Lower Fly River
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
The Lower Fly River family is comprised of four or five languages spoken along the south bank of the Fly River, just west of its delta, in Papua New Guinea's Western Province (Jore and Alemán 2002, q.v. p. 10.) The Fly River delta is one of the most linguistically complicated regions on earth, with five very different families and two isolated languages spoken in a small area and many words exchanged between them. Lower Fly River was separated from its nearest relatives, Inland Gulf to the northeast and Lake Murray to the northwest, by the expansions of Kiwai and Suki respectively.
Subclassification
The internal classification of Lower Fly River is as follows:
Lower Fly River
Baramu
Bitur
Giribam-Makayam
Giribam
Makayam
Were
This is the same as the subclassification given in Jore and Alemán (2002,) except that Abom is excluded. Baramu shows the highest degree of lexical independence. Further subclassification may be possible, but the influence of loans from neighboring families (below) warrants caution. There are also elements of a chain, with Baramu at the eastern end and Were at the western end, hence the order of presentation above. Abom is sharply distinct from all of these, and despite its location and a number of shared terms (below) is not a member of Lower Fly River or of Fly River.
Jore and Aleman (2002: 14) provide lexical similarity figures between eight Lower Fly River villages alongside Abom as follows:
Abom | Baramu | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | Were | |||||
[none] | Tirio #2 | Upiara | Bisuaka | Tewara | Janor | Aduru | Lewada | Dewala | ||
Abom | [none] | — | 12 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 9 |
Baramu | Tirio #2 | 12 | — | 33 | 33 | 34 | 30 | 34 | 32 | 27 |
Bituri | Upiara | 14 | 33 | — | 98 | 98 | 56 | 51 | 50 | 35 |
Bisuaka | 14 | 33 | 98 | — | 100 | 56 | 52 | 51 | 35 | |
Tewara | 14 | 34 | 98 | 100 | — | 57 | 52 | 52 | 35 | |
Giribam | Janor | 11 | 30 | 56 | 56 | 57 | — | 79 | 78 | 47 |
Makayam | Aduru | 11 | 34 | 51 | 52 | 52 | 79 | — | 98 | 47 |
Lewada | 11 | 32 | 50 | 51 | 52 | 78 | 98 | — | 47 | |
Were | Dewala | 9 | 27 | 35 | 35 | 35 | 47 | 47 | 47 | — |
Sources
[under construction]
Chalmers (1897: 139-144) 93 terms for Tagota (Makayam) (unobtained)
Ray (1907: 391-412) … comparative terms for Pisirami (Makayam) after Riley (n.d.) and Tagota after Chalmers (1897)
Ray (1923) …
Riley (1931-1932: 172-189) 415 comparative terms for Tirio (Baramu)
Williams (1936: 30-31) 7 comparative terms for Arama (Were) and Anima (Makayam)
Jore (2002) 190 comparative terms for Bituri of Upiara, Bisuaka and Tewara villages
Jore (2002) 190 comparative terms for Were of Dewala village
Jore (2002) 190 comparative terms for Makayam of Lewada and Aduru villages and Baramu of Tirio #2
Jore (2002) 190 comparative terms for Abom and Giribam of Janor village
Jore and Alemán (2002: 43-48) 162 comparative terms for Bituri of Upiara, Bisuaka and Tewara villages, Giribam of Janor, Makayam of Lewada and Aduru, Were of Dewala, Baramu of Tiro #2 and Abom
History of classification
[under construction]
Ray (1923: 336) placed Makayam (Tagota and Pisirami) and Baramu (Tirio) in two separate families, called the Tagota group and the Tirio group respectively
Wurm (1970) …
Greenberg'(1971: 825-829) places the Tirio group, including both Baramu and Makayam, alongside his Marind (including Yaqay and Boazi,) Ok, Awju and Kukukuku (Kratke Range) groups in a Southwestern subgroup of Indo-Pacific
…
Ross …
Historical phonology
[under construction]
Proto-Lower Fly River had 13 consonants and 5 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | ||
*p | *t | *s | *k |
*b | *d | *g | |
*w | *ɾ | *j | *ɣ |
*i | *u | |
*e | *o | |
*a |
Velar non-stop /*ɣ/ reflects two different Fly River phonemes, initial / and medial /*k/ Any consonant can occur initially, medially or finally. Consonant clusters occur only accross morpheme boundaries.
Any vowel can occur initially, medially or finally, but the cooccurance of different vowels is restricted by vowel height harmony such that a high vowel /*i *u/ and a mid vowel /*e *o/ cannot appear in the same root. Low central vowel /*a/ is harmonically neutral, and can cooccur with any other vowel.
In addition to the five full vowels /*i *u *e *o *a/ given above, a final destressed archiphonemic vowel is found which is represented here as schwa /*ə/ [ɐ]. This is needed to explain the differences between the dispositions of final consonants (below.)
…
Initial and medial consonants correspond as follows:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam |
*m | m | m | m | m | m |
*n | n | n | n | n | n |
*p | p | p | p | p | p |
*t | t | t | t | t | t |
*s | s | s | s | s | s |
*-s | s | s | t | t | t |
*k | k | k | k | k | k |
*b | b | b | b | p | p |
*d | d | d | d | t | t |
*g | g | g | g | k | k |
*w | w | w | w | w | w |
*ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ |
*j/_a | z | z | dz | s | s |
*j/_i e | ø | j | dz | dz | dz |
*ɣ | ø | ɢ | ø | ø | ø |
Subfinal and final consonants correspond as follows:
…
Vowels and vowel sequences correspond as follows:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam |
*i | i | i | i | i | i |
*u | u | u | u | u | u |
*e | e | e | e | e | e |
*o | o | o | o | o | o |
*a | a | a | a | a | a |
*V₁CV₁ | V₁CV₁ | V₁CV₁ | V₁CV₁ | V₁CV₁ | V₁CV₁ |
*iCu | ? | iCu | iCu | iCu | iCu |
*uCi | ? | uCi | uCi | uCi | uCi |
*eCo | eCo | eCo | eCo | eCo | eCo |
*oCe | oCe | oCe | oCe | oCe | oCe |
*aCV₂ | aCV₂ | aCV₂ | aCV₂ | aCV₂ | aCV₂ |
*iCa | iCa | aCa | iCa | ? | ? |
*uCa | uCa | uCu | uCu | ? | uCa |
*eCa | eCa | ? | eCa | eCa | eCa |
*oCa | ? | ? | oCa | oCa | oCa |
*… |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with attestations drawn from Jore and Alemán (2002: 43-48, ibid.) unless otherwise indicated. Baramu (Tirio) forms drawn from Riley (1931-1932: 172-189) are designated by [er], as are Pisirami (Makayam) forms from Riley (n.d.) as excerpted in Ray (1907: 391-412, 1923: ….) Tagota (Makayam) forms from Chalmers as excerpted in Ray are designated by [jc]. All of these trasncriptions are phonetic, not phonemic.
…
Bilabial nasal /*m/ is generally retained as such in all descendants:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*m- | m | m | m | m | m | |
root | *mit | mi:t | ni:t˺ | |||
two | *mis | misə-gə | mis-du | mi:ta ≈ mijita | mi:t-ɨg | mit-ɨg |
nose | *miw | mi:p(˺) | miu | meu ≈ miu | ||
sand | *miɾi | mi(:)ɾi(ʔ) | ||||
pig | *m[i/e]nawə | minaᵘ: | mena:wa | mɛnaᵘ | ||
voice/speech | *meanə | meane [er] | meana | |||
water | *mau[g/k]ə | maᵘg | maᵘka | maᵘka ≈ mauk | ||
snake | *manig | mani:g | manit˺ ≈ mani(:) | manik˺ | manik˺ | |
old | *mane-ageə | manageg | maneagija | mena:gia | mena:gia(g) | |
moon/sun | *manom | mano:m | manom | mano:m | ||
good | *masi | masi:- | masi:- | masi:- | masi(:)- | |
chin | *magot | mago:t | mako:t | mako:tʰ | ||
foot | *magoɾ | magoɾ | mako:ɾ | |||
light/dry | *maɾaɾ | maɾaɾ- | maɾaɾ- | maɾaɾ- | ||
baby | *mod[o] | modo: | moda | moda | moto: | mot(ʰ)o: |
cloud | *mogawə | mugaᵘ: | mogawa | mokaᵘ | mogaw ≈mogaᵘ | |
ashes | *moɾ | mo:ɾ | mo:ɾ | mo:ɾ | ||
seed | *moɣom | mo:m | mo:m | mo:m | ||
fat/grease | *muɾaɾ | muɾa:ɾ | muɾuɾ | muɾuɾ | moɾoɾ ≈ muɾwaɾ | |
*-m- | m | m | m | m | m | |
earth/ground | *tamagə | t(ʰ)ama:ga | tama:gə | tʰama(:)g | ||
eat | *tamu | t(ʰ)amu(:)-ma | tamu:-m | tamu(:)-m | ||
mountain | *somog | somog | somog | somog | somok˺ | |
stomach | *ɣamaɾ | amaɾa [er] | kʰamaɾ |
Apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*n- | n | n | n | n | n | |
sand | *ninaɣai | ni:naⁱ | nanaɢaⁱ | |||
seed | *nein | nene [er] | neⁱn | nɛ:n | ||
tree | *naukə | naᵘkʰa ≈ naukʰa | naᵘka | naᵘkʰ(a) | ||
blood | *nauɾə | naᵘɾa ≈ nauɾa | naᵘɾa | naᵘɾ(a) | ||
1 pl. | *naoj[ə] | nauz | nuin ≈ noⁱn | no:zə | no:z | |
1 sg. | *naoɣ[ə] | noga | naᵘg | no: | no:gə | no:g |
bone | *naɾakə | naɾa: | naɾaka | naɾak(˺) | ||
sleep | *nu | nua [er] | ||||
*-n- | n | n | n | n | n | |
people | *animə | ani | anima | ani(:)m | anim | |
man | *anemə | anɛ: | ane(:)ma | ane:m | anɛ:m | |
older sister | *anan | j-anan | dz-anan-tum ≈ z-anan-tum | |||
woman | *anumə | anu(:)ma | anu:m | anu:m | ||
claw | *unik | unik | unit˺ ≈ unik˺ | unik˺ | uni:k˺ | |
pig | *m[i/e]nawə | minaᵘ: | mena:wa | mɛnaᵘ | ||
snake | *manig | mani:g | manit˺ ≈ mani(:) | manik˺ | manik˺ | |
old | *mane-ageə | manageg | maneagija | mena:gia | mena:gia(g) | |
moon/sun | *manom | mano:m | manom | mano:m | ||
sand | *ninaɣai | ni:naⁱ | nanaɢaⁱ | |||
lie down/sleep | *tene | tɛnɛ: | ||||
night | *duniau[ə] | diniu | duni(:)wi | tuniᵘ | tuniaᵘ |
Bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is preserved as such in all descendants:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*p- | p | p [p pʰ ] | p | p | p [p pʰ ] | |
shoulder | *paunə | paun | pʰaun | paᵘna | p(ʰ)aᵘn(a) | |
swim | *papaɾ | papa:ɾ-am | papa:ɾa-dɨɾ | papaɾ-dɛɾ | ||
white | *padə | pʰa:d-aɾ | p(ʰ)ada-p(ʰ)ada | padə-təɾ | padə-taɾ | |
boy | *pasiw | pasi: | masiu [sic] | p(ʰ)asip˺ | pasiᵘ | pasiu |
leaf | *pasajə | pasaⁱ | pasaⁱja | pasaⁱ | pasaⁱ | |
wallaby | *paɾVwai | paɾuwaⁱ: | paɾoaⁱ ≈ paɾawaⁱ | |||
wind | *poweɾ | pʰowɛ:ɾ | po(:)weɾ | poɛ:ɾ | powɛ:ɾ | |
fly (v.) | *pup[u]ɾuɾ | pupɾuɾ | pupuɾuɾ | |||
*-p- | ||||||
not | *epa | e(:)pa | epa | |||
forehead | *apiɾə | ap(ʰ)i(:)ɾa | api:ɾa ≈ apʰiɾə | |||
swim | *papaɾ | papa:ɾ-am | papa:ɾa-dɨɾ | papaɾ-dɛɾ | ||
fly (v.) | *pup[u]ɾuɾ | pupɾuɾ | pupuɾuɾ |
Apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*t- | t | t [tʰ] | t [t tʰ] | t | t [t tʰ] | |
particle (pl.) | *ti | ti | ti | ti | ti | ti |
arm/leg (?) | *tigiɾ | tigiɾi [er] | tiki:ɾ | tikiɾ | ||
particle (m.) | *te | te | te | te | te | te |
brother | *-tem | -tʰim | -tɛm ≈ -ten | -te:m | -tɛ(:)m | |
smoke | *temə | tɛ:m- | te:ma | tɛma-tɛm | ||
lie down/sleep | *tene | tɛnɛ: | ||||
when? | *tewet | tʰɛwɛtʰ | te:wet | tɛ(:)wɛ(:)t˺ | ||
vine/rope | *taukə | tʰaᵘ:kʰ | tʰɔkʰ | to:kʰa | to:kʰ(a) | |
earth/ground | *tamagə | t(ʰ)ama:ga | tama:gə | tʰama(:)g | ||
eat | *tamu | t(ʰ)amu(:)-ma | tamu:-m | tamu(:)-m | ||
that | *tatə | ta-koɾɛ | tʰatʰa | ta:ta | ta:ta | t(ʰ)a:tʰ |
mouth | *tawaɾ | tʰawaɾ | t(ʰ)awaɾ | tawa:ɾ | tʰawaɾ | |
hot | *totaɾ | totaɾ-ga | tota:ɾ- | totaɾə- ≈ totaɾɨ- |
||
ear | *towap | tʰowap ≈ towap˺ ≈ toap | tuəp˺ | tʰuəp˺ ≈ tuap˺ | ||
particle (f.) | *tu | tu | ||||
sister | *-tum | -tum | -tum | -tu(:)m | ||
*-t- | t | t | t | t | ||
hot | *totaɾ | totaɾ- | tota:ɾ- | totaɾə- ≈ totaɾɨ- |
||
neck | *kote | kʰotɛ: | kote: | k(ʰ)otɛ(:) | ||
who/what? | *watei | wateⁱ ≈ wate(:) | ||||
sugarcane | *ɣatimə | kati:m | ati:ma |
Laminal voiceless /*s/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*s- | s | s | s | s | s | |
morning | *ɣap-sinə | ap-sin | ap-si:nə | apʰ-si:n ≈ apə-sin |
||
bark (of tree) | *sigua[p/b] | sigu:b | siguap˺ | sikuap˺ | sikʰuap | |
banana | *seimə | simɛ | seⁱma | |||
dog | *s[eae] | sea | sija(ⁱ)ja | |||
fat/grease | *seg-segə | sɛk-sɛg | seg(a)-seg | |||
egg | *sVɣaɾə | sa:ɾ | saɢaɾ | sia(:)ɾa | sa:ɾa | sɛaɾ |
hand | *saga | saga: | sakoa [er] | |||
mountain | *somog | somog | somog | somog | somok˺ | |
meat/fat | *sowajə | suaⁱ | sowaⁱja | sowaⁱ(ja) | ||
tail | *sumə | su:m | su:m | su:ma | su:ma | su:m(a) |
tooth | *suwə | su: | su: | sua | ||
bad | *suɾ | sul- | su:- | sə-su:ɾ- | susuɾ(ə)- | |
*-s- | s | s | s | s | ||
old woman | *aus-abeɾ | asɨbɛɾ | ausabeɾ | aᵘsabe:ɾ | asubɛ:l ≈ asubɛ:ɾ |
|
good | *masi | masi:- | masi:- | masi:- | masi(:)- | |
boy | *pasiw | pasi: | masiu | p(ʰ)asip˺ | pasiᵘ | pasiu |
leaf | *pasajə | pasaⁱ | pasaⁱja | pasaⁱ | pasaⁱ | |
short | *ɣasub | kʰasub-dag | asu:-dɨg | asu:-dɨg |
…:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-s | s | s | t | t [t t˺] | t [t t˺] | |
sit | *agas | agaso | aga:s | agaɾa | akat˺ | ak(ʰ)at(˺) |
two | *mis | misə-gə | mis-du | mi:ta ≈ mijita | mi:t-ɨg | mit-ɨg |
One exception may indicate a loan into Giribam and Makayam:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-s | s | s | s | s | ||
basket | *aɾus | j-aɾu:s | aɾu:s | aɾu:sɨk̚ | aɾu:s(a) |
…:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-s(-) | s | s | -s | |||
full | *kusu[k]isə | kusu:s-taɾ | kusuisa ≈ kusuⁱsa | kusuks-taɾ |
Velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*k- | k [k kʰ] | k [k kʰ] | k [k kʰ] | k [k kʰ] | k [k kʰ] | |
tooth | *kam | ka:m | kʰam | |||
old man | *kadeɾe | kʰadɛɾɛ | kadɛ:ɾ | k(ʰ)adeɾɛ ≈ kʰadeɾe | kʰadeɾe | kadɛɾe ≈ kadɛ:ɾɛ |
elbow | *kakipə | kʰakʰi:p | kʰakʰip | k(ʰ)ak(ʰ)ipa | kakip | kʰakʰip |
girl | *kakoə | kʰakʰo | kakoa | kako: | kʰakʰo: | |
tusk | *kaɾitə | kʰaɾitʰ | kʰaɾit | k(ʰ)aɾi(:)ta | kaɾi:tə | kʰaɾitʰ |
stick (n.) | *kaɾeə | k(ʰ)aɾia | kʰaɾe | kʰaɾea | ||
neck | *kote | kʰotɛ: | kote: | k(ʰ)otɛ(:) | ||
full | *kusu[k]isə | kusu:s-taɾ | kusuisa ≈ kusuⁱsa | kusuks-taɾ | ||
*-k- | k [k kʰ] | k [k kʰ] | k [k kʰ] | k | k [k kʰ] | |
elbow | *kakipə | kʰakʰi:p | kʰakʰip | k(ʰ)ak(ʰ)ipa | kakip | kʰakʰip |
girl | *kakoə | kʰakʰo | kakoa | kako: | kʰakʰo: | |
full | *kusu[k]isə | kusu:s-taɾ | kusuisa ≈ kusuⁱsa | kusuks-taɾ |
Voiced stops /*b *d *g/ are merged with the reflexes of voiceless stops /*p *t *k/ in Giribam and Makayam.
Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*b- | b | b | b | p | p [p pʰ] | |
eye | *baɾid | baɾi:d | baɾit˺ ≈ baɾi | paɾit˺ | pʰaɾit˺ | |
breast | *bub | bu:b | pup | pʰupʰ | ||
feather | *bubu[s/k] | bubusa: | bubu:k | pupuk˺ ≈ pʰupʰukʰ |
||
thumb | *budub-duɾ | budub-duɾ | putub-duɾ | putubɨ-duɾ | ||
heavy/wet | *buduɾ | buduɾ- | buduɾ- | putu(:)ɾ- | putuɾ(ə)- ≈ putuɾɨ- |
|
cold | *buɾuɾ | buɾuɾ-ga | puɾu-bɾuɾ | p(ʰ)u-bɾuɾ | ||
*-b- | b | b | b | p | p [p pʰ] | |
feather | *bubu[s/k] | bubusa: | bubu:k | pupuk˺ ≈ pʰupʰukʰ |
||
arrow | *gobeɾ | gobɛ:ɾ | gabɛ:ɾ | |||
cough | *ɣabudə | abu:d | kʰabud | abu(:)da | apu:də | apu:d |
Exceptions can only be loans into Giribam-Makayam, /*b₂aigə/ for example being a loan from Aramia River /*boiga/ “back” (below,) and /*ab₂eɾ/ and /b₂aɾab/ most likely loans from Were or Bituri:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*b₂- | b | b | b | |||
back/bone | *b₂aigə | baig | baⁱgə: | |||
flying fox | *b₂aɾab | baɾa:b | baɾap˺ | baɾap˺ | ||
taro | *b₂ajə | bai: | baⁱ:ja ≈ beⁱ(:)ja | baⁱ:ja | baⁱ | |
*-b₂- | b | b | b | b | b | |
old woman | *ab₂eɾ | abɛ:ɾ | asɨbɛɾ | ausabeɾ | aᵘsabe:ɾ | asubɛ:l ≈ asubɛ:ɾ |
Apical voiced stop /*d/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*d- | d | d | d | t | t [t tʰ] | |
back | *dinə | di:n | di(:)na | ti:na | ti:na ≈ tʰi:n | |
stone | *didigə | didi(:)ga | titi:gə | |||
dog | *diɾean | diɾæn | teɾean ≈ taɾean | |||
bird | *dawod | dawu:d | daᵘwo ≈ dauwo | tawot˺ | taᵘwot˺ | |
men's house | *daɾimə | daɾi:m | taɾi:mə | taɾi:m(a) | ||
lie down | *daɾeaɾVb | daɾeaɾba | taɾeap˺ | |||
long | *dodɾap | doɾa:p-ga | dodɾap | do(:)ɾa-ga | todɾapɨm | todɾa:p(ʰ)əm |
hair | *duɾumə | duɾuma | tuɾu:m | |||
navel | *duɣumə | duma [er] | tumu [er] | |||
night | *duniau | diniu | duni(:)wi | tuniᵘ | tuniaᵘ | |
*-d- | d | d | d | t | t [t tʰ] | |
baby | *mod[o] | modo: | moda | moda | moto: | mot(ʰ)o: |
thumb | *budub-duɾ | budub-dur | putub-dur | putubɨ-dur | ||
heavy/wet | *buduɾ | buduɾ- | buduɾ- | putu(:)ɾ- | putuɾ(ə)- ≈ putuɾɨ- |
|
stone | *didigə | didi(:)ga | titi:gə | |||
old man | *kadeɾe | kʰadɛɾɛ | kadɛ:ɾ | k(ʰ)adeɾɛ ≈ kʰadeɾe | kʰadeɾe | kadɛɾe ≈ kadɛ:ɾɛ |
wallaby | *j[i]adam | jadam | dʒa:dam | |||
charcoal/black | *ɣVdoum | daᵘm-ga | gudum-daɾ | doᵘm-doᵘm dom-dum |
Velar voiced stop /*g/ … (Shafer 1965: 116):
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*g- | g | g | k | k [k kʰ] | ||
knife | *giɾi | giɾi | gi:ɾ | gi:ɾi(ʔ) | gi:ɾi | gi:ɾi |
red | *gai | gaⁱ-taɾ | kaⁱa-təɾ | kaⁱ(a)-t(ʰ)aɾ | ||
name | *gag | gag | gag | kak | kʰakʰ | |
feather | *gawaɾ | gawaɾ | gawaɾ | kawaɾ | kawaɾ | |
arrow | *gobeɾ | gobɛ:ɾ | gabɛ:ɾ | |||
sweet potato | *goɾ[oɾ]en | goɾɛ:n | koɾoɾe:ɛn | koɾoɾɛ(:)n | ||
yellow | *guɾug | guɾu-guɾu(g) | guɾuk-taɾ | guɾuk-taɾ | ||
*-g- | g | g | g [g ø] | k | k [k kʰ] | |
3 sg. | *igiə | igi: | igi: | igia ≈ igi:a | iki:a | ikʰi: |
wing | *agetə | age:t | age(:)ta | ake:ta | akɛ:ta ≈ akɛ:tʰ | |
sit | *agas | agaso | aga:s | agaɾa | akat˺ | ak(ʰ)at(˺) |
chin | *magot | mago:t | mako:t | mako:tʰ | ||
foot | *magoɾ | magoɾ | mako:ɾ | |||
arm/leg (?) | *tigiɾ | tigiɾi [er] | tiki:ɾ | tikiɾ | ||
bark (of tree) | *sigua[p/b] | sigu:b | siguap˺ | sikuap˺ | sikʰuap | |
hand | *saga | saga: | sakoa [er] |
…:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-g- | g | g | k | g | ||
cloud | *mogawə | mugaᵘ: | mogawa | mokaᵘ | mogaw ≈mogaᵘ |
Bilabial non-stop /*w/ is retained as such in all descendants. It is not occluded as it is in other Fly River subfamilies:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*w- | w | w | w | w | w | |
father | *we | a-wɛ: | i-wɛ | e-wija ≈ ɛ-wija | e-we: | ɛ-we: ≈ ɛ-wiɛ |
hit/kill | *wVɣVn[i] | weⁱnɛ:n | waɢani | wein-a ≈weⁱ:n-am | weⁱn | wɛⁱn ≈ weⁱn |
who/what? | *watei | wateⁱ ≈ wate(:) | ||||
die | *waɾeu | waɾewa | waɾeu | waɾewa | waɾeᵘ ≈ waɾɛom | |
mother | *wu | dʒi-wu-nu:m | dʒi-(w)u-num | |||
*-w- | w | w | w | w | w | |
see | *owe | we-a:m | - | ow-a:m | owe-am | |
path | *ewean | e:wan | ewijan- | |||
many/all | *eweaɾ | iuɾ-wɛɾ | (z)ewijaɾ≈ɛwijaɾ | ewiaɾ | ɛwoɾ-wɛa(:)ɾ | |
fish | *awi | aᵘ | aᵘwi ≈ awi | aᵘ:wi | a:wi | |
laugh | *awedə | aᵘwɛd | ewe(:)da | ewe:da | ewe:d ≈ ewɛ:d | |
walk | *awoɾ[o] | awoɾo-m | auɾo-m | awoɾ(o)-ma | awo:ɾə-m | awoɾ(ə)-m |
wallaby | *paɾVwai | paɾuwaⁱ: | paɾoaⁱ ≈ paɾawaⁱ | |||
wind | *poweɾ | pʰowɛ:ɾ | po(:)weɾ | poɛ:ɾ | powɛ:ɾ | |
when? | *tewet | tʰɛwɛtʰ | te:wet | tɛ(:)wɛ(:)t˺ | ||
mouth | *tawaɾ | tʰawaɾ | t(ʰ)awaɾ | tawa:ɾ | tʰawaɾ | |
ear | *towap | tʰowap ≈ towap˺ ≈ toap | tuəp˺ | tʰuəp˺ ≈ tuap˺ | ||
bird | *dawod | dawu:d | daᵘwo ≈ dauwo | tawot˺ | taᵘwot˺ | |
meat/fat | *sowajə | suaⁱ | sowaⁱja | sowaⁱ(ja) | ||
feather | *gawaɾ | gawaɾ | gawaɾ | kawaɾ | kawaɾ | |
big | *jawe | zawe-ga | zawea-ga ≈ dzawea-ga |
Apical non-stop /*ɾ/ is retained as such in all descendants. It is much less common initially than medially or finally:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*ɾ- | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ [ɾ l] | |
say | *ɾe[ɾ] | ɾɛ: | ɾɛ | ɾe:ɾ | ɾɛɾ | |
belly | *ɾainə | ɾaⁱn | ɾeina ≈ ɾeⁱjna | ɾaⁱna | laina ≈ ɾaina | |
star | *ɾuɾupə | ɾuɾu:p | ɾuɾu:p | ɾuɾu:pə | ɾuɾu:pa ≈ ɾuɾupʰ | |
*-ɾ- | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ | |
yam | *eɾaw | ɛɾaᵘ | ɛɾaᵘb | ɛɾaᵘ | ||
walk | *awoɾ[o] | awoɾo-m | auɾo-m | awoɾ(o)-ma | awo:ɾə-m | awoɾ(ə)-m |
meat | *aɾin | aɾi:n | aɾi:n | |||
basket | *aɾus | j-aɾu:s | aɾu:s | aɾu:sɨk̚ | aɾu:s(a) | |
louse | *oɾ[eae]n | oɾean | oɾiaⁱn | |||
sand | *miɾi | mi(:)ɾi(ʔ) | ||||
light/dry | *maɾaɾ | maɾaɾ- | maɾaɾ- | maɾaɾ- | ||
fat/grease | *muɾaɾ | muɾa:ɾ | muɾuɾ | muɾuɾ | moɾoɾ ≈ muɾwaɾ | |
wallaby | *paɾVwai | paɾuwaⁱ: | paɾoaⁱ ≈ paɾawaⁱ | |||
eye | *baɾid | baɾi:d | baɾit˺ ≈ baɾi | paɾit˺ | pʰaɾit˺ | |
cold | *buɾuɾ | buɾuɾ-ga | puɾu-bɾuɾ | p(ʰ)u-bɾuɾ | ||
bone | *naɾakə | naɾa: | naɾaka | naɾak(˺) | ||
dog | *diɾean | diɾæn | teɾean ≈ taɾean | |||
men's house | *daɾimə | daɾi:m | taɾi:mə | taɾi:m(a) | ||
lie down | *daɾeaɾVb | daɾeaɾba | taɾeap˺ | |||
hair | *duɾumə | duɾuma | tuɾu:m | |||
old man | *kadeɾe | kʰadɛɾɛ | kadɛ:ɾ | k(ʰ)adeɾɛ ≈ kʰadeɾe | kʰadeɾe | kadɛɾe ≈ kadɛ:ɾɛ |
tusk | *kaɾitə | kʰaɾitʰ | kʰaɾit | k(ʰ)aɾi(:)ta | kaɾi:tə | kʰaɾitʰ |
stick (n.) | *kaɾeə | k(ʰ)aɾia | kʰaɾe | kʰaɾea | ||
knife | *giɾi | giɾi | gi:ɾ | gi:ɾi(ʔ) | gi:ɾi | gi:ɾi |
sweet potato | *goɾ[oɾ]en | goɾɛ:n | koɾoɾe:ɛn | koɾoɾɛ(:)n | ||
yellow | *guɾug | guɾu-guɾu(g) | guɾuk-taɾ | guɾuk-taɾ | ||
die | *waɾeu | waɾewa | waɾeu | waɾewa | waɾeᵘ ≈ waɾɛom | |
star | *ɾuɾupə | ɾuɾu:p | ɾuɾu:p | ɾuɾu:pə | ɾuɾu:pa ≈ ɾuɾupʰ | |
dance | *jaɾe | zaɾiama ≈ dzaɾeama | saɾeama | |||
one | *ɣoɾ[e]a[u][k] | oɾaᵘ-gə | kuɾa:s | oɾak˺ ≈ oɾag | oɾa-dɨg | oɾe(a)-dɨg |
Palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*j-/_a | z | z | dz [dz dʒ] | s | s | |
2 pl. | *jaoɣ | zoga | zaug | dʒo: ≈ dzo: | so:gə | so:g |
dance | *jaɾe | zaɾiama ≈ dzaɾeama | saɾeama | |||
*j-/_i e | ø | j | dz | dz [dʒ z] | dz [dʒ z] | |
3 sg. poss. | *ji- | |||||
tongue | *jimə | ʔi:m | zi:ma | |||
3 pl. | *jiɣ | i:g | ji:g | dzi: | dʒi:g | zi:g ≈ zi:k |
axe | *jiɣaɾ | jakaɾ | dzeaɾ ≈ dʒiaɾ ≈ ziaɾ |
…:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*j- | j | dz [dʒ] | dz [z dʒ] | |||
fire | *j[i]au | jau: | dʒau | zaᵘ ≈ dʒaᵘ | ||
wallaby | *j[i]adam | jadam | dʒa:dam |
…:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-j- | j | j | j | j | j | |
banana | *ijwə | iju: | ʔijua | |||
yes | *ejo | ejo | ɛjo | e(:)jo | ejo: | ejo |
no | *a[i]je | aijɛ | aje | aije | aijɛ | |
sugarcane | *ajuabə | aja:b | aji:əb | aⁱjuo:b≈ajuwəb |
…:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-j | ||||||
1 pl. | *naoj | nauz | nuin ≈ noⁱn | no:zə | no:z |
Velar non-stop /*ɣ/ is retained only Were, where it is heard as uvular or velar voiced stop [ɢ g] or as voiceless [k kʰ]:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*ɣ- | ø | ɢ [ɢ g k kʰ] | ø | ø | ø | |
drink/eat | *ɣai | a(ⁱ)jam ≈ aje | ɢai(m) ≈ gai | ij(i)(:)ama | ija:m | (ʔ)ia(:)m |
laugh | *ɣai | aja:m | ||||
stomach | *ɣamaɾ | amaɾa [er] | kʰamaɾ | |||
yesterday | *ɣapə | a:p˺ | a:pa | a:pa | a:pa | |
cough | *ɣabudə | abu:d | kʰabud | abu(:)da | apu:də | apu:d |
sugarcane | *ɣatimə | kati:m | ati:ma | |||
short | *ɣasub | kʰasub-dag | asu:-dɨg | asu:-dɨg | ||
2 sg. | *ɣaoɣ | oga | ɢaᵘg | o: | o:g | o:g |
one | *ɣoɾ[e]a[u][k] | oɾaᵘ-gə | kuɾa:s | oɾak˺ ≈ oɾag | oɾa-dɨg | oɾe(a)-dɨg |
charcoal/black | *ɣVdoum | daᵘm-ga | gudum-daɾ | doᵘm-doᵘm dom-dum | ||
*-ɣ- | ø | ɢ [ɢ k] | ø | ø | ø | |
seed | *moɣom | mo:m | mo:m | mo:m | ||
sand | *ninaɣai | ni:naⁱ | nanaɢaⁱ | |||
navel | *duɣumə | duma [er] | tumu [er] | |||
egg | *sVɣaɾə | sa:ɾ | saɢaɾ | sia(:)ɾa | sa:ɾa | sɛaɾ |
hit/kill | *wVɣVn[i] | weⁱnɛ:n | waɢani | weina ≈weⁱ:nam | weⁱn | wɛⁱn ≈ weⁱn |
axe | *jiɣaɾ | jakaɾ | dzeaɾ ≈ dʒiaɾ ≈ ziaɾ |
In one example, /*ɣ/ is lost also in Were when the root /*moɣom/ “seed” (above) is used as a suffix:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-ɣ- | ø | ø | ø | |||
heart | *-moɣom | dina-mo:m | pɛ-mom | pi®-mo(:)m |
…:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-ɣ | g | g | ø | g | g | |
1 sg. | *naoɣ | noga | naᵘg | no: | no:gə | no:g |
2 pl. | *jaoɣ | zoga | zaug | dʒo: ≈ dzo: | so:gə | so:g |
3 pl. | *jiɣ | i:g | ji:g | dzi: | dʒi:g | zi:g ≈ zi:k |
2 sg. | *ɣaoɣ | oga | ɢaᵘg | o: | o:g | o:g |
Historically, /*ɣ/ represents two different Fly River phonemes, initial prenasalized velar stop /*ŋg/ and medial voiceless /*k/.
Subfinal and final consonants are presented here together by segment, as they are sometimes difficult to distinguish from one another. The term subfinal refers to the consonants of final segments with destressed schwa /*ə/, which have different reflexes than final consonants, but these reflexes overlap and the retention of /*ə/ is sporadic and not entirely predictable.
… /*mə/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-mə | m | m | m | m | m | |
smoke | *temə | tɛ:m- | te:ma | tɛma-tɛm | ||
men's house | *daɾimə | daɾi:m | taɾi:mə | taɾi:m(a) | ||
hair | *duɾumə | duɾuma | tuɾu:m | |||
navel | *duɣumə | duma [er] | tumu [er] | |||
banana | *seimə | simɛ | seⁱma | |||
tail | *sumə | su:m | su:m | su:ma | su:ma | su:m(a) |
tongue | *jimə | ʔi:m | zi:ma | |||
sugarcane | *ɣatimə | kati:m | ati:ma |
…:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-mə | ø | ? | mə [ma] | m | m | |
people | *animə | ani | anima | ani(:)m | anim | |
man | *anemə | anɛ: | ane(:)ma | ane:m | anɛ:m | |
woman | *anumə | anu(:)ma | anu:m | anu:m |
… /*m/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-m | m | m | m | m | m | |
moon/sun | *manom | mano:m | manom | mano:m | ||
seed | *moɣom | mo:m | mo:m | mo:m | ||
brother | *-tem | -tʰim | -tɛm ≈ -ten | -te:m | -tɛ(:)m | |
sister | *-tum | -tum | -tum | -tu(:)m | ||
tooth | *kam | ka:m | kʰam | |||
smell | *[j]im | im- [er] | ||||
wallaby | *j[i]adam | jadam | dʒa:dam | |||
charcoal/black | *ɣVdoum | daᵘm-ga | gudum-daɾ | doᵘm-doᵘm dom-dum |
… /*nə/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-nə | n | n | nə [na nə] | nə [n na] | nə [n na] | |
voice/speech | *meanə | meane [er] | meana | |||
shoulder | *paunə | paun | pʰaun | paᵘna | p(ʰ)aᵘn(a) | |
back | *dinə | di:n | di(:)na | ti:na | ti:na ≈ tʰi:n | |
morning | *ɣap-sinə | ap-sin | ap-si:nə | apʰ-si:n ≈ apə-sin |
||
belly | *ɾain | ɾaⁱn | ɾeina ≈ ɾeⁱjna | ɾaⁱna | laina ≈ ɾaina |
… /*n/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-n | n | n | n | n | n | |
path | *ewean | e:wan | ewijan- | |||
older sister | *an | n-a:n | j-anan | dz-anan-tum ≈ z-anan-tum | ||
meat | *aɾin | aɾi:n | aɾi:n | |||
louse | *oɾ[eae]n | oɾean | oɾiaⁱn | |||
seed | *nein | nene [er] | neⁱn | nɛ:n | ||
dog | *diɾean | diɾæn | teɾean ≈ taɾean | |||
sweet potato | *goɾ[oɾ]en | goɾɛ:n | koɾoɾe:ɛn | koɾoɾɛ(:)n |
… /*pə/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-pə | p [p p˺] | p | pə [pa] | pə [pa pə p] | pə [p pʰ pa] | |
elbow | *kakipə | kʰakʰi:p | kʰakʰip | k(ʰ)ak(ʰ)ipa | kakip | kʰakʰip |
star | *ɾuɾupə | ɾuɾu:p | ɾuɾu:p | ɾuɾu:pə | ɾuɾu:pa ≈ ɾuɾupʰ | |
yesterday | *ɣapə | a:p˺ | a:pa | a:pa | a:pa |
… /*p/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-p | ? | ? | p [p p˺] | p [p˺] | p [p˺] | |
ear | *towap | tʰowap ≈ towap˺ ≈ toap | tuəp˺ | tʰuəp˺ ≈ tuap˺ |
… /*t/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-tə | t [tʰ] | t [t tʰ] | tə [ta] | tə [ta tə] | tə [tʰ ta] | |
wing | *agetə | age:t | age(:)ta | ake:ta | akɛ:ta ≈ akɛ:tʰ | |
this | *[a/o]tə | a-koɾɛ | o:ta | a:ta | a:tʰ | |
that | *tatə | ta-koɾɛ | tʰatʰa | ta:ta | ta:ta | t(ʰ)a:tʰ |
tusk | *kaɾitə | kʰaɾitʰ | kʰaɾit | k(ʰ)aɾi(:)ta | kaɾi:tə | kʰaɾitʰ |
… /*t/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-t | t | t [tʰ] | ? | t | t [t˺ tʰ ] | |
root | *mit | mi:t | ni:t˺ | |||
chin | *magot | mago:t | mako:t | mako:tʰ | ||
when? | *tewet | tʰɛwɛtʰ | te:wet | tɛ(:)wɛ(:)t˺ |
… /*k/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-kə | k [kʰ ø] | k [k kʰ] | k [k kʰ k˺] | k [k kʰ k˺] | k [k kʰ k˺] | |
tree | *naukə | naᵘkʰa ≈ naukʰa | naᵘka | naᵘkʰ(a) | ||
bone | *naɾakə | naɾa: | naɾaka | naɾak(˺) | ||
vine/rope | *taukə | tʰaᵘ:kʰ | tʰɔkʰ | to:kʰa | to:kʰ(a) |
… /*k/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-k | k [kʰ ø] | k [k kʰ] | k [k kʰ k˺] | k [k kʰ k˺] | k [k kʰ k˺] | |
claw | *unik | unik | unit˺ ≈ unik˺ | unik˺ | uni:k˺ | |
feather | *bubu[s/k] | bubusa: | bubu:k | pupuk˺ ≈ pʰupʰukʰ |
… /*b/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-bə | ||||||
sugarcane | *ajuabə | aja:b | aji:əb | aⁱjuo:b≈ajuwəb |
…
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-b | b | b | b | p | p [p pʰ p˺] | |
breast | *bub | bu:b | pup | pʰupʰ | ||
lie down | *daɾeaɾVb | daɾeaɾba | taɾeap˺ |
… /*d/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-də | d | d | ||||
laugh | *awedə | aᵘwɛd | ewe(:)da | ewe:da | ewe:d ≈ ewɛ:d | |
white | *padə | pʰa:d-aɾ | p(ʰ)ada-p(ʰ)ada | padə-təɾ | padə-taɾ | |
cough | *ɣabudə | abu:d | kʰabud | abu(:)da | apu:də | apu:d |
…:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-d | d | d | t [t˺ ø] | t [t˺] | t [t˺] | |
eye | *baɾid | baɾi:d | baɾit˺ ≈ baɾi | paɾit˺ | pʰaɾit˺ | |
bird | *dawod | dawu:d | daᵘwo ≈ dauwo | tawot˺ | taᵘwot˺ |
…:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-gə | g | g | g | |||
stone | *didigə | didi(:)ga | titi:gə | |||
earth/ground | *tamagə | t(ʰ)ama:ga | tama:gə | tʰama(:)g | ||
fat/grease | *seg-segə | sɛk-sɛg | seg(a)-seg |
…:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-g | g | g | g | k [k k˺] | k [k k˺ kʰ] | |
snake | *manig | mani:g | manit˺ ≈ mani(:) | manik˺ | manik˺ | |
mountain | *somog | somog | somog | somog (?) | somok˺ | |
name | *gag | gag | gag | kak | kʰakʰ | |
yellow | *guɾug | guɾu-guɾu(g) | guɾuk-taɾ | guɾuk-taɾ |
One example doesn't fit cleanly into either of these patterns:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-[k/g]ə | ||||||
water | *mau[k/g]ə | maᵘg | maᵘka | maᵘka ≈ mauk |
… /*wə/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-wə | ||||||
pig | *m[i/e]nawə | minaᵘ: | mena:wa | mɛnaᵘ | ||
cloud | *mogawə | mugaᵘ: | mogawa | mokaᵘ | mogaw ≈mogaᵘ | |
tooth | *suwə | su: | su: | sua |
… /*w/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-w/a_ | ø | b | u | |||
yam | *eɾaw | ɛɾaᵘ | ɛɾaᵘb | ɛɾaᵘ | ||
*-w/i_ | ø | u | p | u | u | |
nose | *miw | mi:p(˺) | miu | meu ≈ miu | ||
boy | *pasiw | pasi: | masiu | p(ʰ)asip˺ | pasiᵘ | pasiu |
… /*ɾə/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-ɾ | ɾ | ɾ [ɾ l] | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ [ɾ l] | |
many/all | *eweaɾ | iuɾ-wɛɾ | (z)ewijaɾ≈ɛwijaɾ | ewiaɾ | ɛwoɾ-wɛa(:)ɾ | |
forehead | *apiɾə | ap(ʰ)i(:)ɾa | api:ɾa ≈ apʰiɾə | |||
old woman | *abeɾ | abɛ:ɾ | asɨbɛɾ | ausabeɾ | aᵘsabe:ɾ | asubɛ:l ≈ asubɛ:ɾ |
foot | *magoɾ | magoɾ | mako:ɾ | |||
light/dry | *maɾaɾ | maɾaɾ- | maɾaɾ- | maɾaɾ- | ||
ashes | *moɾ | mo:ɾ | mo:ɾ | mo:ɾ | ||
fat/grease | *muɾaɾ | muɾa:ɾ | muɾuɾ | muɾuɾ | moɾoɾ ≈ muɾwaɾ | |
swim | *papaɾ | papa:ɾ-am | papa:ɾa-dɨɾ | papaɾ-dɛɾ | ||
wind | *poweɾ | pʰowɛ:ɾ | po(:)weɾ | poɛ:ɾ | powɛ:ɾ | |
thumb | *budub-duɾ | budub-duɾ | putub-duɾ | putubɨ-duɾ | ||
heavy/wet | *buduɾ | buduɾ- | buduɾ- | putu(:)ɾ- | putuɾ(ə)- ≈ putuɾɨ- |
|
cold | *buɾuɾ | buɾuɾ-ga | puɾu-bɾuɾ | p(ʰ)u-bɾuɾ | ||
blood | *nauɾə | naᵘɾa ≈ nauɾa | naᵘɾa | naᵘɾ(a) | ||
arm/leg (?) | *tigiɾ | tigiɾi [er] | tiki:ɾ | tikiɾ | ||
mouth | *tawaɾ | tʰawaɾ | t(ʰ)awaɾ | tawa:ɾ | tʰawaɾ | |
hot | *totaɾ | totaɾ- | tota:ɾ- | totaɾə- ≈ totaɾɨ- |
||
egg | *sVɣaɾə | sa:ɾ | saɢaɾ | sia(:)ɾa | sa:ɾa | sɛaɾ |
bad | *suɾ | sul- | su:- | sə-su:ɾ- | susuɾ(ə)- | |
feather | *gawaɾ | gawaɾ | gawaɾ | kawaɾ | kawaɾ | |
arrow | *gobeɾ | gobɛ:ɾ | gabɛ:ɾ | |||
axe | *jiɣaɾ | jakaɾ | dzeaɾ ≈ dʒiaɾ ≈ ziaɾ | |||
stomach | *ɣamaɾ | amaɾa [er] | kʰamaɾ |
… /*ɾ/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-ɾ | ɾ | ɾ [ɾ l] | ɾ | ɾ | ɾ [ɾ l] | |
many/all | *eweaɾ | iuɾ-wɛɾ | (z)ewijaɾ≈ɛwijaɾ | ewiaɾ | ɛwoɾ-wɛa(:)ɾ | |
forehead | *apiɾə | ap(ʰ)i(:)ɾa | api:ɾa ≈ apʰiɾə | |||
old woman | *abeɾ | abɛ:ɾ | asɨbɛɾ | ausabeɾ | aᵘsabe:ɾ | asubɛ:l ≈ asubɛ:ɾ |
foot | *magoɾ | magoɾ | mako:ɾ | |||
light/dry | *maɾaɾ | maɾaɾ- | maɾaɾ- | maɾaɾ- | ||
ashes | *moɾ | mo:ɾ | mo:ɾ | mo:ɾ | ||
fat/grease | *muɾaɾ | muɾa:ɾ | muɾuɾ | muɾuɾ | moɾoɾ ≈ muɾwaɾ | |
swim | *papaɾ | papa:ɾ-am | papa:ɾa-dɨɾ | papaɾ-dɛɾ | ||
wind | *poweɾ | pʰowɛ:ɾ | po(:)weɾ | poɛ:ɾ | powɛ:ɾ | |
thumb | *budub-duɾ | budub-duɾ | putub-duɾ | putubɨ-duɾ | ||
heavy/wet | *buduɾ | buduɾ- | buduɾ- | putu(:)ɾ- | putuɾ(ə)- ≈ putuɾɨ- |
|
cold | *buɾuɾ | buɾuɾ-ga | puɾu-bɾuɾ | p(ʰ)u-bɾuɾ | ||
blood | *nauɾə | naᵘɾa ≈ nauɾa | naᵘɾa | naᵘɾ(a) | ||
arm/leg (?) | *tigiɾ | tigiɾi [er] | tiki:ɾ | tikiɾ | ||
mouth | *tawaɾ | tʰawaɾ | t(ʰ)awaɾ | tawa:ɾ | tʰawaɾ | |
hot | *totaɾ | totaɾ- | tota:ɾ- | totaɾə- ≈ totaɾɨ- |
||
egg | *sVɣaɾə | sa:ɾ | saɢaɾ | sia(:)ɾa | sa:ɾa | sɛaɾ |
bad | *suɾ | sul- | su:- | sə-su:ɾ- | susuɾ(ə)- | |
feather | *gawaɾ | gawaɾ | gawaɾ | kawaɾ | kawaɾ | |
arrow | *gobeɾ | gobɛ:ɾ | gabɛ:ɾ | |||
axe | *jiɣaɾ | jakaɾ | dzeaɾ ≈ dʒiaɾ ≈ ziaɾ | |||
stomach | *ɣamaɾ | amaɾa [er] | kʰamaɾ |
… /*jə/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-jə | ||||||
leaf | *pasajə | pasaⁱ | pasaⁱja | pasaⁱ | pasaⁱ | |
taro | *b₂ajə | bai: | baⁱ:ja ≈ beⁱ(:)ja | baⁱ:ja | baⁱ | |
meat/fat | *sowajə | suaⁱ | sowaⁱja | sowaⁱ(ja) |
Lower Fly River vowels /*i *u *o *e *a/ conform to vowel harmony restrictions such that a high vowel /*i *u/ and a mid vowel /*e *o/ do not cooccur in the same root. Low central vowel /*a/ is neutral, and can cooccur with any vowel. These are generally retained as such in all descendants, with only a few exceptions. In order to illustrate the constraints upon vowel cooccurences imposed by vowel harmony, roots including only high vowels /*i *u/ are presented first, followed by those including only mid vowels /*e *o/, followed by those containing only low vowel /*a/ and then roots containing /*a/ and any other vowel(s).
High front vowel /*i// has been found in monosylables, in disyllables with like vowel /*i/, preceding high back /*u/ or low central /*a/ in a following syllable and preceded by /*u/ or /*a/ in a previous syllable.
High front vowel /*i/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendants:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*i | i | i | i | i | i | |
particle (pl.) | *ti | ti | ti | ti | ti | ti |
root | *mit | mi:t | ni:t˺ | |||
two | *mis | misə-gə | mis-du | mi:ta ≈ mijita | mi:t-ɨg | mit-ɨg |
nose | *miw | mi:p(˺) | miu | meu ≈ miu | ||
sand | *miɾi | mi(:)ɾi(ʔ) | ||||
back | *din | di:n | di(:)na | ti:na | ti:na ≈ tʰi:n | |
morning | *ɣap-sin | ap-sin | ap-si:nə | apʰ-si:n ≈ apə-sin |
||
smell | *[j]im | im- [er] | ||||
tongue | *jim | ʔi:m | zi:ma | |||
3 pl. | *jiɣ | i:g | ji:g | dzi: | dʒi:g | zi:g ≈ zi:k |
*iCi | iCi | iCi | iCi | iCi | iCi | |
3 sg. | *igi | igi: | igi: | igia ≈ igi:a | iki:a | ikʰi: |
knife | *giɾi | giɾi | gi:ɾ | gi:ɾi(ʔ) | gi:ɾi | gi:ɾi |
arm/leg (?) | *tigiɾ | tigiɾi [er] | tiki:ɾ | tikiɾ | ||
stone | *didigə | didi(:)ga | titi:gə |
High back vowel /*u/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendants:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*u | u | u | u | u | u | |
sleep | *nu | nua [er] | ||||
particle (f.) | *tu | tu | ||||
tooth | *su | su: | su: | sua | ||
mother | *(ji-)wu | dʒi-wu-nu:m | dʒi-(w)u-num | |||
breast | *bub | bu:b | pup | pʰupʰ | ||
sister | *-tum | -tum | -tum | -tu(:)m | ||
tail | *sum | su:m | su:m | su:ma | su:ma | su:m(a) |
bad | *suɾ | sul- | su:- | sə-su:ɾ- | susuɾ(ə)- | |
*uCu | uCu | uCu | uCu | uCu | uCu | |
fly (v.) | *pup[u]ɾuɾ | pupɾuɾ | pupuɾuɾ | |||
feather | *bubu[s/k] | bubusa: | bubu:k | pupuk˺ ≈ pʰupʰukʰ |
||
thumb | *budub-duɾ | budub-duɾ | putub-duɾ | putubɨ-duɾ | ||
heavy/wet | *buduɾ | buduɾ- | buduɾ- | putu(:)ɾ- | putuɾ(ə)- ≈ putuɾɨ- |
|
cold | *buɾuɾ | buɾuɾ-ga | puɾu-bɾuɾ | p(ʰ)u-bɾuɾ | ||
hair | *duɾum | duɾuma | tuɾu:m | |||
navel | *duɣum | duma [er] | tumu [er] | |||
yellow | *guɾug | guɾu-guɾu(g) | guɾuk-tar | guɾuk-tar | ||
star | *ɾuɾup | ɾuɾu:p | ɾuɾu:p | ɾuɾu:pə | ɾuɾu:pa ≈ ɾuɾupʰ |
High vowels /*i *u/ cannot cooccur with mid vowels /*e *o/ in the same root, but can cooccur with one another.
… /*iCu/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*iCu | iCu | iCu | iCu | iCu | ||
banana | *iju | iju: | ʔijua | |||
bark (of tree) | *sigua[p/b] | sigu:b | siguap˺ | sikuap˺ | sikʰuap |
The pattern /*uCi/ is found in only one word:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*uCi | uCi | uCi | uCi | uCi | ||
claw | *unik | unik | unit˺ ≈ unik˺ | unik˺ | uni:k˺ |
… /*u/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*u | u | u | u | u | u | |
night | *duniau | diniu | duni(:)wi | tuniᵘ | tuniaᵘ | |
full | *kusu[k]is | kusu:s-taɾ | kusuisa ≈ kusuⁱsa | kusuks-taɾ |
Mid front vowel /*e/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendats:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*e | e | e | e | e | e | |
particle (m.) | *te | te | te | te | te | te |
father | *we | a-wɛ: | i-wɛ | e-wija ≈ ɛ-wija | e-we: | ɛ-we: ≈ ɛ-wiɛ |
say | *ɾe[ɾ] | ɾɛ: | ɾɛ | ɾe:ɾ | ɾɛɾ | |
smoke | *tem | tɛ:m- | te:ma | tɛma-tɛm | ||
brother | *-tem | -tʰim (?) | -tɛm ≈ -ten | -te:m | -tɛ(:)m | |
fat/grease | *seg-segə | sɛk-sɛg | seg(a)-seg | |||
*eCe | eCe [eCe:] | eCe | eCe [e:Ce] | eCe [e(:)Ce(:)C] | ||
lie down/sleep | *tene | tɛnɛ: | ||||
when? | *tewet | tʰɛwɛtʰ | te:wet | tɛ(:)wɛ(:)t˺ |
Mid back vowel /*o/ in simple environments is retained as such in all descendants:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*o | o [o:] | o [o:] | o [o:] | |||
ashes | *moɾ | mo:ɾ | mo:ɾ | mo:ɾ | ||
*oCo | oCo [oCo(:)] | oCo | oCo [oCo(:)] | oCo [oCo(:)] | oCo [oCo(:)] | |
seed | *moɣom | mo:m | mo:m | mo:m | ||
mountain | *somog | somog | somog | somog | somok˺ | |
baby | *mod[o] | modo: | moda | moda | moto: | mot(ʰ)o: |
Mid vowels /*e *o/ cannot cooccur with high vowels /*i *u/ in the same root, but can cooccur with one another.
The pattern /*eCo/ is found in only one word which might be a regionwide loan:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*eCo | eCo | eCo | eCo [e(:)Co] | eCo [eCo:] | eCo | |
yes | *ejo | ejo | ɛjo | e(:)jo | ejo: | ejo |
The pattern /*oCe/ is better established, and is retained as such in all descendants:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*oCe | oCe | oCe | oCe | oCe | oCe | |
neck | *kote | kʰotɛ: | kote: | k(ʰ)otɛ(:) | ||
wind | *poweɾ | pʰowɛ:ɾ | po(:)weɾ | poɛ:ɾ | powɛ:ɾ | |
arrow | *gobeɾ | gobɛ:ɾ | gabɛ:ɾ | |||
sweet potato | *goɾ[oɾ]en | goɾɛ:n | koɾoɾe:ɛn | koɾoɾɛ(:)n |
… /*eCea/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*eCea | e | e | e | e | e | |
path | *ewean | e:wan | ewijan- |
/*o/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*oCeae | o | o | o | o | o | |
louse | *oɾ[eae]n | oɾean | oɾiaⁱn | |||
*oCau | o | o | o | o | o | |
cloud | *mogawə | mugaᵘ: | mogawa | mokaᵘ | mogaw ≈mogaᵘ | |
*oCai | o | o | o | o | o | |
meat/fat | *sowajə | suaⁱ | sowaⁱja | sowaⁱ(ja) |
Low central vowel /*a/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*a | a [a a:] | a [a a:] | a [a a:] | a [a a:] | a [a a:] | |
older sister | *an | n-a:n | j-anan | dz-anan-tum | ||
white | *padə | pʰa:d-aɾ | p(ʰ)ada-p(ʰ)ada | padə-təɾ | padə-taɾ | |
that | *tat | ta-koɾɛ | tʰatʰa | ta:ta | ta:ta | t(ʰ)a:tʰ |
tooth | *kam | ka:m | kʰam | |||
name | *gag | gag | gag | kak | kʰakʰ | |
yesterday | *ɣap | a:p˺ | a:pa | a:pa | a:pa | |
*aCa | aCa [aCa(:)] | aCa [aCa(:)] | aCa [aCa(:)] | aCa [aCa(:)] | aCa [aCa(:)] | |
sit | *agas | agaso | aga:s | agaɾa | akat˺ | ak(ʰ)at(˺) |
light/dry | *maɾaɾ | maɾaɾ- | maɾaɾ- | maɾaɾ- | ||
swim | *papaɾ | papa:ɾ-am | papa:ɾa-dɨɾ | papaɾ-dɛɾ | ||
bone | *naɾak | naɾa: | naɾaka | naɾak(˺) | ||
earth/ground | *tamagə | t(ʰ)ama:ga | tama:gə | tʰama(:)g | ||
mouth | *tawaɾ | tʰawaɾ | t(ʰ)awaɾ | tawa:ɾ | tʰawaɾ | |
hand | *saga | saga: | sakoa [er] | |||
feather | *gawaɾ | gawaɾ | gawaɾ | kawaɾ | kawaɾ | |
stomach | *ɣamaɾ | amaɾa [er] | kʰamaɾ | |||
… /*aCi/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*aCi | aCi [aCi(:)] | aCi [aCi(:)] | aCi [aCi(:)] | aCi [aCi(:)] | aCi [aCi(:)] | |
fish | *awi | aᵘ | aᵘwi ≈ awi | aᵘ:wi | a:wi | |
good | *masi | masi:- | masi:- | masi:- | masi(:)- | |
forehead | *apiɾ | ap(ʰ)i(:)ɾa | api:ɾa ≈ apʰiɾə | |||
people | *anim | ani | anima | ani(:)m | anim | |
meat | *aɾin | aɾi:n | aɾi:n | |||
snake | *manig | mani:g | manit˺ ≈ mani(:) | manik˺ | manik˺ | |
boy | *pasiw | pasi: | masiu [sic] | p(ʰ)asip˺ | pasiᵘ | pasiu |
eye | *baɾid | baɾi:d | baɾit˺ ≈ baɾi | paɾit˺ | pʰaɾit˺ | |
men's house | *daɾim | daɾi:m | taɾi:mə | taɾi:m(a) | ||
elbow | *kakip | kʰakʰi:p | kʰakʰip | k(ʰ)ak(ʰ)ipa | kakip | kʰakʰip |
tusk | *kaɾit | kʰaɾitʰ | kʰaɾit | k(ʰ)aɾi(:)ta | kaɾi:tə | kʰaɾitʰ |
sugarcane | *ɣatim | kati:m | ati:ma |
… /*aCu/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*aCu | aCu [aCu(:)] | aCu [aCu(:)] | aCu [aCu(:)] | aCu [aCu(:)] | aCu [aCu(:)] | |
eat | *tamu | t(ʰ)amu(:)-ma | tamu:-m | tamu(:)-m | ||
woman | *anum | anu(:)ma | anu:m | anu:m | ||
basket | *aɾus | j-aɾu:s | aɾu:s | aɾu:sɨk̚ | aɾu:s(a) | |
cough | *ɣabudə | abu:d | kʰabud | abu(:)da | apu:də | apu:d |
short | *ɣasub | kʰasub-dag | asu:-dɨg | asu:-dɨg |
… /*aCe/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*aCe | aCe [aCe(:)] | aCe [aCe(:)] | aCe [aCe(:)] | aCe [aCe(:)] | aCe [aCe(:)] | |
no | *a[i]je | aijɛ | aje | aije | aijɛ | |
man | *anem | anɛ: | ane(:)ma | ane:m | anɛ:m | |
old woman | *ab₂eɾ | abɛ:ɾ | asɨbɛɾ | ausabeɾ | aᵘsabe:ɾ | asubɛ:l |
wing | *aget | age:t | age(:)ta | ake:ta | akɛ:ta ≈ akɛ:tʰ | |
laugh | *awedə | aᵘwɛd | ewe(:)da | ewe:da | ewe:d ≈ ewɛ:d | |
old man | *kadeɾe | kʰadɛɾɛ | kadɛ:ɾ | k(ʰ)adeɾɛ ≈ kʰadeɾe | kʰadeɾe | kadɛɾe ≈ kadɛ:ɾɛ |
stick (n.) | *kaɾeə | k(ʰ)aɾia | kʰaɾe | kʰaɾea |
… /*aCo/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*aCo | aCo [aCo(:)] | aCo [aCo(:)] | aCo | aCo [aCo(:)] | aCo [aCo(:)] | |
girl | *kakoə | kʰakʰo | kakoa | kako: | kʰakʰo: | |
walk | *awoɾ[o] | awoɾo-m | auɾo-m | awoɾ(o)-ma | awo:ɾə-m | awoɾ(ə)-m |
moon/sun | *manom | mano:m | manom | mano:m | ||
chin | *magot | mago:t | mako:t | mako:tʰ | ||
foot | *magoɾ | magoɾ | mako:ɾ | |||
bird | *dawod | dawu:d | daᵘwo ≈ dauwo | tawot˺ | taᵘwot˺ |
… /*iCa/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*iCa | iCa | aCa | iCa | |||
sand | *ninaɣai | ni:naⁱ | nanaɢaⁱ | |||
axe | *jiɣaɾ | jakaɾ | dzeaɾ ≈ dʒiaɾ ≈ ziaɾ |
… /*uCa/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*uCa | uCa [uCa:] | uCu | uCu | uCa[oCo uCʷa] | ||
fat/grease | *muɾaɾ | muɾa:ɾ | muɾuɾ | muɾuɾ | moɾoɾ ≈ muɾwaɾ |
… /*eCa/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*eCa | eCa | eCa [e:Ca] | eCa | eCa | ||
not | *epa | e(:)pa | epa | |||
yam | *eɾaw | ɛɾaᵘ | ɛɾaᵘb | ɛɾaᵘ |
… /*oCa/ …:
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*oCa | oCa | oCa [oCa(:)] | oCa | |||
hot | *totaɾ | totaɾ-ga | tota:ɾ-dɨg | totaɾə-dɨg ≈ totaɾɨ-dɨg |
||
ear | *towap | tʰowap ≈ towap˺ ≈ toap | tuəp˺ | tʰuəp˺ ≈ tuap˺ |
…vowel sequences ….
…
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*ei | ||||||
seed | *nein | nene [er] | neⁱn | nɛ:n | ||
banana | *seim | simɛ | seⁱma | |||
who/what? | *watei | wateⁱ ≈ wate(:) |
…
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*… | ||||||
older brother | *[ei/ai] | n-ai | j-i-tʰim | eⁱja ≈ z-ejɛ-tɛm ≈ dʒ-eja-ten | z-eⁱ-te:m | dz-eⁱ-tɛ(:)m |
…
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*ai | ||||||
belly | *ɾain | ɾaⁱn | ɾeina ≈ ɾeⁱjna | ɾaⁱna | laina ≈ ɾaina | |
leaf | *pasajə | pasaⁱ | pasaⁱja | pasaⁱ | pasaⁱ | |
wallaby | *paɾVwai | paɾuwaⁱ: | paɾoaⁱ ≈ paɾawaⁱ | |||
sand | *ninaɣai | ni:naⁱ | nanaɢaⁱ |
…
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*ao | ||||||
1 sg. | *naoɣ | noga | naᵘg | no: | no:gə | no:g |
2 sg. | *ɣaoɣ | oga | ɢaᵘg | o: | o:g | o:g |
1 pl. | *naoj | [gaⁱ] | nauz | nuin ≈ noⁱn | no:zə | no:z |
2 pl. | *jaoɣ | zoga | zaug | dʒo: ≈ dzo: | so:gə | so:g |
…
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*au | ||||||
fire | *j[i]au | jau: | dʒau | zaᵘ ≈ dʒaᵘ | ||
new | *au-ageə | aᵘwagi(j)a | aᵘwəgia | aᵘgɛ(:)(a) | ||
old woman | *aus-abeɾ | asɨbɛɾ | ausabeɾ | aᵘsabe:ɾ | asubɛ:l ≈ asubɛ:ɾ |
|
water | *mau[g/k]ə | maᵘg | maᵘka | maᵘka ≈ mauk | ||
shoulder | *paunə | paun | pʰaun | paᵘna | p(ʰ)aᵘn(a) | |
tree | *naukə | naᵘkʰa ≈ naukʰa | naᵘka | naᵘkʰ(a) | ||
blood | *nauɾə | naᵘɾa ≈ nauɾa | naᵘɾa | naᵘɾ(a) | ||
yam | *eɾaw | ɛɾaᵘ | ɛɾaᵘb | ɛɾaᵘ | ||
pig | *m[i/e]nawə | minaᵘ: | mena:wa | mɛnaᵘ | ||
cloud | *mogawə | mugaᵘ: | mogawa | mokaᵘ | mogaw ≈mogaᵘ |
…
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*ou | ||||||
charcoal/black | *ɣVdoum | daᵘm-ga | gudum-daɾ | doᵘm-doᵘm dom-dum |
…
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*ea | ||||||
path | *ewean | e:wan | ewijan- | |||
voice/speech | *meanə | meane [er] | meana | |||
dog | *diɾean | diɾæn | teɾean ≈ taɾean |
…unstressed final vowel ….
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam |
*… | |||||
*… |
…suffix on adjectives ….
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
-dag | -ga | -dɨg | -dɨg | |||
good | *masi | masi:-dag | masi:-ga | masi:-dɨg | masi(:)-dɨg | |
light/dry | *maɾaɾ | maɾaɾ-dag | maɾaɾ-ga | maɾaɾ-dɨg | ||
heavy/wet | *buduɾ | buduɾ-dag | buduɾ-ga ≈ buduɾ-gə | putu(:)ɾ-dɨg | putuɾ(ə)-dɨg ≈ putuɾɨ-dɨg |
|
hot | *totaɾ | totaɾ-ga | tota:ɾ-dɨg | totaɾə-dɨg ≈ totaɾɨ-dɨg |
||
bad | *suɾ | sul-dag | su:-ga | sə-su:ɾ-dɨg | susuɾ(ə)-dɨg | |
-gə | -ø | -dɨg | -dɨg | |||
one | *ɣoɾ[e]a[u][k] | oɾaᵘ-gə | kuɾa:s | oɾak˺ ≈ oɾag | oɾa-dɨg | oɾe(a)-dɨg |
-gə | -du | -ø | -(d)ɨg | -(d)ɨg | ||
two | *mis | misə-gə | mis-du | mi:ta ≈ mijita | mi:t-ɨg | mit-ɨg |
… This suffix is likely comparable to Upper Mbian Marind /-agV/ which appears on some adjectives, including “new” and “old”, where the quality of /V/ is determined by gender ablaut in agreement with qualified nominals (q.v. Drabbe 1954: 128-142):
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-ageə | -age-g | -agia | -agia | -gea ≈-agia(-g) | ||
new | *au-ageə | aᵘwagi(j)a | aᵘwəgia | aᵘgɛ(:)(a) | ||
old | *mane-ageə | manageg | maneagija | mena:gia | mena:gia(g) |
… including color terms …
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*-taɾ | ||||||
white | *padə | pʰa:d-aɾ | p(ʰ)ada-p(ʰ)ada | padə-təɾ | padə-taɾ | |
full | *kusu[k]is | kusu:s-taɾ | kusuisa | kusuks-taɾ | ||
red | *gai | gaⁱ-taɾ | kaⁱa-təɾ | kaⁱ(a)-t(ʰ)aɾ | ||
yellow | *guɾug | guɾu-guɾu(g) | guɾuk-taɾ | guɾuk-taɾ | ||
*-taɾ | ||||||
black | *ɣVdoum | daᵘm-ga | gudum-daɾ | doᵘm-doᵘm dom-dum |
Gender ablaut
[under construction]
…, with all attestations drawn from Jore (2002, Jore and Alemán 2002):
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
*e/*u/*i | e/u/i | e/u/i | e/u/i | e/u/i | e/u/i | |
man | *anem | anɛ: | ane(:)ma | ane:m | anɛ:m | |
woman | *anum | anu(:)ma | anu:m | anu:m | ||
people | *anim | ani | anima | ani(:)m | anim | |
particle (m.) | *te | te | te | te | te | te |
particle (f.) | *tu | tu | ||||
particle (pl.) | *ti | ti | ti | ti | ti | ti |
brother | *tem | -tʰim (?) | -tɛm ≈ -ten | -te:m | -tɛ(:)m | |
sister | *tum | -tum | -tum | -tu(:)m | ||
father | *we | a-wɛ: | i-wɛ | e-wija ≈ ɛ-wija | e-we: | ɛ-we: ≈ ɛ-wiɛ |
mother | *wu | dʒi-wu-nu:m | dʒi-(w)u-num |
….
Pronouns
Lower Fly River nominative pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with all attestations drawn from Jore and Alemán (2002: 48):
Lower Fly | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
1 sg. | *naoɣ | noga | naᵘg | no: | no:gə | no:g |
2 sg. | *ɣaoɣ | oga | ɢaᵘg | o: | o:g | o:g |
3 sg. | *igi | igi: | igi: | igia ≈ igi:a | iki:a | ikʰi: |
1 pl. | *naoj | [gaⁱ] | nauz | nuin ≈ noⁱn | no:zə | no:z |
2 pl. | *jaoɣ | zoga | zaug | dʒo: ≈ dzo: | so:gə | so:g |
3 pl. | *jiɣ | i:g | ji:g | dzi: | dʒi:g | zi:g ≈ zi:k |
It is possible that, in addition to these, there is a third person singular pronouns as there is in other Fly River subfamilies, which is simply not represented in the limited dataset available to us, as the standard survey forms of Jore (2002) do not contain sentances with feminine referents.
Verbal morphology
No information is available about the verbal morphology of any Lower Fly River language.
Loans to and from neighboring families
[under construction]
The languages of the the Lower Fly River have have interacted extensively with their neighbors, as evidenced by loanwords from, and probably to, five neighboring families, Pahoturi River, Aramia River, Kiwai, Tabo, and Wipi of the East Trans Fly family, as well as the distantly related Abom.
Abom …:
Lower Fly | Abom | |
yes | *ejo | *ejo |
sugarcane | *ajuabə | aja:b |
snake | *manig | manik˺ |
cloud | *mogawə | mogaᵘ |
breast | *bub | bu:b |
feather/wing | *bubu[s/k] | bubusa |
particle (m.) | *te | te |
smoke | *tem | tɛ:m |
mouth | *tawaɾ | tawaɾ |
vine/rope | *tauk | taᵘka: |
back | *din | di:na |
old man | *kadeɾe | kadeɾe |
knife | *giɾi | giɾi |
feather | *gawaɾ | gawaɾ |
belly | *ɾain | ɾe:n |
cough | *ɣabudə | abuda |
charcoal/black | *ɣVdoum | daᵘm-bun |
…:
Abom | Baramu | Bituri | |
arrow | asak | asak̚ | |
rat | pe:pʰ | pɛ:p | |
basket | saɾiba | saɾi:ba ≈ saɾi:bə | |
sun | kado: | kʰado |
Besides Abom, loans into Lower Fly River languages came from Aramia River (Gogodalan) across the Fly River to the north, Pahoturi River to the south, and Kiwai in the delta to the east.
Loans from Aramia River are least frequent in Bituri, due to its location south of the Fly. Several are only attested for Baramu (q.v. Riley 1931-1932: 172-189):
Aramia | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
fishhook | *aɾiage | aɾiaga [er] | ||||
green coconut | *mudiɾa | mudiɾa [er] | ||||
back/bone | *boiga | baig | baⁱgə: | |||
hair | *tit[a/o] | tʰitʰi: | ||||
sun | *darigi | daɾi:k˺ | daɾik(˺) | |||
stone | *gewa | giwa | ||||
head | *ganabi | ganab | kanap | kʰanap˺ | ||
name | *gagi | gag | gag | kak | kʰakʰ | |
liver | *guana | guan | kwana | |||
canoe | *guawa | gwawa [er] | kwawa [jc] |
Additionally, some words have been loaned from Lower Fly River into Aramia River languages, with Aramia attestations drawn from Riley (1930-1931: 172-189):
Lower Fly | Waruna | Adiba | Gogodala | |
mouth/chin | *magot | magata | magata | magata |
lie down/sleep | *tene | tene | tene | tene |
vine/rope | *tauk | tou | tao | tao ≈ tauwo |
tusk | *kaɾit | kaɾita |
Loans from the Pahoturi River are most common in Were:
Pahoturi | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
know | *um… | umɾui | ||||
blood | *mVm | mæ:m | ||||
rat | *mVkat | makʰa:t | ||||
heavy/wet | *budVr | buduɾ- | buduɾ- | putu(:)ɾ- | putuɾ(ə)- | |
heart | *ti-kVp | ti-k(ʰ)ap(˺) | ti-kə:p | |||
cassowary | *dirVm | diɾim | ||||
dog | *dVrVŋ | diɾæn | teɾean ≈ taɾean | |||
pig | *simbel | sɛbɛ:ɾ | sabejaɾa | |||
louse | *… | … | ||||
eye | *ji[nd]-kVp | ʔin-dʒup | ||||
rain | *jVgol | ɛgo(:)ɾa | ||||
fire | *ju | jau: | dʒau | zaᵘ ≈ dʒaᵘ |
Loans from Kiwai are most common in Baramu (q.v. Shafer 1965: 316,) which is immediately adjacent to South Kiwai. Many are only attested for Baramu (q.v. Riley 1931-1932: 172-189, 175-194):
Kiwai | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
paddle | *aibi | aibi [er] | ||||
breast | *amo | a:m | ||||
P. raggiana | *amuɾa | amuɾa [er] | ||||
shark | *baidamo | baidamo [er] | ||||
cassowary | *diwaɾe | diwa:ɾɛ | diwoɾi | |||
men's house | *daɾimo | daɾi:m | taɾi:mə | taɾi:m(a) | ||
earth/ground | *sopu | o:pʰu: | ||||
head | *kepuɾu | kʰapuɾ | kapuɾ | |||
water/wet | *kobo | o:b | obo-daⁱ | opo:-taɾ | ||
pigeon sp. | *gimai | gimai [er] | ||||
bamboo pipe | *waduɾu | waduɾu [er] |
One high-profile shared with Kiwai is almost certainly a loan from Lower Fly River or a near relative thereof into Kiwai:
Fly River | Lower Fly | Kiwai | |
mouth/chin | *maŋgot | *magot | *magota |
… Tabo …:
Tabo | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam |
*… |
… Wipi of the East Trans Fly family …:
Wipi | Baramu | Were | Bituri | Giribam | Makayam | |
rain | *piro | pi:ɾə | pi:ɾa | |||
fish | *kabum | kʰabo:m |
…