(:)n
yellow *guɾug guɾu-guɾu(g) guɾuk-taɾguɾuk-taɾ
die *waɾeu waɾewa waɾeu waɾewa waɾeᵘ ≈ waɾɛom
star *ɾuɾupə ɾuɾu:p ɾuɾu:p ɾuɾu:pə ɾuɾu:pa ≈ ɾuɾupʰ
dance *jaɾe zaɾiama
≈ dzaɾeama
saɾeama
one *ɣoɾ[e]a[u][k]oɾaᵘ-gəkuɾa:s oɾak˺ ≈ oɾag oɾa-dɨg oɾe(a)-dɨg

Palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

Lower Fly BaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
*j-/_a z zdz [dz dʒ] s s
2 pl. *jaoɣ zoga zaug dʒo: ≈ dzo: so:gə so:g
dance *jaɾe zaɾiama
≈ dzaɾeama
saɾeama
*j-/_i eø jdz dz [dʒ z]dz [dʒ z]
3 sg. poss.*ji-
tongue *jimə ʔi:m zi:ma
3 pl. *jiɣ i:g ji:g dzi: dʒi:g zi:g ≈ zi:k
axe *jiɣaɾ jakaɾdzeaɾ ≈ dʒiaɾ
≈ ziaɾ

…:

Lower FlyBaramuWere BituriGiribam Makayam
*j- j dz [dʒ]dz [z dʒ]
fire *j[i]au jau: dʒau zaᵘ ≈ dʒaᵘ
wallaby*j[i]adamjadam dʒa:dam

…:

Lower FlyBaramuWere BituriGiribamMakayam
*-j- j jj j j
banana *ijwə iju: ʔijua
yes *ejo ejo ɛjo e(:)joejo: ejo
no *a[i]je aijɛ aje aije aijɛ
sugarcane*ajuabə aja:b aji:əb aⁱjuo:b≈ajuwəb

…:

Lower FlyBaramuWereBituri GiribamMakayam
*-j
1 pl.*naoj nauznuin ≈ noⁱnno:zə no:z

Velar non-stop /*ɣ/ is retained only Were, where it is heard as uvular or velar voiced stop [ɢ g] or as voiceless [k kʰ]:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*ɣ- ø ɢ [ɢ g k kʰ]ø ø ø
drink/eat *ɣai a(ⁱ)jam ≈ ajeɢai(m) ≈ gai ij(i)(:)ama ija:m (ʔ)ia(:)m
laugh *ɣai aja:m
stomach *ɣamaɾ amaɾa [er] kʰamaɾ
yesterday *ɣapə a:p˺ a:pa a:pa a:pa
cough *ɣabudə abu:d kʰabud abu(:)da apu:də apu:d
sugarcane *ɣatimə kati:m ati:ma
short *ɣasub kʰasub-dag asu:-dɨgasu:-dɨg
2 sg. *ɣaoɣ oga ɢaᵘg o: o:g o:g
one *ɣoɾ[e]a[u][k]oɾaᵘ-gə kuɾa:s oɾak˺ ≈ oɾag oɾa-dɨg oɾe(a)-dɨg
charcoal/black*ɣVdoum daᵘm-ga gudum-daɾ doᵘm-doᵘm
dom-dum
*-ɣ- ø ɢ [ɢ k] ø ø ø
seed *moɣom mo:m mo:m mo:m
sand *ninaɣai ni:naⁱ nanaɢaⁱ
navel *duɣumə duma [er] tumu [er]
egg *sVɣaɾə sa:ɾ saɢaɾ sia(:)ɾa sa:ɾa sɛaɾ
hit/kill *wVɣVn[i] weⁱnɛ:n waɢani weina ≈weⁱ:nam weⁱn wɛⁱn ≈ weⁱn
axe *jiɣaɾ jakaɾ dzeaɾ ≈ dʒiaɾ
≈ ziaɾ

In one example, /*ɣ/ is lost also in Were when the root /*moɣom/ “seed” (above) is used as a suffix:

Lower FlyBaramu Were BituriGiribamMakayam
*-ɣ- ø ø ø
heart*-moɣom dina-mo:mpɛ-mom pi®-mo(:)m

…:

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri GiribamMakayam
*-ɣ g gø g g
1 sg.*naoɣ noga naᵘg no: no:gə no:g
2 pl.*jaoɣ zoga zaug dʒo: ≈ dzo:so:gə so:g
3 pl.*jiɣ i:g ji:g dzi: dʒi:g zi:g ≈ zi:k
2 sg.*ɣaoɣ oga ɢaᵘg o: o:g o:g

Historically, /*ɣ/ represents two different Fly River phonemes, initial prenasalized velar stop /*ŋg/ and medial voiceless /*k/.


Subfinal and final consonants are presented here together by segment, as they are sometimes difficult to distinguish from one another. The term subfinal refers to the consonants of final segments with destressed schwa /*ə/, which have different reflexes than final consonants, but these reflexes overlap and the retention of /*ə/ is sporadic and not entirely predictable.

… /*mə/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were BituriGiribamMakayam
*-mə m m m m m
smoke *temə tɛ:m- te:ma tɛma-tɛm
men's house*daɾimə daɾi:m taɾi:mətaɾi:m(a)
hair *duɾumə duɾumatuɾu:m
navel *duɣumə duma [er] tumu [er]
banana *seimə simɛ seⁱma
tail *sumə su:m su:m su:ma su:ma su:m(a)
tongue *jimə ʔi:m zi:ma
sugarcane *ɣatimə kati:mati:ma

…:

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri GiribamMakayam
*-mə ø ?mə [ma]m m
people*animə ani anima ani(:)manim
man *anemə anɛ: ane(:)ma ane:m anɛ:m
woman *anumə anu(:)ma anu:m anu:m

… /*m/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri GiribamMakayam
*-m m m m m m
moon/sun *manom mano:m manom mano:m
seed *moɣom mo:m mo:m mo:m
brother *-tem -tʰim -tɛm ≈ -ten -te:m -tɛ(:)m
sister *-tum -tum -tum -tu(:)m
tooth *kam ka:m kʰam
smell *[j]im im- [er]
wallaby *j[i]adamjadam dʒa:dam
charcoal/black*ɣVdoum daᵘm-ga gudum-daɾdoᵘm-doᵘm
dom-dum

… /*nə/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-nə n nnə [na nə]nə [n na]nə [n na]
voice/speech*meanə meane [er] meana
shoulder *paunə paun pʰaun paᵘna p(ʰ)aᵘn(a)
back *dinə di:n di(:)na ti:na ti:na ≈ tʰi:n
morning *ɣap-sinə ap-sin ap-si:nə apʰ-si:n
≈ apə-sin
belly *ɾain ɾaⁱn ɾeina ≈ ɾeⁱjnaɾaⁱna laina ≈ ɾaina

… /*n/ …:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-n n n n n n
path *ewean e:wan ewijan-
older sister*an n-a:n j-anandz-anan-tum
≈ z-anan-tum
meat *aɾin aɾi:n aɾi:n
louse *oɾ[eae]n oɾean oɾiaⁱn
seed *nein nene [er] neⁱn nɛ:n
dog *diɾean diɾæn teɾean ≈ taɾean
sweet potato*goɾ[oɾ]en goɾɛ:n koɾoɾe:ɛnkoɾoɾɛ(:)n

… /*pə/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-pə p [p p˺]p pə [pa] pə [pa pə p]pə [p pʰ pa]
elbow *kakipə kʰakʰi:p kʰakʰipk(ʰ)ak(ʰ)ipakakip kʰakʰip
star *ɾuɾupə ɾuɾu:p ɾuɾu:p ɾuɾu:pə ɾuɾu:pa ≈ ɾuɾupʰ
yesterday*ɣapə a:p˺ a:pa a:pa a:pa

… /*p/ …:

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-p ? ?p [p p˺] p [p˺]p [p˺]
ear*towap tʰowap ≈ towap˺
≈ toap
tuəp˺ tʰuəp˺ ≈ tuap˺

… /*t/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-tə t [tʰ]t [t tʰ]tə [ta] tə [ta tə]tə [tʰ ta]
wing*agetə age:t age(:)ta ake:ta akɛ:ta ≈ akɛ:tʰ
this*[a/o]tə a-koɾɛ o:ta a:ta a:tʰ
that*tatə ta-koɾɛ tʰatʰa ta:ta ta:ta t(ʰ)a:tʰ
tusk*kaɾitə kʰaɾitʰ kʰaɾit k(ʰ)aɾi(:)takaɾi:tə kʰaɾitʰ

… /*t/ …:

Lower FlyBaramuWere BituriGiribamMakayam
*-t t t [tʰ]? t t [t˺ tʰ ]
root *mit mi:t ni:t˺
chin *magot mago:t mako:t mako:tʰ
when?*tewet tʰɛwɛtʰ te:wet tɛ(:)wɛ(:)t˺

… /*k/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-kə k [kʰ ø]k [k kʰ]k [k kʰ k˺]k [k kʰ k˺]k [k kʰ k˺]
tree *naukə naᵘkʰa ≈ naukʰanaᵘka naᵘkʰ(a)
bone *naɾakə naɾa: naɾaka naɾak(˺)
vine/rope*taukə tʰaᵘ:kʰ tʰɔkʰ to:kʰa to:kʰ(a)

… /*k/ …:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-k k [kʰ ø]k [k kʰ]k [k kʰ k˺]k [k kʰ k˺]k [k kʰ k˺]
claw *unik unik unit˺ ≈ unik˺ unik˺ uni:k˺
feather*bubu[s/k]bubusa: bubu:k pupuk˺
≈ pʰupʰukʰ

… /*b/ …:

Lower FlyBaramuWereBituriGiribamMakayam
*-bə
sugarcane*ajuabə aja:b aji:əb aⁱjuo:b≈ajuwəb

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri GiribamMakayam
*-b b bb p p [p pʰ p˺]
breast *bub bu:b pup pʰupʰ
lie down*daɾeaɾVb daɾeaɾbataɾeap˺

… /*d/ …:

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-də d d
laugh*awedə aᵘwɛd ewe(:)da ewe:da ewe:d ≈ ewɛ:d
white*padə pʰa:d-aɾp(ʰ)ada-p(ʰ)adapadə-təɾpadə-taɾ
cough*ɣabudə abu:d kʰabud abu(:)da apu:də apu:d

…:

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-d d d t [t˺ ø] t [t˺]t [t˺]
eye *baɾid baɾi:d baɾit˺ ≈ baɾipaɾit˺ pʰaɾit˺
bird*dawod dawu:ddaᵘwo ≈ dauwotawot˺ taᵘwot˺

…:

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri GiribamMakayam
*-gə g g g
stone *didigə didi(:)ga titi:gə
earth/ground*tamagə t(ʰ)ama:gatama:gətʰama(:)g
fat/grease *seg-segə sɛk-sɛg seg(a)-seg

…:

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-g g gg k [k k˺]k [k k˺ kʰ]
snake *manig mani:g manit˺ ≈ mani(:)manik˺ manik˺
mountain*somog somogsomog somog (?) somok˺
name *gag gag gag kak kʰakʰ
yellow *guɾug guɾu-guɾu(g) guɾuk-taɾ guɾuk-taɾ

One example doesn't fit cleanly into either of these patterns:

Lower Fly BaramuWereBituriGiribamMakayam
*-[k/g]ə
water*mau[k/g]ə maᵘg maᵘka maᵘka ≈ mauk

… /*wə/ …:

Lower Fly BaramuWere BituriGiribamMakayam
*-wə
pig *m[i/e]nawə minaᵘ: mena:wamɛnaᵘ
cloud*mogawə mugaᵘ:mogawamokaᵘ mogaw ≈mogaᵘ
tooth*suwə su: su: sua

… /*w/ …:

Lower Fly BaramuWere Bituri GiribamMakayam
*-w/a_ø b u
yam *eɾaw ɛɾaᵘ ɛɾaᵘb ɛɾaᵘ
*-w/i_ø up u u
nose*miw mi:p(˺) miu meu ≈ miu
boy *pasiw pasi: masiup(ʰ)asip˺pasiᵘ pasiu

… /*ɾə/ …:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-ɾ ɾ ɾ [ɾ l]ɾ ɾ ɾ [ɾ l]
many/all *eweaɾ iuɾ-wɛɾ (z)ewijaɾ≈ɛwijaɾ ewiaɾ ɛwoɾ-wɛa(:)ɾ
forehead *apiɾə ap(ʰ)i(:)ɾa api:ɾa ≈ apʰiɾə
old woman *abeɾ abɛ:ɾ asɨbɛɾ ausabeɾ aᵘsabe:ɾ asubɛ:l
≈ asubɛ:ɾ
foot *magoɾ magoɾ mako:ɾ
light/dry *maɾaɾ maɾaɾ- maɾaɾ- maɾaɾ-
ashes *moɾ mo:ɾ mo:ɾ mo:ɾ
fat/grease *muɾaɾ muɾa:ɾ muɾuɾ muɾuɾ moɾoɾ ≈ muɾwaɾ
swim *papaɾ papa:ɾ-am papa:ɾa-dɨɾpapaɾ-dɛɾ
wind *poweɾ pʰowɛ:ɾ po(:)weɾ poɛ:ɾ powɛ:ɾ
thumb *budub-duɾ budub-duɾ putub-duɾ putubɨ-duɾ
heavy/wet *buduɾ buduɾ- buduɾ- putu(:)ɾ- putuɾ(ə)-
≈ putuɾɨ-
cold *buɾuɾ buɾuɾ-ga puɾu-bɾuɾ p(ʰ)u-bɾuɾ
blood *nauɾə naᵘɾa ≈ nauɾa naᵘɾa naᵘɾ(a)
arm/leg (?)*tigiɾ tigiɾi [er] tiki:ɾ tikiɾ
mouth *tawaɾ tʰawaɾ t(ʰ)awaɾ tawa:ɾ tʰawaɾ
hot *totaɾ totaɾ- tota:ɾ- totaɾə-
≈ totaɾɨ-
egg *sVɣaɾə sa:ɾ saɢaɾ sia(:)ɾa sa:ɾa sɛaɾ
bad *suɾ sul- su:- sə-su:ɾ- susuɾ(ə)-
feather *gawaɾ gawaɾ gawaɾ kawaɾ kawaɾ
arrow *gobeɾ gobɛ:ɾ gabɛ:ɾ
axe *jiɣaɾ jakaɾ dzeaɾ ≈ dʒiaɾ
≈ ziaɾ
stomach *ɣamaɾ amaɾa [er] kʰamaɾ

… /*ɾ/ …:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-ɾ ɾ ɾ [ɾ l]ɾ ɾ ɾ [ɾ l]
many/all *eweaɾ iuɾ-wɛɾ (z)ewijaɾ≈ɛwijaɾ ewiaɾ ɛwoɾ-wɛa(:)ɾ
forehead *apiɾə ap(ʰ)i(:)ɾa api:ɾa ≈ apʰiɾə
old woman *abeɾ abɛ:ɾ asɨbɛɾ ausabeɾ aᵘsabe:ɾ asubɛ:l
≈ asubɛ:ɾ
foot *magoɾ magoɾ mako:ɾ
light/dry *maɾaɾ maɾaɾ- maɾaɾ- maɾaɾ-
ashes *moɾ mo:ɾ mo:ɾ mo:ɾ
fat/grease *muɾaɾ muɾa:ɾ muɾuɾ muɾuɾ moɾoɾ ≈ muɾwaɾ
swim *papaɾ papa:ɾ-am papa:ɾa-dɨɾpapaɾ-dɛɾ
wind *poweɾ pʰowɛ:ɾ po(:)weɾ poɛ:ɾ powɛ:ɾ
thumb *budub-duɾ budub-duɾ putub-duɾ putubɨ-duɾ
heavy/wet *buduɾ buduɾ- buduɾ- putu(:)ɾ- putuɾ(ə)-
≈ putuɾɨ-
cold *buɾuɾ buɾuɾ-ga puɾu-bɾuɾ p(ʰ)u-bɾuɾ
blood *nauɾə naᵘɾa ≈ nauɾa naᵘɾa naᵘɾ(a)
arm/leg (?)*tigiɾ tigiɾi [er] tiki:ɾ tikiɾ
mouth *tawaɾ tʰawaɾ t(ʰ)awaɾ tawa:ɾ tʰawaɾ
hot *totaɾ totaɾ- tota:ɾ- totaɾə-
≈ totaɾɨ-
egg *sVɣaɾə sa:ɾ saɢaɾ sia(:)ɾa sa:ɾa sɛaɾ
bad *suɾ sul- su:- sə-su:ɾ- susuɾ(ə)-
feather *gawaɾ gawaɾ gawaɾ kawaɾ kawaɾ
arrow *gobeɾ gobɛ:ɾ gabɛ:ɾ
axe *jiɣaɾ jakaɾ dzeaɾ ≈ dʒiaɾ
≈ ziaɾ
stomach *ɣamaɾ amaɾa [er] kʰamaɾ

… /*jə/ …:

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri GiribamMakayam
*-jə
leaf *pasajə pasaⁱpasaⁱja pasaⁱ pasaⁱ
taro *b₂ajə bai: baⁱ:ja ≈ beⁱ(:)jabaⁱ:ja baⁱ
meat/fat*sowajə suaⁱ sowaⁱjasowaⁱ(ja)

Lower Fly River vowels /*i *u *o *e *a/ conform to vowel harmony restrictions such that a high vowel /*i *u/ and a mid vowel /*e *o/ do not cooccur in the same root. Low central vowel /*a/ is neutral, and can cooccur with any vowel. These are generally retained as such in all descendants, with only a few exceptions. In order to illustrate the constraints upon vowel cooccurences imposed by vowel harmony, roots including only high vowels /*i *u/ are presented first, followed by those including only mid vowels /*e *o/, followed by those containing only low vowel /*a/ and then roots containing /*a/ and any other vowel(s).

High front vowel /*i// has been found in monosylables, in disyllables with like vowel /*i/, preceding high back /*u/ or low central /*a/ in a following syllable and preceded by /*u/ or /*a/ in a previous syllable.

High front vowel /*i/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendants:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*i i i i i i
particle (pl.)*ti ti ti ti ti ti
root *mit mi:t ni:t˺
two *mis misə-gə mis-du mi:ta ≈ mijitami:t-ɨg mit-ɨg
nose *miw mi:p(˺) miu meu ≈ miu
sand *miɾi mi(:)ɾi(ʔ)
back *din di:n di(:)na ti:na ti:na ≈ tʰi:n
morning *ɣap-sin ap-sin ap-si:nəapʰ-si:n
≈ apə-sin
smell *[j]im im- [er]
tongue *jim ʔi:m zi:ma
3 pl. *jiɣ i:g ji:g dzi: dʒi:g zi:g ≈ zi:k
*iCi iCi iCiiCi iCi iCi
3 sg. *igi igi: igi: igia ≈ igi:a iki:a ikʰi:
knife *giɾi giɾi gi:ɾ gi:ɾi(ʔ) gi:ɾi gi:ɾi
arm/leg (?) *tigiɾ tigiɾi [er] tiki:ɾ tikiɾ
stone *didigə didi(:)ga titi:gə

High back vowel /*u/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendants:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*u u u u u u
sleep *nu nua [er]
particle (f.)*tu tu
tooth *su su: su: sua
mother *(ji-)wu dʒi-wu-nu:mdʒi-(w)u-num
breast *bub bu:b pup pʰupʰ
sister *-tum -tum -tum -tu(:)m
tail *sum su:m su:m su:ma su:ma su:m(a)
bad *suɾ sul- su:- sə-su:ɾ- susuɾ(ə)-
*uCu uCu uCuuCu uCu uCu
fly (v.) *pup[u]ɾuɾ pupɾuɾ pupuɾuɾ
feather *bubu[s/k]bubusa: bubu:k pupuk˺
≈ pʰupʰukʰ
thumb *budub-duɾ budub-duɾ putub-duɾ putubɨ-duɾ
heavy/wet *buduɾ buduɾ- buduɾ- putu(:)ɾ- putuɾ(ə)-
≈ putuɾɨ-
cold *buɾuɾ buɾuɾ-ga puɾu-bɾuɾ p(ʰ)u-bɾuɾ
hair *duɾum duɾuma tuɾu:m
navel *duɣum duma [er] tumu [er]
yellow *guɾug guɾu-guɾu(g)guɾuk-tar guɾuk-tar
star *ɾuɾup ɾuɾu:p ɾuɾu:p ɾuɾu:pə ɾuɾu:pa ≈ ɾuɾupʰ

High vowels /*i *u/ cannot cooccur with mid vowels /*e *o/ in the same root, but can cooccur with one another.

… /*iCu/ …:

Lower Fly BaramuWere Bituri GiribamMakayam
*iCu iCuiCuiCuiCu
banana *iju iju: ʔijua
bark (of tree)*sigua[p/b] sigu:b siguap˺sikuap˺sikʰuap

The pattern /*uCi/ is found in only one word:

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri GiribamMakayam
*uCi uCiuCi uCiuCi
claw*unik unik unit˺ ≈ unik˺unik˺ uni:k˺

… /*u/ …:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri GiribamMakayam
*u u uu u u
night*duniau diniuduni(:)wi tuniᵘ tuniaᵘ
full *kusu[k]iskusu:s-taɾ kusuisa
≈ kusuⁱsa
kusuks-taɾ

Mid front vowel /*e/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendats:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*e e e e e e
particle (m.) *te te te te te te
father *we a-wɛ: i-wɛ e-wija ≈ ɛ-wijae-we: ɛ-we: ≈ ɛ-wiɛ
say *ɾe[ɾ] ɾɛ: ɾɛ ɾe:ɾ ɾɛɾ
smoke *tem tɛ:m- te:ma tɛma-tɛm
brother *-tem -tʰim (?)-tɛm ≈ -ten -te:m -tɛ(:)m
fat/grease *seg-segə sɛk-sɛg seg(a)-seg
*eCe eCe [eCe:]eCe eCe [e:Ce]eCe [e(:)Ce(:)C]
lie down/sleep*tene tɛnɛ:
when? *tewet tʰɛwɛtʰ te:wet tɛ(:)wɛ(:)t˺

Mid back vowel /*o/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendants:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*o o [o:] o [o:] o [o:]
ashes *moɾ mo:ɾ mo:ɾ mo:ɾ
*oCo oCo [oCo(:)]oCo oCo [oCo(:)]oCo [oCo(:)]oCo [oCo(:)]
seed *moɣom mo:m mo:m mo:m
mountain*somog somog somog somog somok˺
baby *mod[o] modo: moda moda moto: mot(ʰ)o:

Mid vowels /*e *o/ cannot cooccur with high vowels /*i *u/ in the same root, but can cooccur with one another.

The pattern /*eCo/ is found in only one word which might be a regionwide loan:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*eCo eCoeCoeCo [e(:)Co]eCo [eCo:]eCo
yes*ejo ejo ɛjo e(:)jo ejo: ejo

The pattern /*oCe/ is better established, and is retained as such in all descendants:

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*oCe oCeoCeoCe oCe oCe
neck *kote kʰotɛ: kote: k(ʰ)otɛ(:)
wind *poweɾ pʰowɛ:ɾpo(:)weɾpoɛ:ɾ powɛ:ɾ
arrow *gobeɾ gobɛ:ɾ gabɛ:ɾ
sweet potato*goɾ[oɾ]en goɾɛ:n koɾoɾe:ɛnkoɾoɾɛ(:)n

… /*eCea/ …:

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri GiribamMakayam
*eCeae ee e e
path*ewean e:wan ewijan-

/*o/ …:

Lower Fly BaramuWere BituriGiribamMakayam
*oCeaeo o o o o
louse *oɾ[eae]n oɾean oɾiaⁱn
*oCau o o o o o
cloud *mogawə mugaᵘ:mogawamokaᵘ mogaw ≈mogaᵘ
*oCai o o o o o
meat/fat*sowajə suaⁱ sowaⁱjasowaⁱ(ja)

Low central vowel /*a/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*a a [a a:] a [a a:] a [a a:] a [a a:] a [a a:]
older sister*an n-a:n j-anan dz-anan-tum
white *padə pʰa:d-aɾ p(ʰ)ada-p(ʰ)ada padə-təɾ padə-taɾ
that *tat ta-koɾɛ tʰatʰa ta:ta ta:ta t(ʰ)a:tʰ
tooth *kam ka:m kʰam
name *gag gag gag kak kʰakʰ
yesterday *ɣap a:p˺ a:pa a:pa a:pa
*aCa aCa [aCa(:)]aCa [aCa(:)]aCa [aCa(:)]aCa [aCa(:)]aCa [aCa(:)]
sit *agas agaso aga:s agaɾa akat˺ ak(ʰ)at(˺)
light/dry *maɾaɾ maɾaɾ- maɾaɾ- maɾaɾ-
swim *papaɾ papa:ɾ-am papa:ɾa-dɨɾ papaɾ-dɛɾ
bone *naɾak naɾa: naɾaka naɾak(˺)
earth/ground*tamagə t(ʰ)ama:ga tama:gə tʰama(:)g
mouth *tawaɾ tʰawaɾ t(ʰ)awaɾ tawa:ɾ tʰawaɾ
hand *saga saga: sakoa [er]
feather *gawaɾ gawaɾ gawaɾ kawaɾ kawaɾ
stomach *ɣamaɾ amaɾa [er] kʰamaɾ

… /*aCi/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*aCi aCi [aCi(:)]aCi [aCi(:)]aCi [aCi(:)]aCi [aCi(:)]aCi [aCi(:)]
fish *awi aᵘ aᵘwi ≈ awi aᵘ:wi a:wi
good *masi masi:- masi:- masi:- masi(:)-
forehead *apiɾ ap(ʰ)i(:)ɾa api:ɾa ≈ apʰiɾə
people *anim ani anima ani(:)m anim
meat *aɾin aɾi:n aɾi:n
snake *manig mani:g manit˺ ≈ mani(:)manik˺ manik˺
boy *pasiw pasi: masiu [sic] p(ʰ)asip˺ pasiᵘ pasiu
eye *baɾid baɾi:d baɾit˺ ≈ baɾi paɾit˺ pʰaɾit˺
men's house*daɾim daɾi:m taɾi:mə taɾi:m(a)
elbow *kakip kʰakʰi:p kʰakʰip k(ʰ)ak(ʰ)ipa kakip kʰakʰip
tusk *kaɾit kʰaɾitʰ kʰaɾit k(ʰ)aɾi(:)ta kaɾi:tə kʰaɾitʰ
sugarcane *ɣatim kati:m ati:ma

… /*aCu/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*aCu aCu [aCu(:)]aCu [aCu(:)]aCu [aCu(:)]aCu [aCu(:)]aCu [aCu(:)]
eat *tamu t(ʰ)amu(:)-ma tamu:-m tamu(:)-m
woman *anum anu(:)ma anu:m anu:m
basket*aɾus j-aɾu:s aɾu:s aɾu:sɨk̚ aɾu:s(a)
cough *ɣabudə abu:d kʰabud abu(:)da apu:də apu:d
short *ɣasub kʰasub-dag asu:-dɨg asu:-dɨg

… /*aCe/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*aCe aCe [aCe(:)]aCe [aCe(:)]aCe [aCe(:)] aCe [aCe(:)]aCe [aCe(:)]
no *a[i]je aijɛ aje aije aijɛ
man *anem anɛ: ane(:)ma ane:m anɛ:m
old woman *ab₂eɾ abɛ:ɾ asɨbɛɾ ausabeɾ aᵘsabe:ɾ asubɛ:l
wing *aget age:t age(:)ta ake:ta akɛ:ta ≈ akɛ:tʰ
laugh *awedə aᵘwɛd ewe(:)da ewe:da ewe:d ≈ ewɛ:d
old man *kadeɾe kʰadɛɾɛ kadɛ:ɾ k(ʰ)adeɾɛ
≈ kʰadeɾe
kʰadeɾe kadɛɾe
≈ kadɛ:ɾɛ
stick (n.)*kaɾeə k(ʰ)aɾia kʰaɾe kʰaɾea

… /*aCo/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*aCo aCo [aCo(:)]aCo [aCo(:)]aCo aCo [aCo(:)]aCo [aCo(:)]
girl *kakoə kʰakʰo kakoa kako: kʰakʰo:
walk *awoɾ[o] awoɾo-m auɾo-m awoɾ(o)-ma awo:ɾə-m awoɾ(ə)-m
moon/sun*manom mano:m manom mano:m
chin *magot mago:t mako:t mako:tʰ
foot *magoɾ magoɾ mako:ɾ
bird *dawod dawu:d daᵘwo ≈ dauwotawot˺ taᵘwot˺

… /*iCa/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri GiribamMakayam
*iCa iCaaCaiCa
sand*ninaɣai ni:naⁱ nanaɢaⁱ
axe *jiɣaɾ jakaɾ dzeaɾ ≈ dʒiaɾ
≈ ziaɾ

… /*uCa/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri GiribamMakayam
*uCa uCa [uCa:]uCuuCu uCa[oCo uCʷa]
fat/grease*muɾaɾ muɾa:ɾ muɾuɾ muɾuɾ moɾoɾ ≈ muɾwaɾ

… /*eCa/ …:

Lower FlyBaramu WereBituri GiribamMakayam
*eCa eCaeCa [e:Ca]eCaeCa
not*epa e(:)pa epa
yam*eɾaw ɛɾaᵘ ɛɾaᵘb ɛɾaᵘ

… /*oCa/ …:

Lower FlyBaramuWereBituri Giribam Makayam
*oCa oCa oCa [oCa(:)]oCa
hot*totaɾ totaɾ-ga tota:ɾ-dɨg totaɾə-dɨg
≈ totaɾɨ-dɨg
ear*towap tʰowap ≈ towap˺
≈ toap
tuəp˺ tʰuəp˺ ≈ tuap˺

…vowel sequences ….

Lower FlyBaramu WereBituri GiribamMakayam
*ei
seed *nein nene [er] neⁱn nɛ:n
banana *seim simɛ seⁱma
who/what?*watei wateⁱ ≈ wate(:)

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
*…
older brother*[ei/ai] n-ai j-i-tʰimeⁱja ≈ z-ejɛ-tɛm
≈ dʒ-eja-ten
z-eⁱ-te:mdz-eⁱ-tɛ(:)m

Lower FlyBaramuWere Bituri GiribamMakayam
*ai
belly *ɾain ɾaⁱn ɾeina ≈ ɾeⁱjnaɾaⁱna laina ≈ ɾaina
leaf *pasajə pasaⁱ pasaⁱja pasaⁱ pasaⁱ
wallaby*paɾVwai paɾuwaⁱ: paɾoaⁱ ≈ paɾawaⁱ
sand *ninaɣai ni:naⁱnanaɢaⁱ

Lower FlyBaramuWereBituri GiribamMakayam
*ao
1 sg.*naoɣ noga naᵘgno: no:gə no:g
2 sg.*ɣaoɣ oga ɢaᵘgo: o:g o:g
1 pl.*naoj [gaⁱ] nauznuin ≈ noⁱnno:zə no:z
2 pl.*jaoɣ zoga zaugdʒo: ≈ dzo:so:gə so:g

Lower Fly BaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
*au
fire *j[i]au jau: dʒau zaᵘ ≈ dʒaᵘ
new *au-ageə aᵘwagi(j)a aᵘwəgia aᵘgɛ(:)(a)
old woman*aus-abeɾ asɨbɛɾausabeɾ aᵘsabe:ɾasubɛ:l
≈ asubɛ:ɾ
water *mau[g/k]ə maᵘg maᵘka maᵘka ≈ mauk
shoulder *paunə paun pʰaun paᵘna p(ʰ)aᵘn(a)
tree *naukə naᵘkʰa ≈ naukʰanaᵘka naᵘkʰ(a)
blood *nauɾə naᵘɾa ≈ nauɾa naᵘɾa naᵘɾ(a)
yam *eɾaw ɛɾaᵘ ɛɾaᵘb ɛɾaᵘ
pig *m[i/e]nawə minaᵘ: mena:wa mɛnaᵘ
cloud *mogawə mugaᵘ:mogawa mokaᵘ mogaw ≈mogaᵘ

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri GiribamMakayam
*ou
charcoal/black*ɣVdoum daᵘm-gagudum-daɾdoᵘm-doᵘm
dom-dum

Lower FlyBaramu Were Bituri GiribamMakayam
*ea
path *ewean e:wan ewijan-
voice/speech*meanə meane [er] meana
dog *diɾean diɾæn teɾean ≈ taɾean

…unstressed final vowel ….

Lower FlyBaramuWereBituriGiribamMakayam
*…
*…

…suffix on adjectives ….

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
-dag -ga -dɨg -dɨg
good *masi masi:-dagmasi:-ga masi:-dɨg masi(:)-dɨg
light/dry*maɾaɾ maɾaɾ-dagmaɾaɾ-ga maɾaɾ-dɨg
heavy/wet*buduɾ buduɾ-dagbuduɾ-ga
≈ buduɾ-gə
putu(:)ɾ-dɨgputuɾ(ə)-dɨg
≈ putuɾɨ-dɨg
hot *totaɾ totaɾ-ga tota:ɾ-dɨg totaɾə-dɨg
≈ totaɾɨ-dɨg
bad *suɾ sul-dag su:-ga sə-su:ɾ-dɨg susuɾ(ə)-dɨg
-gə -dɨg -dɨg
one *ɣoɾ[e]a[u][k]oɾaᵘ-gəkuɾa:s oɾak˺ ≈ oɾag oɾa-dɨg oɾe(a)-dɨg
-gə-du -(d)ɨg -(d)ɨg
two *mis misə-gəmis-du mi:ta ≈ mijita mi:t-ɨg mit-ɨg

… This suffix is likely comparable to Upper Mbian Marind /-agV/ which appears on some adjectives, including “new” and “old”, where the quality of /V/ is determined by gender ablaut in agreement with qualified nominals (q.v. Drabbe 1954: 128-142):

Lower Fly BaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-ageə -age-g-agia -agia-gea ≈-agia(-g)
new*au-ageə aᵘwagi(j)aaᵘwəgia aᵘgɛ(:)(a)
old*mane-ageə manageg maneagija mena:gia mena:gia(g)

… including color terms …

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*-taɾ
white *padə pʰa:d-aɾ p(ʰ)ada-p(ʰ)ada padə-təɾ padə-taɾ
full *kusu[k]iskusu:s-taɾ kusuisa kusuks-taɾ
red *gai gaⁱ-taɾ kaⁱa-təɾ kaⁱ(a)-t(ʰ)aɾ
yellow*guɾug guɾu-guɾu(g) guɾuk-taɾguɾuk-taɾ
*-taɾ
black *ɣVdoum daᵘm-ga gudum-daɾdoᵘm-doᵘm
dom-dum

Gender ablaut

[under construction]

…, with all attestations drawn from Jore (2002, Jore and Alemán 2002):

Lower Fly Baramu Were Bituri Giribam Makayam
*e/*u/*ie/u/ie/u/ie/u/i e/u/i e/u/i
man *anem anɛ: ane(:)ma ane:m anɛ:m
woman *anum anu(:)ma anu:m anu:m
people *anim ani anima ani(:)m anim
particle (m.) *te te te te te te
particle (f.) *tu tu
particle (pl.)*ti ti ti ti ti ti
brother *tem -tʰim (?)-tɛm ≈ -ten -te:m -tɛ(:)m
sister *tum -tum -tum -tu(:)m
father *we a-wɛ: i-wɛ e-wija ≈ ɛ-wijae-we: ɛ-we: ≈ ɛ-wiɛ
mother *wu dʒi-wu-nu:mdʒi-(w)u-num

….

Pronouns

Lower Fly River nominative pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with all attestations drawn from Jore and Alemán (2002: 48):

Lower FlyBaramuWereBituri GiribamMakayam
1 sg.*naoɣ noga naᵘgno: no:gə no:g
2 sg.*ɣaoɣ oga ɢaᵘgo: o:g o:g
3 sg.*igi igi: igi:igia ≈ igi:aiki:a ikʰi:
1 pl.*naoj [gaⁱ] nauznuin ≈ noⁱn no:zə no:z
2 pl.*jaoɣ zoga zaugdʒo: ≈ dzo: so:gə so:g
3 pl.*jiɣ i:g ji:gdzi: dʒi:g zi:g ≈ zi:k

It is possible that, in addition to these, there is a third person singular pronouns as there is in other Fly River subfamilies, which is simply not represented in the limited dataset available to us, as the standard survey forms of Jore (2002) do not contain sentances with feminine referents.

Verbal morphology

No information is available about the verbal morphology of any Lower Fly River language.

Loans to and from neighboring families

[under construction]

The languages of the the Lower Fly River have have interacted extensively with their neighbors, as evidenced by loanwords from, and probably to, five neighboring families, Pahoturi River, Aramia River, Kiwai, Tabo, and Wipi of the East Trans Fly family, as well as the distantly related Abom.

Abom …:

Lower Fly Abom
yes *ejo *ejo
sugarcane *ajuabə aja:b
snake *manig manik˺
cloud *mogawə mogaᵘ
breast *bub bu:b
feather/wing *bubu[s/k]bubusa
particle (m.) *te te
smoke *tem tɛ:m
mouth *tawaɾ tawaɾ
vine/rope *tauk taᵘka:
back *din di:na
old man *kadeɾe kadeɾe
knife *giɾi giɾi
feather *gawaɾ gawaɾ
belly *ɾain ɾe:n
cough *ɣabudə abuda
charcoal/black*ɣVdoum daᵘm-bun

…:

Abom BaramuBituri
arrow asak asak̚
rat pe:pʰ pɛ:p
basketsaɾiba saɾi:ba ≈ saɾi:bə
sun kado: kʰado

Besides Abom, loans into Lower Fly River languages came from Aramia River (Gogodalan) across the Fly River to the north, Pahoturi River to the south, and Kiwai in the delta to the east.

Loans from Aramia River are least frequent in Bituri, due to its location south of the Fly. Several are only attested for Baramu (q.v. Riley 1931-1932: 172-189):

Aramia Baramu Were BituriGiribamMakayam
fishhook *aɾiage aɾiaga [er]
green coconut*mudiɾa mudiɾa [er]
back/bone *boiga baig baⁱgə:
hair *tit[a/o]tʰitʰi:
sun *darigi daɾi:k˺daɾik(˺)
stone *gewa giwa
head *ganabi ganab kanap kʰanap˺
name *gagi gag gag kak kʰakʰ
liver *guana guan kwana
canoe *guawa gwawa [er] kwawa [jc]

Additionally, some words have been loaned from Lower Fly River into Aramia River languages, with Aramia attestations drawn from Riley (1930-1931: 172-189):

Lower FlyWarunaAdiba Gogodala
mouth/chin *magot magatamagatamagata
lie down/sleep*tene tene tene tene
vine/rope *tauk tou tao tao ≈ tauwo
tusk *kaɾit kaɾita

Loans from the Pahoturi River are most common in Were:

Pahoturi BaramuWere Bituri Giribam Makayam
know *um… umɾui
blood *mVm mæ:m
rat *mVkat makʰa:t
heavy/wet*budVr buduɾ- buduɾ- putu(:)ɾ-putuɾ(ə)-
heart *ti-kVp ti-k(ʰ)ap(˺)ti-kə:p
cassowary*dirVm diɾim
dog *dVrVŋ diɾæn teɾean ≈ taɾean
pig *simbel sɛbɛ:ɾ sabejaɾa
louse *…
eye *ji[nd]-kVp ʔin-dʒup
rain *jVgol ɛgo(:)ɾa
fire *ju jau: dʒau zaᵘ ≈ dʒaᵘ

Loans from Kiwai are most common in Baramu (q.v. Shafer 1965: 316,) which is immediately adjacent to South Kiwai. Many are only attested for Baramu (q.v. Riley 1931-1932: 172-189, 175-194):

Kiwai Baramu Were Bituri GiribamMakayam
paddle *aibi aibi [er]
breast *amo a:m
P. raggiana *amuɾa amuɾa [er]
shark *baidamobaidamo [er]
cassowary *diwaɾe diwa:ɾɛ diwoɾi
men's house *daɾimo daɾi:m taɾi:mətaɾi:m(a)
earth/ground*sopu o:pʰu:
head *kepuɾu kʰapuɾ kapuɾ
water/wet *kobo o:b obo-daⁱ opo:-taɾ
pigeon sp. *gimai gimai [er]
bamboo pipe *waduɾu waduɾu [er]

One high-profile shared with Kiwai is almost certainly a loan from Lower Fly River or a near relative thereof into Kiwai:

Fly RiverLower FlyKiwai
mouth/chin*maŋgot *magot *magota

… Tabo …:

TaboBaramuWereBituriGiribamMakayam
*…

… Wipi of the East Trans Fly family …:

Wipi Baramu WereBituriGiribamMakayam
rain*piro pi:ɾə pi:ɾa
fish*kabumkʰabo:m