East Timor
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
[under construction]
The East Timor family consists of four languages spoken in the northeastern portion of Timor and on the small island of Kisar just to the north.
Subclassification
[under construction]
The internal classification of East Timor is as follows (CITE):
East Timor
Makalero-Makasae
Makasae
Makalero
Fataluku-Oirata
Fataluku
Oirata
Sources
[under construction]
…
Historical phonology
[under construction]
Proto-East Timor had perhaps 15 consonants and 4 or 5 vowels as follows:
| *m | *n | ||
| *p | *t | *ts | *k |
| *b | *d | *dz | *g |
| *s | |||
| *l | |||
| *w | *r | *j |
| *i | *u | |
| *e | [*o] | |
| *a |
In addition to the simple vowels given above, two diphthongs are found as follows:
| *aⁱ | *aᵘ |
…
Our consonant values correlate to Mandala's (2010) proto-Oirata-Fataluku-Makasai and Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven's (2012, 2014) proto-Timor values as follows:
| Mandala | SHvE 2012 | SHvE 2014 | |
| *m | *m | *m | *m |
| *n | *n | *n | *n |
| *p | *p | *f | *f |
| *t | *t | *t *T | *t |
| *ts | *s | *s | — |
| *k- | *k | … | … |
| *-k- | *k | … | … |
| *b- | *p | *p | *p |
| *b₁- | *p | — | – |
| *b₂- | *p | *b | *b |
| *d- | *t | *d | — |
| *-d- | *t | *T | *T |
| *dz- | *t | *D | *D |
| *-dz- | *s | *D | *D |
| *g- | *k | *g | *g |
| *-g- | *ʔ | *k | *g |
| *s | *s | *s | *s |
| *w | *w | *w | *w |
| *l | *l | *l | *l |
| *r | *r | *r | *r |
| *j- | — | *D | *D |
| *-j- | — | — | — |
| *… | — | *h/_i | *j |
| [loans] | *… | *… | *g |
| [loans] | *… | *g | *… |
As seen above, Mandala's proto-Oirata-Fataluku-Makasai posits only voiceless stops and fricative /*p *t *k *ʔ *s/, with what are given here as voiced stops /*b *d *g *dz/ and affricate /*ts/ derived from these by a series of unexplained and unconditioned splits. Schapper, Huber and Engelenhoven's (2012, 2014) proto-Timor, not strictly proto-East Timor as it includes the more distantly-related Bunaq, avoids Mandala's conflations but stops short of discerning the phonological structure of the system, such that where there correspondences are valid their proposed values often need significant adjustment.
Initial consonants correspond as follows:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata |
| *m- | m | m | m | m |
| *n- | n | n | n | n |
| *p- | p/f | f | f | p |
| *t- | t | t | t | t |
| *ts- | s | h | s | s |
| *k- | k | k | k | k |
| *d- | d | d | c | d |
| *dz- | d | s | c | ø |
| *g- | g | k | ø | ø |
| *s- | s | h | h | ø |
| *w- | w | w | v | w |
| *l- | l | l | l | l |
| *r- | r | r | r | r |
| *j- |
Medial consonants correspond as follows:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata |
| *-m- | m | m | m | m |
| *-n- | n | n | n | n |
| *-p- | f | f | f | p |
| *-t- | t | t | t | t |
| *-ts- | s | s | s | s |
| *-k- | k | k | k | k |
| *-b- | f | f | p | h |
| *-d- | t | t | c | d |
| *-dz- | s | s | c | s |
| *-g- | ʔ | ʔ | ʔ | ʔ |
| *-s- | s | s | h | ø |
| *-w- | w | w | v | w |
| *-l- | l | l | l | l |
| *-r- | r | r | r | r |
| *-j- | ø | ø | j | j |
Final consonants correspond as follows:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata |
| *-m | n | m n | ||
| *-n | ø | n ø | n | n |
| *-p | ||||
| *-t | ø | ø | t ø | t |
| *-ts | ||||
| *-k | ø | k ø | k | ø |
| *-b | p | h | ||
| *-d | ||||
| *-dz | ||||
| *-g | ø | ʔ | ||
| *-s | ø | ø | h | ø |
| *-l | ø | l | l | l |
| *-r | ø | r ø | r ø | r |
Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata |
| *i | i | i | i | i |
| *u | u | u | u | u |
| *e | ||||
| *o | ||||
| *a | a | a | a | a |
| *aⁱ | aⁱ | eⁱ | e: | e: |
| *aᵘ | aᵘ | aᵘ | aᵘ | oː |
| *aCe | ||||
| *aCo |
Correspondences which have been found only in loans from Austronesian languages include:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata |
| *b₁- | f | f | p | h |
| *-b₁- | h | ? | ? | h |
| *b₂- | b | p | p | h |
| *g₂- | g | k | k | k |
| *-g₂- | g | k | ʔ | ʔ |
| *s₂ |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Makasae attestations drawn from Arnaud and Campagnolo (1997,) Makalero from Huber (2011,) Fataluku from Arnaud and Campagnolo (1997) and Oirata from de Josselin de Jong (1937) unless otherwise indicted. Makasae forms drawn from Sudiartha, Budiasa, Partami and Putra (1998) are indicated by [WS]. By coincidence, both Makasae forms from Huber (2008) and Fataluku forms drawn from Hewitt (n.d.) are indicated by [JH]. Fataluku from drawn from Heston (2015) is indicated by [TH]. Some cognates attested only in Makasae and in Makalero or in Fataluku and Oirata are listed here, even though these may not in all instances date to proto-East Timor, because they are useful to help illustrate several key correspondences.
Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *m- | m | m | m | m | *m | |
| next to/follow | *mini | mini | mini | minj- | — | |
| sit (sg.) | *mit | mi | mit | mir(-e) | mir(-e) | *mit |
| go up/above | *midza | misa | misa | mica | — | |
| vex/ruin | *mila | mila [JH] | mila | — | ||
| up/above | *medV | mece | mede, medai | — | ||
| palate/throat | *meduk | mecik(-u) [JH] | meduk | — | ||
| loud sound | *meg[e] | meʔe [JH] | meʔe(-n) | — | ||
| easy | *mapes | mafeh-e | mapeh-e | — | ||
| neck/throat | *mani | mani- | mani | mani- | mani | — |
| fruit | *mana | mana | mana | — | ||
| clew | *matar | matar(-u) | matar | *matar [14] | ||
| Pterocarpus sp. | *matari | mater [AS] | mater | matari-a [FLP] | *ma(t,T)ar | |
| eat (intr.) | *made | mace | mede | — | ||
| fear | *masan | masan | mahan-e | man-e | — | |
| voice | *mag | maʔ-a | — | |||
| hang (tr.) | *wajak-magi | vaja-maʔi | waja-maʔi | — | ||
| hear/know | *magen | maʔene | maʔen | *make(n) | ||
| likeness | *magar[o] | maʔar(-u) | maro | — | ||
| come | *magu | maʔu | maʔu | maʔu | maʔu | — |
| cross-cousin | *mali | mali | mali | mali | mali | — |
| narrow/tight | *malet | málet-e | malet-e | — | ||
| spicy/bitter | *malar | malar(-e) | malar(-e) | — | ||
| outside | *malu | malu | malu | — | ||
| broad/wide | *malu-ara | malar(a) | malu-er-e [JH] | malu-ara | — | |
| forget | *malup | maluf(-e) | malp-e | — | ||
| go | *mara | mara | mara | mara | mara | *mara |
| raptor sp. | *maja[n] | mai | majan | — | ||
| child | *m[a/o]d[a/o] | mata | mata | moco | modo | *moTo |
| swallow | *motsVl | mosal | mosil-e | — | ||
| lose/lost | *molu | molu [AC] | molu | molu [JH] | mul-e | — |
| lay down | *mor | mor-e [JH] | mor-e | — | ||
| laugh at | *moru | moru | moru | — | ||
| smell | *mu | a-mu- | (a-)mu-e | — | ||
| nose | *munik | muni | mini | minik(-u) | — | |
| torch | *muti | muti | mutu | mutu | — | |
| inside | *mudu | mutu | mutu | mucu | mudu | *mi |
| lick/suck | *mutsu[k] | mus | musu | musu ~ mus(-u)k-e | — | |
| mucus | *musi | musa | mihi | — | ||
| long time | *mugit | … | muʔit | … | [*mukir] | |
| earth/ground | *muga | muʔa | muʔa | muʔa | mua | *muka |
| banana | *mugu | muʔu | muʔu | muʔu | muː ~ mu | [*muku] |
Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *n- | n | n | n | n | *n | |
| mosquito | *nikin | niki | nikin(-u) [JH] | nikin | — | |
| flat/level | *ne[s/g]er | neʔer(-e) [JH] neher(-e) [FLP] | ne:r-e | — | ||
| chase away | *newur | neur-e | nour-e | — | ||
| follow/after | *ner | ner-e | ner-e | — | ||
| name | *naⁱ | nai | nei | ne: [JH] | ne:ne | *-nei |
| man/male | *nami | -nami | nami | nami | nami | — |
| but | *naba | napa []JH] | naha | — | ||
| snake sp. | *nana | nana | nana | nana | — | |
| older sibling | *nana | nana | — | |||
| stand (sg.) | *nat | na | nat | nat(-e) | nat-e | *nat |
| wedge | *nadi | naci [FLP] | nadi | — | ||
| stand (pl.) | *naser | nahara | naser | -neher(-e) | [*naser] | |
| breath | *nag | náʔ-e | naʔ(-e/a) | — | ||
| just/only | *nagu | naʔu | nau [FLP] | naʔu | — | |
| eat/drink | *nawa | nawa | nua | nava | nawa | *nua [14] |
| so/then | *nara | nara [JH] | nara | — | ||
| dig hole/grave | *naru | naru [JH] | naru-n-u | — | ||
| morning/morrow | *nob | nóp(-e) | noh-e | — | ||
| younger sibling | *noko | noko | noko | noko | noʔo | — |
| big/very (?) | *numu | numu | numu | numu | — |
Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is fricated to /f/ in Makase, Makalero and Fatalukku, being retained as /p/ only in Oirata:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *p- | f | f | f | p | *f | |
| palm/sole | *pele | fele | pele | — | ||
| delicious | *pani | fani | fani | fani | pan-e ~ pani- | — |
| female | *panar | -fana | fanar | -fanar(-u) | panar | *fana |
| face/front | *panu | fanu | fanu | fanu [JH] | panu | *fenu |
| thigh/lap | *patu | fatu | fatu- [JH] | patu | — | |
| swell | *patu | fatu | fatu [JH] | — | ||
| cooked | *patu | fatu | patu | — | ||
| sneeze | *pasin | fasin(i) | fasin | fahin(-e) | — | |
| husk | *pasu | fasu | fasu | fahu | pau | — |
| make/do | *pagi | faʔi | pai | — | ||
| hold | *pal | (u)fal(-e) | pal(-e) | — | ||
| rattan whip | *palu | falu [FLP] | palu | — | ||
| bean | *popon | fofon [JH] | popon | — | ||
| blunt | *polo | folo [JH] | polo | — | ||
| grass/weeds | *pojes | foeh(-u) | poje | — | ||
| termite | *putu | futu [JH] | putu | — | ||
| meat/muscle | *pusu | fusu [WS] | fuhu [JH] | — | ||
| sprout/seed | *pula | fula | pula | — | ||
| spit/spittle | *pulum | fulun | fulum(-e) [VA] fulun(-i/u) [JH] | *fulu(k,n) [14] |
Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *t- | t | t | t | t | *t | |
| hot/fever | *timin | timin(-e) | tim(i)n(-i) | — | ||
| suck/suckle | *tim[i/e]ts | timis(-e) | times-e | — | ||
| run | *tipar | tifar(-e) | tipar-e | *tifar | ||
| dry | *titil | titil | titil(-e) | titl-(e) | — | |
| drum sp. | *titir | titir(-u) [FLP] | titi(:)r(i) | — | ||
| flea | *tikuwa | tíkua | tikua | — | ||
| heavy | *tigir | tiʔir(i) | tiʔir | ciʔir(-e) (?) | tiʔir- | [*Tiʔir] |
| trample | *tigal | tiʔal | tiel-e [FLP] | tial-e ~ tiel-e | — | |
| peel (v.) | *tila[k] | tilaka | tila | — | ||
| bite/chew | *tija | tia | tia | tia | — | |
| break/part | *tepel | tefel(-e) | tepel(-e) [JH] | — | ||
| break down | *tepu | tefu | tepu-e [JH] | — | ||
| mountain | *t[e]ber | teher(-e) | — | |||
| test/measure | *teg[e] | teʔe(-n(-e)) | teʔe | — | ||
| stab/pound | *tapa | tafa | tafa | tafa | tapa | [*tafa] |
| true | *tabi[r] | tafiru | tafi | tapi(r(-u)) | tahi | — |
| wake | *tan[i/e] | tane | tane | tani | *Tani | |
| right (side) | *tanen | tane | tanen | tenen(-u) | tenen | [*tanen] |
| hand/arm | *tana | tana | tana | tana | tana | *tana |
| meet/find | *tatan | tatan(-e) | tatan-e | — | ||
| half c. shell | *towo-takur | to-takur(-u) [JH] | to-tokur | — | ||
| axe/adze | *taga | taʔa | taʔa | taʔa | ta | — |
| count | *taga | taʔa | taʔa | — | ||
| ten | *taga-n | taʔán-e | taʔan | — | ||
| increase | *tawa | tava(n-(e)) [JH] | tawa(-n) | — | ||
| fence | *tari | tari [JH] | tari | — | ||
| beginning | *tara | tara [FLP] | tara | — | ||
| male (bird) | *taralewu | -taraleu | taraleu | — | ||
| rattan/rope | *taru | taru | taru | taru | — | |
| bury | *taru[n] | taru(nu) | taru | — | ||
| lie down/sleep | *taja | taʔe ~ tae | tia | taja | taja | *tia® |
| split | *totol | totol-(e/-u) [JH] | totol-(e) | — | ||
| crowd | *towur | tour(-e/-u) [FH] | tour(-u) | — | ||
| bellows | *towo-towo | toto [FLP] | towotowo | — | ||
| break | *towot | tot(-e) [FLP] | toːte | — | ||
| that (?) | *tu | tu | tu | — | ||
| woman/sister | *tubur | tufu | tufur | tupur(-u) | tuhur(-u) | — |
| roll up/fold | *tunu | tunu [JH] | tunu | — | ||
| drink | *tutu | tutu | tutu | — | ||
| like/desire | *tutu | tutu | tutu | tutu | — | |
| post/pole | *tutu | tutu [FLP] | tutu | — | ||
| poke hole/plant | *tug | tuʔ-e | tu-e | — | ||
| help | *tulun | tulun | tulun- [JH] | tuln-e | — |
Initial laminal voiceless affricate /*ts/ is reflected as fricative /s/ [s h] in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *ts- | s | h | s [s h] | s | *s | |
| tie/bind | *tsil | hil ~ -sil | i-sil-e | — | ||
| burden/carry | *tsem[a/o]n | seman(-a) | heman ~ -seman | somon-e ~ homon(-e) | somon(-e) | — |
| carve/sharpen | *tsets | ses-e | ses-e | — | ||
| deshell | *tsek | sek-e | sek-e | — | ||
| pull/draw | *tsejil | heil ~ -seil | seil-e [JH] | seil-e | — | |
| wither/wilt | *tsatsak | sasak(-e) | sasak-e | *sasar | ||
| rust | *tsagi | saʔ-e | sai(j-e:) | — | ||
| finish/end | *tsaji[l] | haiʔ ~ saiʔ | sai | (sai-)sail-e | — | |
| fish sp. | *tsunu | sunu [FLP] | sunu | — | ||
| mucus | *tsuwun | sun-e [JH] | suːn(-u) | — |
Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all descendants. All of these words are suspected of ultimately being loans from local Austronesian because West Bomberai initial /*k/ was dropped in proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar; however these roots appear to have been established in the protolanguage and no alternative etymologies have yet been identified:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *k- | k | k | k | k | — | |
| mushroom | *kiri-kiri | kiri-kiri | kiri-kiri [JH] | -kiri-kiri | — | |
| cricket | *k[i/e]la | kela | -kila | — | ||
| stem | *kete | kete | kete | — | ||
| knock fruit | *kegil | keili | keʔil(-e) | keit-e (?) | — | |
| stairs/ladder | *keger | keʔer(-u) | ke:r-e | — | ||
| laugh | *k[aⁱ]l | kel-e | ke:l-e | — | ||
| fragment | *kapi[gi] | kafiʔina [JH] | kapi | — | ||
| bad | *kabar | kapar(-e) | kahar(-e) | — | ||
| thirsty | *kagats | kás(-e) | kaːs(-e/-a) | — | ||
| burst/explode | *kagun | ka(ʔ)un(-e) [JH] | kaun(-e/-u) | — | ||
| scratch/dig | *kawur | kaur(u) | kaur | kaur(-e) | kaur(-e) | — |
| tired/fatigued | *kajar | kaiar-e [JH] | kajar(-e/-a) | — | ||
| wall/box | *kodo | koco | kodo | — | ||
| dark | *kowun | koun(-u) | koun-e | — | ||
| embrace | *kolew | kolev-e [JH] | kolew-e | — | ||
| unripe | *koron | koron-e [JH] | koron(-e) | — | ||
| cook/steam | *kurukets | kurukes-e [JH] | kurukes-e | — |
Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ …
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *b- | p | h | *b | |||
| lie (n.) | *biri | piri | hir-e | — | ||
| liar | *biri-n | piri-n(u) | hire-n | — | ||
| leaf | *bira | -pira | hira | — | ||
| take care of | *bijabara | piapara [JH] | hiahara | — | ||
| strong | *betel | petel-e [JH] | hetel-e | — | ||
| father | *ba[l] | pal(-u) | ha(-le) | — | ||
| great g.parent | *babu | papu | hahu | — | ||
| bedbug | *banatika | panatika | hanatia | — | ||
| pain/disease | *banak | panak(-e) | hanak panak(-e) (?) | — | ||
| hold/join (?) | *bal | pal-e | (ha-)hal-e | — | ||
| lacking | *bali | pali | hali(n-(i)) | — | ||
| wind | *bari | pari | hari | *beri | ||
| partition | *bobon | popon-u [JH] | hohon | — | ||
| mango sp. | *bajas | pajah(-u) | haja | — | ||
| blister | *bokel[er] | pokeler-e [JH] | hokol(-e) | — | ||
| hang/droop | *bowol | pol-e [JH] | hoːl-e | — | ||
| lap/groin | *bolo | polo | holo | — | ||
| boil/cook | *b[o/u]s | poh-e | hu-je | — | ||
| sated | *boreg | poreʔ(-e) | hore | — | ||
| surround | *boron | poron-e | horon- | — | ||
| bunch/bundle | *borot | porot [JH] | horot(-e) | — | ||
| calf/forearm | *buna | puna [JH] | huna | — | ||
| ridgepole | *buwigina | puiʔina | huiːna | — | ||
| weevil | *buruk | puruk(-u) | huruk | — |
Loans from Austronesian languages … /*b₁/ … /*b₂/ … The correspondence shown here as /*b₁/ is much less common than is /*b₂/, but is designated as /*b₁/ because it matches the reflexes of native medial /*b/, while /*b₂/ matches those of a medial correspondence which is likewise found only in loans (below.) From this one might conclude that the former are of more ancient origin, except that one of them is from Portuguese /pombo/, so another explanation must be found.
… /*b₁/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *b₁- | f | f | p | h | — | |
| pigeon sp. | [*b₁ab₁o] | faho | hoho | — | ||
| cross-cousin | [*b₁agin] | fai | fain | paʔin(-u) | hain(-i) | — |
… /*b₂/ …
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *b₂- | b | p | p | h | *b | |
| goat | [*b₂ib₂i] | bibi | pipi | pipi | hihi | — |
| copper | [*b₂ira] | bira | pira | hira | — | |
| mat | [*b₂[a]iti] | biti | piti | pét(-u) | he:t(e) | *biti [14] |
| bamboo sp. | [*b₂etun] | betu | petun | petun(-u) | hetun | — |
| cucumber sp. | [*b₂ab₂…as] | baboras | hahula | — | ||
| ginger sp. | [*b₂anarika] | banarika | panarika | — | ||
| divide/share | [*b₂ati] | bati | pati | pati | hati | — |
| candle | [*b₂adu] | badu | padu | pacu | — | |
| beat clothes | [*b₂asal] | basal(a) | pasal | pahal-e | haːl-e | — |
| wife's parent | [*b₂ag₂in] | bagi | paːkin | paʔin(-u) | — | |
| dry season | [*b₂ar[i/e]r] | barere | pare | parir(-e) | harir | — |
| widow | [*b₂a[l/r]u] | baru | paːr- | paru [JH] | halu ~ haru | — |
| pig | [*b₂aji] | bai | pai | pai | hai | *baj |
| trunk of tree | [*b₂ata] | bata | pata | pata | hata | — |
| wrap/wind | [*b₂or[o]] | por ~ pora | poro-poro [JH] | horo | — | |
| *b₂… | ||||||
| sell/price | [*b₂ura] | bura | pura | pura | bura | *bura |
One example with initial /*b₂/ has undergone irregular metathesis:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *b₂- | b | p | h | — | ||
| crow sp. | [*b₂akua] | kaba | kapua ~ pakua [FLP] | hakua | — |
Initial apical voiced stop /*d/ is retained as such in Makasae, Makalero and Oirata but devoiced and palatalized in Fataluku to /c/, merging with the reflex of laminal affricate /*dz/ (below):
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *d- | d | d | c | d | *d | |
| winnow/grind | *didik | cicik-e [JH] | didk-e | — | ||
| pick/harvest | *dida | cica | dida | — | ||
| frog | *dila | dila | dila | cila | dila | — |
| sit (pl.) | *d[i/u]gar | diʔa(ra) | diar | cuar(-e) | [*diar] | |
| call/answer | *der | der | cer(-u) [JH] | der(-u) | ||
| partner(s) | *deren | ceren(-u) | deren | — | ||
| pandanus sp. | *de[ji]n[i] | deini | cén(-u) | — | ||
| hair of head | *dagu | caʔu | dau | [*Dake] | ||
| flint | *dajin | cain(-e) [VA] cain(-u) [JH] | dain(i) | — | ||
| spear | *doro | coro | doro | — | ||
| bamboo sp. | *dudu[g] | cucu [JH] ~ cucuʔ-e [VA] | dudu | — | ||
| wake up | *duwur | dur | dur | cur(-e) [JH] | duːr(-e) | — |
| finish/end | *dula | dula | cula [JH] | dula | — |
Initial laminal voiced affricate /*dz/ is uncommon. It observes correspondences similar to those of both apical stop /*d/ (above) and fricative /*s/ (below,) yielding /d/ in Makasae but /s/ (not [h]) in Makalero, and /c/ in Fataluku but zero in Oirata, indicating /*dz/ in both subgroups of East Timor:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *dz- | d | s | c | ø | *D | |
| flower | *dzibi | cipi | ihi | — | ||
| wife | *dza | da | sa | — | ||
| head/hair | *dzage | daʔe | saʔe | [*Dake] | ||
| eel sp. | *dzuwan | cuan [JH] | uan | — | ||
| rat/mouse | *dzura | dura | sura | cura | ura | *Dura |
The quality of the Fataluku-Oirata consonant is confirmed by a loan from … Another loan from an unknown source, “pineapple”, likewise indicates initial /*dz/:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *dz- | c | ø | — | |||
| pineapple | [*dzeden] | cecen [JH] | eden | — | ||
| needle | [*dzarum] | cárum-a | arum-a | — |
Initial velar voiced stop /*g/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. |
| *g- | g | ø | ø | ||
| *… |
There is also an initial velar voiced stop correspondence found only in loans which we show here as /*g₂/. …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | ||
| *g₂- | g | k | k | k | — | ||
| cold | [*g₂agar] | gaʔar(a) | kaʔar | kaʔar(-e) | — | ||
| sugar | *… | [*g₂ula] | kula | — |
Initial laminal voiceless fricative /*s/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *s- | s | h | h | ø | *s | |
| plait | *sina | sina [AS] | hina [AS] | hina | ina | *sina |
| tie/bind | *sil | hil | hil-u [FLP] | iːl(-e) | — | |
| trap/snare | *sili | hili [JH] | iːl(i) | — | ||
| above/upon | *siga | hiʔa | ia(-a) | — | ||
| pay | *sijar | hiar(-e) | iar(-e) | — | ||
| pour out/cast | *seber | heper-e [JH] | eher-e | — | ||
| Ficus sp. | *sama | sama | hama | hama | [*sama] | |
| half | *sapar | -hafarika | apr-a | — | ||
| snake | *saba | hapa | — | |||
| Aleurites sp. | *sag[i/e] | sae | haʔi | ai | — | |
| sharp/point | *sagat | haʔat-e [JH] | aʔat(a) ~ aat-e | — | ||
| hunt | *sawar | havar-e [JH] | waːr-e | — | ||
| place/room | *saliwana | halivana [JH] | aluana | — | ||
| war | *sala | sala | hala | hál(-u) ~ halú | aːl(-a) | — |
| bone | *s[a/o]p[a/o] | safa | hafa | hafa | opo | [*safa] |
| Pandanus sp. | *so | so | ho | — | ||
| heap/pile | *sobu | hopu [JH] | uhu | — | ||
| wild/bush | *soto | hoto | oto | — | ||
| tusk/horn | *soru | soru | horu | horu | urʔru (?) | — |
| yes | *so[wo] | ho | oː | — | ||
| steam/vapor | *sumVn | humain(-u) [JH] | umoun | — | ||
| crown of head | *sunut | hunut | unut(-u) | — | ||
| spirit | *sutu | hutu | utu | — | ||
| thorn | *suku | huku | uku | — |
One example has an initial indistinguishable from /*s/, but it is a loan from Tetum /ho/ “with” (Huber 2011: 556):
| Tetum | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| h- | h | h | ø | — | ||
| with | ho | ho | ho | o | — |
… /*s₂/ … loans …:
| Tetum | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| s₂- | — | |||||
| gourd spp. | [*s₂eb₂u] | sebu ~ -hebu | sepu | sepu | — |
Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is occluded to labiodental /v/ in Fataluku and retained as /w/ elsewhere:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *w- | w | w [u] | v | w | *w | |
| peel/unhusk | *wira[k][u] | virak-e [JH] | wirau | — | ||
| stumble | *weter | veter(-u) | weter(-u) | — | ||
| shroud | *wetur | vetur(-e) [FLP] | wetur | — | ||
| edge/coast | *we[s]e | vehe [JH] | we(ʔ)e | — | ||
| left | *weli[k][a] | weli | ueli | vélika | welia | — |
| skin/bark | *wele | vele | wele | — | ||
| cave | *weraka | véraka | weraʔa | — | ||
| blood | *waⁱs | wai | uei | vehe | we | *waj |
| youngest | *waⁱsula | waihula | véhula | weula | — | |
| night | *wanat | vana [FLP] | wanat | — | ||
| coconut | *wata | wata | uata | vata | wata | *wa(t,D)a |
| sun | *wadu | watu | watu | vacu | wadu | *waTu |
| tooth | *wasin | wasi | wasi | vahin(-u) | wain | *wasi |
| bean sp. | *wasa | vaha ~ vaah-u [JH] | wa | *wa | ||
| wash | *wasu | vahu | wau | *weru | ||
| eel sp. | *wasu | wasu | vahu | — | ||
| deer | *waka | vaka | waka | — | ||
| pregnant | *wagi | vaʔi [FLP] | waʔi | — | ||
| carry on back | *wagit | waʔir(i) | vaʔit(-e) | wait-e | — | |
| basket/winnow | *wagat | vaʔat(-e) | waʔat | — | ||
| now/today | *wagadzi | waʔasi | vaci | wati (?) | — | |
| possess | *wa[ga]l[e] | uale | vál-e | waːl(-e) | — | |
| paddle/oar | *wajin | wain- | vain(-e/-u) [FLP] | wain | — | |
| ear | *wali[k] | walakuː | uali | valik(-u) | wali | [*wali] |
| hear | *walig | waliʔi | ualiʔ ~ ualih | — | ||
| stone | *war | uar | uar- | *war | ||
| dew | *war | vari [JH] var-u [FLP] | war-a | — | ||
| hear | *war[i] | vari | war-e | — | ||
| nest | *wari | wari | uari | vari | wari | — |
| clean/clear | *warV[ts/s] | varese [JH] | wara ~ waːr-e | — | ||
| resin/juice | *waja | vaja | waja | — | ||
| hang | *wajak | vaiak(-e) [JH] vaia- | waja- | — |
Initial lateral non-stop /*l/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *l- | l | l | l | l | — | |
| bag/basket | *lita | lita [JH] | lita | — | ||
| sprinkle/drizzle | *liri | liri | liri(-liri) [JH] | lir-liri | — | |
| throw | *lijan | lian(a) | lien-e | len-e | — | |
| turn/transform | *lijar | liar(-e) | liar(-e) | — | ||
| flat | *leben | lepen(-e/u) [JH] | lehen(-e) | — | ||
| field | *leku | leku | leku | — | ||
| sing/song | *legul | leu | leu | leʔul(-e) | leul(-e/-u) | *le(k)u(l) [14] |
| spread out | *lewer | lever-e [JH] | lewer-u | — | ||
| man's sister | *leren | leren(-u) | leren(-e) | — | ||
| big | *lap[aji] | laf(ai) | lapai | — | ||
| many/much | *lapan | lafan(-e) | lapan(-e) | — | ||
| black | *lakuwar | lakuvar(e) | lauar(-e) | — | ||
| root | *larin | larin(-u) | larin(-i) | — | ||
| centipede | *larun | lalu- (?)td> | larun(-u) | larun | — | |
| long/deep | *losaji | lóhai | lowai | — | ||
| medicine | *logon | loʔon- | loːn(-e/-o) | — | ||
| fat/grease | *lolats | lola | lolos(-u) | lolos | — | |
| speak | *lolo | lol-in(i) | lolo(-ini) | lolo | — | |
| good | *lolo | lolo-n- | lolo(-n(-o)) | — | ||
| straight/level | *lolor | lolor(o) | lolor-e | lolor | — | |
| pond/puddle | *lori | lori | lori | — | ||
| speech/word | *luku | luku | luku | — | ||
| monkey | *luga | luʔa | luʔa | lua | — | |
| insect | *luga-luga | luʔa-luʔa | lua-lua | — |
Initial rhotic non-stop /*r/ is uncommon, and has not been found in words with Timor-Alor-Pantar etymologies. It is retained as such in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *r- | r | r | r | r | — | |
| cut/chop up | *rekits | rekis(-e) | reks-(e) | — | ||
| good | *raᵘ | rau | rau | rau | roː | — |
| hundred | *ras[a] | rasa | rasa | ráh(-u) | ra- | — |
| fry | *raka[ts/s] | rakas(-e/u) | raʔa-je | — | ||
| ancestral (?) | *ra[ga]ta | rata | rata | raːt(-a) | — | |
| shake | *rotso | roso [JH] | roso | — | ||
| already | *roso | roho(-n(-e)) | ro(-n) | — | ||
| stop/sit down | *ruwas | ruah-e | rua | — |
Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *j- | d | s | ø [i] | ø [i] | *D | |
| dog | *j[e]bar | defa | sefar | ipar(-u) | ihar(-a) | *Depar |
Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-m- | m | m | m | m | *m | |
| red | *imir | imi ~ imir(i) | imir | mimir- | mimir- ~ memr- | — |
| think/remember | *ederemu | eceremu | ederemu | — | ||
| breast | *ami | ami | *hami [14] | |||
| louse | *amin | ame | amin | (h)amin(-u) | amin | — |
| wing | *amir | amir(-u) | amir(-i) | — | ||
| swidden/garden | *ama[r] | ama | ama | *(u)mar | ||
| body | *amu | amu | amu | amu [JH] | amu | — |
| tuber sp. | *amu | amu | amu | — | ||
| yawn | *ag[i/e]mu | aʔimu | áemu | — | ||
| kiss | *umig | umuʔ-e | miʔ-e | — | ||
| who? | *uman[i] | uman(i) | uman(i) | — | ||
| spirit (living) | *umas | umas-uma | umahara | — | ||
| die | *umu | umu | umu | umu | umu | *-umV |
| man/male | *nami | -nami | nami | nami | nami | — |
| big/very (?) | *numu | numu | numu | numu | — | |
| hot/fever | *timin | timin(-e) | tim(i)n(-i) | — | ||
| suck/suckle | *tim[i/e]ts | timis(-e) | times-e | — | ||
| burden/carry | *tsem[a/o]n | seman(-a) | heman ~ -seman | somon-e ~ homon(-e) | somon(-e) | — |
| Ficus sp. | *sama | sama | hama | hama | [*sama] |
Medial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-n- | n | n | n | n | *n | |
| do/make | *-ini | g-ini | (k)-ini | *-inV | ||
| eye | *ina | ina | ina | ina | — | |
| give | *ina | ina | ina | *-inV | ||
| what? | *ina(-gi) | na-ʔi | ina | ina(-ʔi) | — | |
| sand/flour | *inuk | inu | inuk | inik(-u) | ini | — |
| see | *ena | ena | ena | — | ||
| one | *ukani | úkan(i) | auni ~ uani | *uneki [14] | ||
| next to/follow | *mini | mini | mini | minj- | — | |
| neck/throat | *mani | mani- | mani | mani- | mani | — |
| fruit | *mana | mana | mana | — | ||
| nose | *munik | muni | mini | minik(-u) | — | |
| bedbug | *banatika | panatika | hanatia | — | ||
| pain/disease | *banak | panak(-e) | hanak panak(-e) (?) | — | ||
| calf/forearm | *buna | puna [JH] | huna | — | ||
| ridgepole | *buwigina | puiʔina | huiːna | — | ||
| delicious | *pani | fani | fani | fani | pan-e ~ pani- | — |
| female | *panar | -fana | fanar | -fanar(-u) | panar | *fana |
| face/front | *panu | fanu | fanu | fanu [JH] | panu | *fenu |
| snake sp. | *nana | nana | nana | nana | — | |
| older sibling | *nana | nana | — | |||
| wake | *tan[i/e] | tane | tane | tani | *Tani | |
| right (side) | *tanen | tane | tanen | tenen(-u) | tenen | [*tanen] |
| hand/arm | *tana | tana | tana | tana | tana | *tana |
| roll up/fold | *tunu | tunu [JH] | tunu | — | ||
| fish sp. | *tsunu | sunu [FLP] | sunu | — | ||
| plait | *sina | sina [AS] | hina [AS] | hina | ina | *sina |
| place/room | *saliwana | halivana [JH] | aluana | — | ||
| crown of head | *sunut | hunut | unut(-u) | — | ||
| night | *wanat | vana [FLP] | wanat | — |
Medial bilabial voiceless srop /*p/ is, like inital /*p/ (above,) fricated to /f/ in Makasae, Makalero and Fataluku:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-p- | f | f | f | p | *f | |
| worm/grub | *ipi | ifi | ipi | — | ||
| fall | *ipa | ifa [JH] | ipa | — | ||
| 1 pl. incl. | *api-i | fi-ø [AC] pi-ø [JH] | fi-ø | afi-ø | api-ø | — |
| dream | *upar(-ena) | ufar-ena | ofar-ana | ufar-ana | upar(-ana) | *ufar(ana) [14] |
| foam/froth | *uput | ufut- | uput(u) | — | ||
| easy | *mapes | mafeh-e | mapeh-e | — | ||
| bean | *popon | fofon [JH] | popon | — | ||
| run | *tipar | tifar(-e) | tipar-e | *tifar | ||
| break/part | *tepel | tefel(-e) | tepel(-e) [JH] | — | ||
| break down | *tepu | tefu | tepu-e [JH] | — | ||
| stab/pound | *tapa | tafa | tafa | tafa | tapa | [*tafa] |
| half | *sapar | -hafarika | apr-a | — | ||
| bone | *s[a/o]p[a/o] | safa | hafa | hafa | opo | [*safa] |
| fragment | *kapi[gi] | kafiʔina [JH] | kapi | — | ||
| big | *lap[aji] | laf(ai) | lapai | — | ||
| many/much | *lapan | lafan(-e) | lapan(-e) | — |
Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-t- | t | t | t | t | *t | |
| bottom/deep | *itim | itin(-e) [JH] | itim ~ itin(i) | — | ||
| tortoise sp. | *itib | itip(-u) | itih | — | ||
| near | *ita | ita | ita(-a) | — | ||
| three | *itu | -itu | itu | utu(-e) [JH] | utu | — |
| misplace | *ete | ete- [JH] | ete | — | ||
| tree | *ate | ate | ate | ete | ete | *hote |
| chop/chop up | *atar | atar(-e) | atar(-e) | — | ||
| excrement | *atu | atu | atu | atu [JH] | atu | *a[t, D]u [14] |
| draw water | *otu | -utu | -otu | utu | utu | — |
| bean | *[o/u]t[e/a] | uta | uta | ote | *uTa | |
| weave | *uta | uta | ita | — | ||
| cover | *uta | uta- [JH] | uta | — | ||
| block/cover | *utu | -utu | utu- [JH] | utu | — | |
| clew | *matar | matar(-u) | matar | *matar [14] | ||
| Pterocarpus sp. | *matari | mater [AS] | mater | matari-a [FLP] | *ma(t,T)ar | |
| torch | *muti | muti | mutu | mutu | — | |
| thigh/lap | *patu | fatu | fatu- [JH] | patu | — | |
| swell | *patu | fatu | fatu [JH] | — | ||
| cooked | *patu | fatu | patu | — | ||
| termite | *putu | futu [JH] | putu | — | ||
| strong | *betel | petel-e [JH] | hetel-e | — | ||
| bedbug | *banatika | panatika | hanatia | — | ||
| dry | *titil | titil | titil(-e) | titl-(e) | — | |
| drum sp. | *titir | titir(-u) [FLP] | titi(:)r(i) | — | ||
| meet/find | *tatan | tatan(-e) | tatan-e | — | ||
| split | *totol | totol(-e/u) [JH] | totol(-e) | — | ||
| drink | *tutu | tutu | tutu | — | ||
| like/desire | *tutu | tutu | tutu | tutu | — | |
| post/pole | *tutu | tutu [FLP] | tutu | — | ||
| wild/bush | *soto | hoto | oto | — | ||
| spirit | *sutu | hutu | utu | — | ||
| stem | *kete | -kete | kete | — | ||
| stumble | *weter | veter-u | weter-u | — | ||
| shroud | *wetur | vetur-e [FLP | wetur(-u) | — | ||
| coconut | *wata | wata | uata | vata | wata | *wa(t,D)a |
| bag/basket | *lita | lita [JH] | lita | — |
Medial laminal voiceless affricate /*ts/ is reflected as fricative /s/ [s] in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-ts- | s | s | s | s | *s | |
| go down | *itsi | isi | isa | isi | — | |
| roast | *itsa | -isa | -isa | isa | isa | — |
| prawn | *atsi | asi | asi | asi | — | |
| leaf | *atsa[p] | asa | hasa | asa | asah ~ asa | [*hasa] |
| swallow | *motsVl | mosal | mosil-e | — | ||
| lick/suck | *mutsu[k] | mus | musu | musu ~ mus(-u)k-e | — | |
| wither/wilt | *tsatsak | sasak(-e) | sasak-e | *sasar | ||
| shake | *rotso | roso [JH] | roso | — |
…:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-[ts/s]- | s | ø | — | |||
| clean/clear | *warV[ts/s] | varese [JH] | wara ~ waːr-e | — | ||
| fry | *raka[ts/s] | rakas(-e/u) | raʔa-je | — |
Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such except in Oirata, where it is sporadically reflected as glottal stop [ʔ] or zero. Schapper, Huber and van Engelenhoven (2012, 2014) do not recognize this correspondence:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-k- | k | k | k | k [k ʔ ø] | — | |
| digging stick | *ika | ika | ika | — | ||
| armpit | *ilikuwa[r] | ilikuara [FLP] | ilikua | — | ||
| one | *ukani | úkan(i) | auni ~ uani | *uneki [14] | ||
| bedbug | *banatika | panatika | hanatia | — | ||
| blister | *bokel[er] | pokeler-e [JH] | hokol(-e) | — | ||
| mosquito | *nikin | niki | nikin(-u) [JH] | nikin | — | |
| younger sibling | *noko | noko | noko | noko | noʔo | — |
| flea | *tikuwa | tíkua | tikua | — | ||
| half c. shell | *towo-takur | to-takur(-u) [JH] | to-tokur | — | ||
| thorn | *suku | huku | uku | — | ||
| cook/steam | *kurukets | kurukes-e [JH] | kurukes-e | — | ||
| cave | *weraka | véraka | weraʔa | — | ||
| deer | *waka | vaka | waka | — | ||
| field | *leku | leku | leku | — | ||
| black | *lakuwar | lakuvar(e) | lauar(-e) | — | ||
| speech/word | *luku | luku | luku | — | ||
| cut/chop up | *rekits | rekis(-e) | reks-(e) | — | ||
| fry | *raka[ts/s] | rakas(-e/u) | raʔa-je | — |
Medial bilabial voiced stop /*b/ … :
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-b- | f | f | p | h | *p | |
| *-be | — | |||||
| star | *ibi | fi | ifi | ipi | ihi | ipi-bere |
| fly (v.) | *ibil | ipil(-e) | ihil(-e) | — | ||
| tongue | *ibul | ifi- | ifil | ipil(-u) | uhul | *ipul |
| fish | *abi | afi | afi | api | ahi | *api |
| rock | *aba | afa | afa [AS] | apa | -aha | *apa |
| carry/with | *abur | -afu [AS] | (k)-afu | apur [JH] | ahur-e | [*-apu] |
| no/not | *ube | upe | uhe | — | ||
| sugarcane | *uba | ufa | ufa | upa | uha | *upa |
| complete | *ubas | upah(-e) [JH] | uha | — | ||
| back | *ubu | upu | uhu | — | ||
| fly (n.) | *ubur | ufu | uful (?) | upur(-u) | uhur | — |
| take care of | *bijabara | piapara [JH] | hiahara | — | ||
| great g.parent | *babu | papu | hahu | — | ||
| partition | *bobon | popon-u [JH] | hohon | — | ||
| but | *naba | hapa [JH] | naha | — | ||
| mountain | *t[e]ber | teher(-e) | — | |||
| true | *tabi[r] | tafiru | tafi | tapi(r(-u)) | tahi | — |
| woman/sister | *tubur | tufu | tufur | tupur(-u) | tuhur(-u) | — |
| new | *[ts/s]ubar | sufa | hofar | *(t,s)ifa | ||
| pour out/cast | *seber | heper-e [JH] | eher-e | — | ||
| snake | *saba | hapa | — | |||
| heap/pile | *sobu | hopu [JH] | uhu | — | ||
| flower | *dzibi | cipi | ihi | — | ||
| bad | *kabar | kapar(-e) | kahar(-e) | — | ||
| flat | *leben | lepen(-e/u) [JH] | lehen(-e) | — | ||
| dog | *j[e]bar | defa | sefar | ipar(-u) | ihar(-a) | *Depar |
… /*b₂/ … found only in loans:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-b₂- | b | p | p | h | ||
| water buffalo | [*arab₂au] | arabau | arapou | — | ||
| heart | [*uwa-b₂oku[r]] | wa-boku | ua-poku | — | ||
| cucumber sp. | [*b₂ab₂…] | baboras | hahula | — | ||
| drum sp. | [*tib₂al] | tiba | tipal | tipal(-u) | tihal(-a) | — |
| calm/quiet | [*teb₂ar] | tepar | teper-e [FLP] | teher(-e) | — | |
| citrus sp. | [*tsab₂uraka] | saburaka | sapu | sapuraka | sahuraki | — |
| gourd spp. | [*s₂eb₂u] | sebu ~ -hebu | sepu | sepu | — |
Medial apical voiced stop /*d/ is devoiced and merged with /t/ in Makasae and Makalero and palatalized to /c/ in Fataluku, being retained as /d/ only in Oirata:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-d- | t | t | c | d | *T/*D | |
| foot/leg | *idi | iti | — | |||
| also | *ede | -ete | éce | ede | — | |
| think/remember | *ederemu | eceremu | ederemu | — | ||
| contact | *ada | -ata [AS] | -ata(ʔ) | aca | ada | *-aTa |
| fire | *ada | ata | ata | aca | ada | *haTa |
| sorcerer | *adar | acar-e [JH] | adar | — | ||
| cuscus | *adur | acur-u [JH] | adur(-u) | *(a)Dura | ||
| hit/affect | *odo | oco [JH] | odo | — | ||
| plantation | *odo | oco | odo | — | ||
| kill | *uda | -uta | uta | uca | uda | *-uTa |
| egg | *udu | ucu | udu | *uTa | ||
| up/above | *medV | mece | mede, medai | — | ||
| palate/throat | *meduk | mecik(-u) [JH] | meduk | — | ||
| eat (intr.) | *made | mace | mede | — | ||
| child | *m[a/o]d[a/o] | mata | mata | moco | modo | *moTo |
| inside | *mudu | mutu | mutu | mucu | mudu | *mi |
| wedge | *nadi | naci [FLP] | nadi | — | ||
| winnow/grind | *didik | cicik-e [JH] | didk-e | — | ||
| pick/harvest | *dida | cica | dida | — | ||
| bamboo sp. | *dudu[g] | cucu [JH] ~ cucuʔ-e [VA] | dudu | — | ||
| wall/box | *kodo | koco | kodo | — | ||
| sun | *wadu | watu | watu | vacu | wadu | *waTu |
Medial laminal voiced affricate /*dz/ is realized, like voiceless /*ts/ (above,) as voiceless fricative /s/ in Makasae, Makalero and Oirata but, like apical stop /*d/ (above,) as palatal /c/ in Fataluku:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-dz- | s | s | c | s | *D | |
| heart | *idza | isa | ica | isa | — | |
| some/part of | *idza | ica [JH] | isa | — | ||
| smother | *edze | ece | ese | — | ||
| see/look | *adzi | aci | asi | *aDa | ||
| bird/fowl | *adza | asa | asa | aca | asa | *haDa |
| beeswax | *udzu | usu | usu | ucu | usu | *wiDu(n) |
| ask for | *udzut | ucut-e [JH] | ust-e | — | ||
| go up/above | *midza | misa | misa | mica | — | |
| now/today | *wagadzi | waʔasi | vaci | wati (?) | — |
Medial velar voiced stop /*g/ is reflected as glottal stop /ʔ/ and sporadically realized as zero in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-g- | ʔ [ʔ ø] | ʔ [ʔ ø] | ʔ [ʔ ø] | ʔ [ʔ ø] | *k/*g/*ʔ | |
| what? | *ina-gi | na-ʔi | ina-ʔi | — | ||
| laugh | *ig[e/a] | iʔa ~ hiʔa [JS] | hiʔe ~ -niʔe | *hika | ||
| laugh | *ig[a] | iʔa ~ iʔe ~ iʔi | hiʔe | *hika | ||
| path | *iga[r] | iʔa | hiʔa | iʔa | ia® | *hika |
| yawn | *ag… | agan(a) | akan | aʔimu | áemu | — |
| two | *age | -aʔe | eʔe-n | — | ||
| bite | *agel | g-aʔele [JS] | k-aʔel | *gakel | ||
| steal | *agots | (k)-ako (?) | oʔos(-e) | aʔoj-e | — | |
| mouth | *[a/o]g[a/o] | aʔa | haʔa ~ -haa | oʔo | oʔo | *aka® |
| raw/green | *ugur | uʔur(u) | uʔur-eke | uʔur(-aka) | *ugar | |
| loud sound | *meg[e] | meʔe [JH] | meʔe(-n) | — | ||
| hang (tr.) | *wajak-magi | vaja-maʔi | waja-maʔi | — | ||
| hear/know | *magen | maʔene | maʔen | *make(n) | ||
| likeness | *magar[o] | maʔar(-u) | maro | — | ||
| come | *magu | maʔu | maʔu | maʔu | maʔu | — |
| long (time) | *mugit | … | muʔit | … | [*mukir] | |
| earth/ground | *muga | muʔa | muʔa | muʔa | mua | *muka |
| banana | *mugu | muʔu | muʔu | muʔu | muː ~ mu | [*muku] |
| make/do | *pagi | faʔi | pai | — | ||
| ridgepole | *buwigina | puiʔina | huiːna | — | ||
| just/only | *nagu | naʔu | nau [FLP] | naʔu | — | |
| heavy | *tigir | tiʔir(i) | tiʔir | ciʔir(-e) | tiʔir- | [*Tiʔir] |
| trample | *tigal | tiʔal | tiel-e [FLP] | tial-e ~ tiel-e | — | |
| axe/adze | *taga | taʔa | taʔa | taʔa | ta | — |
| count | *taga | taʔa | taʔa | — | ||
| ten | *taga-n | taʔán-e | taʔan | — | ||
| sit (pl.) | *d[i/u]gar | diʔa(ra) | diar | cuar(-e) | [*diar] | |
| hair of head | *dagu | caʔu | dau | [*Dake] | ||
| above/upon | *siga | hiʔa | ia(-a) | — | ||
| Aleurites sp. | *sag[i/e] | sae | haʔi | ai | — | |
| sharp/point | *sagat | haʔat-e [JH] | aʔat(a) ~ aat-e | — | ||
| rust | *tsagi | saʔ-e | sai(j-e:) | — | ||
| head/hair | *dzage | daʔe | saʔe | [*Dake] | ||
| knock fruit | *kegil | keili | keʔil(-e) | keit-e (?) | — | |
| stairs/ladder | *keger | keʔer(-u) | ke:r-e | — | ||
| thirsty | *kagats | kás(-e) | kaːs(-e/-a) | — | ||
| burst/explode | *kagun | ka(ʔ)un(-e) [JH] | kaun(-e/-u) | — | ||
| pregnant | *wagi | vaʔi [FLP] | waʔi | — | ||
| carry on back | *wagit | waʔir(i) | vaʔit(-e) | wait-e | — | |
| basket/winnow | *wagat | vaʔat(-e) | waʔat | — | ||
| now/today | *wagadzi | waʔasi | vaci | wati (?) | — | |
| sing/song | *legul | leu | leu | leʔul(-e) | leul(-e/-u) | *le(k)u(l) [14] |
| medicine | *logon | loʔon- | loːn(-e/-o) | — | ||
| monkey | *luga | luʔa | luʔa | lua | — | |
| insect | *luga-luga | luʔa-luʔa | lua-lua | — | ||
| keep | *riga | riʔa | ria | ria | — |
A correspondence shown here as /*g₂/ is found only in loans; here Makasae and Makalero retain occlusion as /g k/ respectively while Fataluku … :
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-g₂- | g | k | ʔ | *g | ||
| sour/acid | *…g₂… | agah(a) | akah(-e) | aʔa-je | — | |
| wife's parent | *b₂ag₂in | bagi | paːkin | paʔin(-u) | — | |
| difficult | *seg₂e | sege | heke ~ -seke | heʔe | — | |
| look for | *sag₂a | saga ~ haga | haka ~ -saka | haʔa | *saga |
Medial laminal voiceless fricative /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/ in Fataluku and dropped entirely in Oirata:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-s- | s | s | h | ø | *s | |
| hope/wait | *isir | ihir-e [JH] | iːr-e | — | ||
| fruit/seed | *isu | isu | isu | — | ||
| pus/infection | *asin | ahin- | ain | — | ||
| for | *-asu | (k)-asu | ahu- ~ hau [JH] | *-asu | ||
| fear | *masan | masan | mahan-e | man-e | — | |
| mucus | *musi | musa | muhi | — | ||
| sneeze | *pasin | fasin(i) | fasin | fahin(-e) | — | |
| husk | *pasu | fasu | fasu | fahu | pau | — |
| meat/muscle | *pusu | fusu [WS] | fuhu [JH] | — | ||
| tooth | *wasin | wasi | wasi | vahin(-u) | wain | *wasi |
| bean sp. | *wasa | vaha ~ vaah-u [JH] | wa | *wa | ||
| wash | *wasu | vahu | wau | *weru | ||
| eel sp. | *wasu | wasu | vahu | — | ||
| cut | *lasi | lasi [AS] | lasi | laʔi [AS] | lai [AS] | [*lasi] |
| long/deep | *losaji | lóhai | lowai | — | ||
| already | *roso | roho(-n(-e)) | ro(-n) | — |
One example in which word-medial /*s/ is deoccluded to /h/ in Makasae may reflect a compound of /*waⁱs/ “blood” and /*ula/ “tail;” here Makasae would have dropped final /*s/ in isolation (below):
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | ||
| *-s- | h | h | ø | — | |||
| youngest | *waⁱsula | waihula | véhula | weula | — | ||
… bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-w- | ||||||
| penis | *awa | awa | ava | aua | — | |
| eat/drink | *nawa | nawa | nua | nava | nawa | *nua [14] |
| increase | *tawa | tava(n-(e)) [JH] | tawa(-n) | — | ||
| hunt | *sawar | havar-e [JH] | waːr-e | — | ||
| spread out | *lewer | lever-e [JH] | lewer-u | — |
… /*w/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-w- | ||||||
| above/below | *uwa | g-ua | (k)-uaʔ ~ (k)-ua- | ua | ua(-a) | — |
| hang/droop | *bowol | pol-e [JH] | hoːl-e | — | ||
| ridgepole | *buwigina | puiʔina | huiːna | — | ||
| chase away | *newur | neur-e | nour-e | — | ||
| flea | *tikuwa | tíkua | tikua | — | ||
| male (bird) | *taralewu | -taraleu | taraleu | — | ||
| bellows | *towo-towo | toto [FLP] | towotowo | — | ||
| break | *towot | tot(-e) [FLP] | toːte | — | ||
| crowd | *towur | tour(-e/-u) [FH] | tour(-u) | — | ||
| wake up | *duwur | dur | dur | cur(-e) [JH] | duːr(-e) | — |
| mucus | *tsuwun | sun-e [JH] | suːn(-u) | — | ||
| eel sp. | *dzuwan | cuan [JH] | uan | — | ||
| place/room | *saliwana | halivana [JH] | aluana | — | ||
| scratch/dig | *kawur | kaur(u) | kaur | kaur(-e) | kaur(-e) | — |
| dark | *kowun | koun(-u) | koun-e | — | ||
| black | *lakuwar | lakuvar(e) | lauar(-e) | — |
Medial lateral non-stop /*l/ is retained as such in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-l- | l | l | l | l | *l | |
| rock | *ili | ili | ili | ili | — | |
| navel | *ilu | ilu | ilu | ulu [JH] | ulu | — |
| cold | *elew[e] | éleve | elewe | — | ||
| again | *ali | -ali- | al(i) | ali | — | |
| small bird | *olo | olo | olo | olo | — | |
| tail | *ula | ula | ula | ula- | ula- | *ula(ʔ) |
| vex/ruin | *mila | mila [JH] | mila | — | ||
| cross-cousin | *mali | mali | mali | mali | mali | — |
| narrow/tight | *malet | málet-e | malet-e | — | ||
| spicy/bitter | *malar | malar(-e) | malar(-e) | — | ||
| outside | *malu | malu | malu | — | ||
| broad/wide | *malu-ara | malar(a) | malu-er-e [JH] | malu-ara | — | |
| forget | *malup | maluf(-e) | malp-e | — | ||
| lose/lost | *molu | molu [AC] | molu | molu [JH] | mul-e | — |
| palm/sole | *pele | fele | pele | — | ||
| rattan whip | *palu | falu [FLP] | palu | — | ||
| blunt | *polo | folo [JH] | polo | — | ||
| sprout/seed | *pula | fula | pula | — | ||
| spit/spittle | *pulum | fulun | fulum(-e) [VA] fulun(-i/u) [JH] | *fulu(k,n) [14] | ||
| taboo | *[p/b₁]alun | falun [AS] | falun | *falu(n) | ||
| lacking | *bali | pali | hali(n-(i)) | — | ||
| lap/groin | *bolo | polo | holo | — | ||
| peel (v.) | *tila[k] | tilaka | tila | — | ||
| male (bird) | *taralewu | -taraleu | taraleu | — | ||
| help | *tulun | tulun | tulun- [JH] | tuln-e | — | |
| frog | *dila | dila | dila | cila | dila | — |
| finish/end | *dula | dula | cula [JH] | dula | — | |
| trap/snare | *sili | hili [JH] | iːl(i) | — | ||
| place/room | *saliwana | halivana [JH] | aluana | — | ||
| war | *sala | sala | hala | hál(-u) ~ halú | aːl(-a) | — |
| cricket | *k[i/e]la | kela | -kila | — | ||
| laugh | *k[aⁱ]l | kel-e | ke:l-e | — | ||
| embrace | *kolew | kolev-e [JH] | kolew-e | — | ||
| left | *weli[k][a] | weli | ueli | vélika | welia | — |
| skin/bark | *wele | vele | wele | — | ||
| youngest | *waⁱsula | waihula | véhula | weula | — | |
| ear | *wali[k] | walakuː | uali | valik(-u) | wali | [*wali] |
| hear | *walig | waliʔi | ualiʔ ~ ualih | — | ||
| fat/grease | *lolats | lola | lolos(-u) | lolos | — | |
| speak | *lolo | lol-in(i) | lolo(-ini) | lolo | — | |
| good | *lolo | lolo-n- | lolo(-n(-o)) | — | ||
| straight/level | *lolor | lolor(o) | lolor-e | lolor | — |
Medial rhotic non-stop /*r/ is retained as such in all descendants:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-r- | r | r | r | r | *r | |
| urine | *iri | iri | irih (?) | iri | iri | — |
| forest | *irim | irin(-u) | irim(i) | — | ||
| old | *irim | irin-e [JH] | irim(i) | — | ||
| urinate | *irits | iris-e [JH] | ir(i)s-e | — | ||
| anus | *irik | irik(-u) [JH] | iri | — | ||
| water | *ira | ira | ira | ira | ira | *ira |
| chin | *ijara | iara [JH] | iara | — | ||
| liver | *ari | ari | ari | ari | — | |
| root | *arig | ari | ariʔ | — | ||
| base/stem | *ara | ara [JH] | ara | — | ||
| vagina/vulva | *aru | aru | aru | aru | *aru | |
| moon | *uru | uru | uru | uru | uru | *huru |
| Pterocarpus sp. | *matari | mater [AS] | mater | matari-a [FLP] | *ma(t,T)ar | |
| go | *mara | mara | mara | mara | mara | *mara |
| laugh at | *moru | moru | moru | — | ||
| lie (n.) | *biri | piri | hir-e | — | ||
| leaf | *bira | -pira | hira | — | ||
| take care of | *bijabara | piapara [JH] | hiahara | — | ||
| sated | *boreg | poreʔ(-e) | hore | — | ||
| surround | *boron | poron-e | horon- | — | ||
| bunch/bundle | *borot | porot [JH] | horot(-e) | — | ||
| weevil | *buruk | puruk(-u) | huruk | — | ||
| so/then | *nara | nara [JH] | nara | — | ||
| dig hole/grave | *naru | naru [JH] | naru-n-u | — | ||
| fence | *tari | tari [JH] | tari | — | ||
| beginning | *tara | tara [FLP] | tara | — | ||
| male (bird) | *taralewu | -taraleu | taraleu | — | ||
| rattan/rope | *taru | taru | taru | taru | — | |
| bury | *taru[n] | taru(nu) | taru | — | ||
| partner(s) | *deren | ceren(-u) | deren | — | ||
| spear | *doro | coro | doro | — | ||
| rat/mouse | *dzura | dura | sura | cura | ura | *Dura |
| tusk/horn | *soru | soru | horu | horu | urʔru (?) | — |
| mushroom | *kiri-kiri | kiri-kiri | kiri-kiri [JH] | -kiri-kiri | — | |
| cook/steam | *kurukets | kurukes-e [JH] | kurukes-e | — | ||
| unripe | *koron | koron-e [JH] | koron(-e) | — | ||
| peel/unhusk | *wira[k][u] | virak-e [JH] | wirau | — | ||
| cave | *weraka | véraka | weraʔa | — | ||
| nest | *wari | wari | uari | vari | wari | — |
| clean/clear | *warV[ts/s] | varese [JH] | wara ~ waːr-e | — | ||
| sprinkle/drizzle | *liri | liri | liri(-liri) [JH] | lir-liri | — | |
| man's sister | *leren | leren(-u) | leren(-e) | — | ||
| root | *larin | larin(-u) | larin(-i) | — | ||
| centipede | *larun | lalu- (?)td> | larun(-u) | larun | — | |
| pond/puddle | *lori | lori | lori | — |
Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-j-/a_a | j [i j] | j [i] | ||||
| rain | *aja | ae | ae | aja | aja | — |
| raptor sp. | *maja[n] | mai | majan | — | ||
| tired/fatigued | *kajar | kaiar-e [JH] | kajar(-e/-a) | — | ||
| resin/juice | *waja | vaja | waja | — | ||
| hang | *wajak | vaiak(-e) [JH] vaia- | waja- | — | ||
| lie down/sleep | *taja | taʔe ~ tae | tia | taja | taja | *tia® |
Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-j-/i_a | ø | ø | ø | |||
| chin | *ijara | iara [JH] | iara | — | ||
| take care of | *bijabara | piapara [JH] | hiahara | — | ||
| bite/chew | *tija | tia | tia | tia | — | |
| pay | *sijar | hiar(-e) | iar(-e) | — | ||
| throw | *lijan | lian(a) | lien-e | len-e | — | |
| turn/transform | *lijar | liar(-e) | liar(-e) | — | ||
| *-j-/a_i | ø | ø | ø | |||
| finish/end | *tsaji[l] | haiʔ ~ saiʔ | sai | (sai-)sail-e | — | |
| paddle/oar | *wajin | wain- | vain(-e/-u) [FLP] | wain | — | |
| long/deep | *losaji | lóhai | lowai | — |
… /*j/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-j- | ø | j | ||||
| grass/weeds | *pojes | foeh(-u) | poje | — |
Final consonants ….
Final bilabial nasal /*m/ is uncommon …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-m | n | n ~ m | m ~ n | *n | ||
| bottom/deep | *itim | itin(-e) [JH] | itim ~ itin(i) | — | ||
| forest | *irim | irin(-u) | irim(i) | — | ||
| old | *irim | irin-e [JH] | irim(i) | — | ||
| spit/spittle | *pulum | fulun | fulum(-e) [VA] fulun(-i/u) [JH] | *fulu(k,n) [14] |
Loans from Austronesian languages with root-final /*m/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-m | ø | n | m ~ n | m | — | |
| indigo | [*[t/d]arum] | daru | darunako | carun(-u) | taruma | — |
| needle | [*dzarum] | cárum-a | arum-a | — |
Final apical nasal /*n/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-n | ø | n ø | n | n | ||
| mosquito | *nikin | niki | nikin(-u) [JH] | nikin | — | |
| fear | *masan | masan | mahan-e | man-e | — | |
| bean | *popon | fofon [JH] | popon | — | ||
| partition | *bobon | popon-u [JH] | hohon | — | ||
| right (side) | *tanen | tane | tanen | tenen(-u) | tenen | [*tanen] |
| meet/find | *tatan | tatan(-e) | tatan-e | — | ||
| ten | *taga-n | taʔán-e | taʔan | — | ||
| help | *tulun | tulun | tulun- [JH] | tuln-e | — | |
| partner(s) | *deren | ceren(-u) | deren | — | ||
| mucus | *tsuwun | sun-e [JH] | suːn(-u) | — | ||
| eel sp. | *dzuwan | cuan [JH] | uan | — | ||
| steam/vapor | *sumVn | humain(-u) [JH] | umoun | — | ||
| burst/explode | *kagun | ka(ʔ)un(-e) [JH] | kaun(-e/-u) | — | ||
| dark | *kowun | koun(-u) | koun-e | — | ||
| unripe | *koron | koron-e [JH] | koron(-e) | — | ||
| tooth | *wasin | wasi | wasi | vahin(-u) | wain | *wasi |
| flat | *leben | lepen(-e/u) [JH] | lehen(-e) | — | ||
| man's sister | *leren | leren(-u) | leren(-e) | — | ||
| many/much | *lapan | lafan(-e) | lapan(-e) | — | ||
| root | *larin | larin(-u) | larin(-i) | — | ||
| centipede | *larun | lalu- (?)td> | larun(-u) | larun | — | |
| medicine | *logon | loʔon- | loːn(-e/-o) | — |
… /*n/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-n | n | n | n | n | *(n) | |
| hear/know | *magen | maʔene | maʔen | *make(n) | ||
| sneeze | *pasin | fasin(i) | fasin | fahin(-e) | — | |
| taboo | *[p/b₁]alun | falun [AS] | falun | *falu(n) | ||
| hot/fever | *timin | timin(-e) | tim(i)n(-i) | — | ||
| burden/carry | *tsem[a/o]n | seman(-a) | heman ~ -seman | somon-e ~ homon(-e) | somon(-e) | — |
| paddle/oar | *wajin | wain- | vain(-e/-u) [FLP] | wain | — | |
| throw | *lijan | lian(a) | lien-e | len-e | — |
Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-p | f | p | ||||
| forget | *malup | maluf(-e) | malp-e | — |
Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-t | ø | t | t | t | *t | |
| foam/froth | *uput | ufut- | uput(u) | — | ||
| narrow/tight | *malet | málet-e | malet-e | — | ||
| stand (sg.) | *nat | na | nat | nat(-e) | nat-e | *nat |
| bunch/bundle | *borot | porot [JH] | horot(-e) | — | ||
| break | *towot | tot(-e) [FLP] | toːte | — | ||
| sharp/point | *sagat | haʔat-e [JH] | aʔat(a) ~ aat-e | — | ||
| crown of head | *sunut | hunut | unut(-u) | — | ||
| night | *wanat | vana [FLP] | wanat | — | ||
| basket/winnow | *wagat | vaʔat(-e) | waʔat | — |
… /*t/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-t | r | t | t | *t | ||
| carry on back | *wagit | waʔir(i) | vaʔit(-e) | wait-e | — |
… /*t/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-t | ø | t | r | r | *t | |
| sit (sg.) | *mit | mi | mit | mir(-e) | mir(-e) | *mit |
Final laminal voiceless affricate /*ts/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-ts | ø | s | s | |||
| urinate | *irits | iris-e [JH] | ir(i)s-e | — | ||
| suck/suckle | *tim[i/e]ts | timis(-e) | times-e | — | ||
| carve/sharpen | *tsets | ses-e | ses-e | — | ||
| stairs/ladder | *keger | keʔer(-u) | ke:r-e | — | ||
| thirsty | *kagats | kás(-e) | kaːs(-e/-a) | — | ||
| cook/steam | *kurukets | kurukes-e [JH] | kurukes-e | — | ||
| fat/grease | *lolats | lola | lolos(-u) | lolos | — | |
| cut/chop up | *rekits | rekis(-e) | reks-(e) | — |
Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-k | ø | ø | k | k | ||
| palate/throat | *meduk | mecik(-u) [JH] | meduk | — | ||
| nose | *munik | muni | mini | minik(-u) | — | |
| pain/disease | *banak | panak(-e) | hanak panak(-e) (?) | — | ||
| weevil | *buruk | puruk(-u) | huruk | — | ||
| winnow/grind | *didik | cicik-e [JH] | didk-e | — | ||
| deshell | *tsek | sek-e | sek-e | — | ||
| wither/wilt | *tsatsak | sasak(-e) | sasak-e | *sasar |
… /*k/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-[k] | ø | k | ø | *ø | ||
| anus | *irik | irik(-u) [JH] | iri | — | ||
| ear | *wali[k] | walakuː | uali | valik(-u) | wali | [*wali] |
… /*k/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-[k] | ø | k | k | ø | — | |
| sand/flour | *inuk | inu | inuk | inik(-u) | ini | — |
Final bilabial voiced stop /*b/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-b | p | h | ||||
| tortoise sp. | *itib | itip(-u) | itih | — | ||
| morning/morrow | *nob | nóp(-e) | noh-e | — |
Final apical voiced stop /*d/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. |
| *-d | |||||
| *… |
Final laminal voiced affricate /*dz/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. |
| *-dz | |||||
| *… |
Final velar voiced stop /*g/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-g | ø | ʔ | ʔ | ʔ ø | — | |
| root | *arig | ari | ariʔ | — | ||
| kiss | *umig | umuʔ-e | miʔ-e | — | ||
| voice | *mag | maʔ-a | — | |||
| sated | *boreg | poreʔ(-e) | hore | — | ||
| breath | *nag | náʔ-e | naʔ(-e/a) | — | ||
| poke hole/plant | *tug | tuʔ-e | tu-e | — |
Final laminal fricative /*s/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-s | ø | ø | h | ø | — | |
| spirit (living) | *umas | umas-uma | umahara | — | ||
| complete | *ubas | upah(-e) [JH] | uha | — | ||
| grass/weeds | *pojes | foeh(-u) | poje | — | ||
| boil/cook | *b[o/u]s | poh-e | hu-je | — | ||
| blood | *waⁱs | wai | uei | vehe | we | *waj |
| stop/sit down | *ruwas | ruah-e | rua | — |
… /*s/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-s | ø | ø | h | ø | — | |
| betel pepper | [*malus] | malu | malu | maluh(-u) | malu | — |
… /*s/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-s | h | h | ||||
| easy | *mapes | mafeh-e | mapeh-e | — |
Final bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-w | v | w | ||||
| embrace | *kolew | kolev-e [JH] | kolew-e | — |
Final lateral non-stop /*l/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-l | ø | ø | l | l | ||
| strong | *betel | petel-e [JH] | hetel-e | — | ||
| hold/join (?) | *bal | pal-e | (ha-)hal-e | — | ||
| hang/droop | *bowol | pol-e [JH] | hoːl-e | — | ||
| break/part | *tepel | tefel(-e) | tepel(-e) [JH] | — | ||
| split | *totol | totol-(e/-u) [JH] | totol-(e) | — | ||
| sing/song | *legul | leu | leu | leʔul(-e) | leul(-e/-u) | *le(k)u(l) [14] |
… /*l/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-l | l | l | l | l | ||
| swallow | *motsVl | mosal | mosil-e | — | ||
| dry | *titil | titil | titil(-e) | titl-(e) | — | |
| trample | *tigal | tiʔal | tiel-e [FLP] | tial-e ~ tiel-e | — | |
| tie/bind | *tsil | hil ~ -sil | i-sil-e | — | ||
| tie/bind | *sil | hil | hil-u [FLP] | iːl(-e) | — | |
| knock fruit | *kegil | keili | keʔil(-e) | keit-e (?) | — |
Final rhotic non-stop /*r/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-r | ø | r ~ ø | r | r | *r | |
| red | *imir | imi | imir | mimir- | mimir- ~ memr- | — |
| carry/with | *abur | -afu [AS] | (k)-afu | apur [JH] | ahur-e | [*-apu] |
| fly (n.) | *ubur | ufu | uful (?) | upur(-u) | uhur | — |
| clew | *matar | matar(-u) | matar | *matar [14] | ||
| spicy/bitter | *malar | malar(-e) | malar(-e) | — | ||
| lay down | *mor | mor-e [JH] | mor-e | — | ||
| female | *panar | -fana | fanar | -fanar(-u) | panar | *fana |
| flat/level | *ne[s/g]er | neʔer(-e) [JH] neher(-e) [FLP] | ne:r-e | — | ||
| chase away | *newur | neur-e | nour-e | — | ||
| follow/after | *ner | ner-e | ner-e | — | ||
| run | *tipar | tifar(-e) | tipar-e | *tifar | ||
| drum sp. | *titir | titir(-u) [FLP] | titi(:)r(i) | — | ||
| mountain | *t[e]ber | teher(-e) | — | |||
| half c. shell | *towo-takur | to-takur(-u) [JH] | to-tokur | — | ||
| crowd | *towur | tour(-e/-u) [FH] | tour(-u) | — | ||
| woman/sister | *tubur | tufu | tufur | tupur(-u) | tuhur(-u) | — |
| sit (pl.) | *d[i/u]gar | diʔa | diar | cuar(-e) | [*diar] | |
| call/answer | *der | der | cer(-u) [JH] | der(-u) | ||
| pay | *sijar | hiar(-e) | iar(-e) | — | ||
| pour out/cast | *seber | heper-e [JH] | eher-e | — | ||
| half | *sapar | -hafarika | apr-a | — | ||
| hunt | *sawar | havar-e [JH] | waːr-e | — | ||
| bad | *kabar | kapar(-e) | kahar(-e) | — | ||
| tired/fatigued | *kajar | kaiar-e [JH] | kajar(-e/-a) | — | ||
| stumble | *weter | veter(-u) | weter(-u) | — | ||
| shroud | *wetur | vetur(-e) [FLP] | wetur | — | ||
| stone | *war | uar | uar- | *war | ||
| dew | *war | vari [JH] var-u [FLP] | war-a | — | ||
| turn/transform | *lijar | liar(-e) | liar(-e) | — | ||
| spread out | *lewer | lever-e [JH] | lewer-u | — | ||
| black | *lakuwar | lakuvar(e) | lauar(-e) | — | ||
| dog | *j[e]bar | defa | sefar | ipar(-u) | ihar(-a) | *Depar |
… /*r/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-r | r | r | r | r | *r | |
| red | *imir | imir(i) | imir | mimir- | mimir- ~ memr- | — |
| raw/green | *ugur | uʔur(u) | uʔur-eke | uʔur(-aka) | *ugar | |
| stand (pl.) | *naser | nahara | naser | -neher(-e) | [*naser] | |
| heavy | *tigir | tiʔir(i) | tiʔir | ciʔir(-e) (?) | tiʔir- | [*Tiʔir] |
| sit (pl.) | *d[i/u]gar | diʔara | diar | cuar(-e) | [*diar] | |
| wake up | *duwur | dur | dur | cur(-e) [JH] | duːr(-e) | — |
| scratch/dig | *kawur | kaur(u) | kaur | kaur(-e) | kaur(-e) | — |
| straight/level | *lolor | lolor(o) | lolor-e | lolor | — |
… /*r/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *-r | r | ø | r ø | ø | — | |
| true | *tabi[r] | tafiru | tafi | tapi ~ tapir(-u) | tahi | — |
Vowels and diphthongs …
High front vowel /*i/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. |
| *i | |||||
| *… |
High back rounded vowel /*u/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. |
| *u | |||||
| *… |
… /*i/ … /*u/ … suggest differences in stress which are otherwise unattested …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *ˈiCu | iCu | iCu | iCi | iCi | ||
| sand/flour | *ˈinuk | inu | inuk | inik(-u) | ini | — |
| *iˈCu | iCu | iCu | uCu | uCu | ||
| three | *iˈtu | -itu | itu | utu(-e) [JH] | utu | — |
| navel | *iˈlu | ilu | ilu | ulu [JH] | ulu | — |
| *ˈuCi | uCi | uCu | uCu | |||
| torch | *ˈmuti | muti | mutu | mutu | — | |
| *uˈCi | uCi | iCi | iCi | |||
| nose | *muˈnik | muni | mini | minik(-u) | — |
Mid front vowel /*e/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. |
| *e | |||||
| *… |
Mid back rounded vowel /*o/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. |
| *o | |||||
| *… |
… /*e/ … /*o/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. |
| *… | |||||
| *… |
Low central vowel /*a/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. |
| *a | |||||
| *… |
…:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *[a/o]C[a/o] | aCa | aCa | oCo | oCo | *aCa | |
| mouth | *[a/o]g[a/o] | aʔa | haʔa ~ -haa | oʔo | oʔo | *aka® |
Front rising diphthong /*aⁱ/ … These reflexes are distinct from those of sequence /*aji/ (above):
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *aⁱ | aⁱ | eⁱ | e: [e: e] | e: [e: e] | *ei *aj | |
| name | *naⁱ | nai | nei | nai [AC] ne: [JH] | ne:ne | *-nei |
| blood | *waⁱs | wai | uei | vehe | we | *waj |
| youngest | *waⁱsula | waihula | véhula | weula | — |
… loans … /*aⁱ/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *aⁱ | aⁱ | eⁱ [eⁱ e] | e: [e: e] | e: [e: e] | — | |
| bow/arrow | [*paⁱl] | fel | fel(-u) | pe:l(e) | — | |
| river | [*waⁱr] | wai(ri) | ueir | ver(-u) | wer- | — |
| house | [*laⁱ] | le | le ~ le: | — |
… /*aᵘ/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *aᵘ | aᵘ | aᵘ | aᵘ | oː | — | |
| good | *raᵘ | rau | rau | rau | roː | — |
… /*aᵘ/ …:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| *aᵘ | aᵘ | oː [oː o] | — | |||
| civet | [*laᵘ] | lau | lo [AC] loː [JH] | — |
Pronouns
[under construction]
… :
| base | oblique | alienable | emphatic 1 | emphatic 2 | |
| 1 sg. | *an | *an-i | |||
| 2 sg. | *a | *a-i | |||
| 3 sg. | ? | ? | |||
| 1 pl. excl. | *in | *in-i | |||
| 1 pl. incl. | *ap | *ap-i | |||
| 2 pl. | *i | *i-i | |||
| 3 pl. | *gi | *gi-i |
… with Makasae attestations drawn from Huber (2008: 26-28, q.v. Arnaud and Campagnolo 1997: 798-806, Sarmento 2005, Capell 1944: 317,) Makalero from Huber (2011: 218-227,) Fataluku from Heston (2015: 18-20) and Oirata from de Josselin de Jong (1937: 192-195, 199-pages):
…:
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | |
| 1 sg. | *an-i | an-i | an-i | a | an-i |
| 2 sg. | *a-i | a-i | e-i | e-ø | eː-i |
| 3 sg. | [*gi-i] | gi-ø | ki-ø-loː | tawa | ue-i |
| 1 pl. excl. | *in-i | in-i | in-i | in-i | in-i |
| 1 pl. incl. | *api-i | fi-ø [AC] pi-ø [JH] | fi-ø | afi-ø | api-ø |
| 2 pl. | *i-i | i-ø | i-ː | i-ø | i-i |
| 3 pl. | *gi-i | era | ki-ø-loː-raː | tawa-r | uaje-i |
… :
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | |
| 1 sg. | *… | ||||
| 2 sg. | *… | ||||
| 3 sg. | *… | ||||
| 1 pl. excl. | *… | ||||
| 1 pl. incl. | *… | ||||
| 2 pl. | *… | ||||
| 3 pl. | *… |
… :
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | |
| 1 sg. | *… | ||||
| 2 sg. | *… | ||||
| 3 sg. | *… | ||||
| 1 pl. excl. | *… | ||||
| 1 pl. incl. | *… | ||||
| 2 pl. | *… | ||||
| 3 pl. | *… |
… :
| East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | |
| 1 sg. | *… | ||||
| 2 sg. | *… | ||||
| 3 sg. | *… | ||||
| 1 pl. excl. | *… | ||||
| 1 pl. incl. | *… | ||||
| 2 pl. | *… | ||||
| 3 pl. | *… |
…
Verbal morphology
[under construction]
… verbalizing suffix …
…
… third person object …
…
… stem alternation … bound forms … Van Engelenhoven (2009: 337-338) and Huber (2011: 135-137) … Fataluku and Makalero respectively …
| East Timor | Makalero | Fataluku | +*-n- | East Timor | Makalero | Fataluku |
| *ø- | ø | ø | *-n-ø- | *-n- | n | ? |
| *p- | f | f | *-n-p- | *-b- | f | p |
| *t- | t | t | *-n-t- | *-d- | d | c |
| *ts- | h | s | *-n-ts- | *-dz- | s | c |
| *s- | h | h | *-n-s- | *-dz- | s | c |
These changes parallel the denasalization of West Bomberai prenasalized stops to plain voiced stops in Timor-Alor-Pantar and further confirm the relative values of our proto-East Timor consonants as outlined here. Presumably whatever difference might have existed between root-initial nasals /*m *n/ and voiced stops /*b *d *dz/ and their bound equivalents with preceding /*-n-/ would no longer be discernible. There is no /*-n-k-/ because Timor-Alor-Pantar has dropped West Bomberai root-initial /*k/.
Loans from Austronesian languages
[under construction]
… with Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP) and Central Malayo-Polynesian forms drawn from Blust (2013):
| PMP | East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| mother | *ina | [*ina] | ina | ina | ná-l(-u) | na(-le) | — |
| four | *əpat | [*pat] | fa ~ -há | fat | fát-e | pat(-a) | — |
| fat/oil | *miɲak | [*mina] | mina | mina | mina | — | |
| tide | *ma-qəti | [*meti] | meti | meti | meti [FLP] | meti | — |
| old | *ma-tuqah | [*matu] | -matu | matu | — | ||
| flying fox | *… | [*mad[a]] | maca | mada | *maTa [14] | ||
| salty | *ma-qasin | [*magat] | mataʔ | maʔat(-e) | maʔat(-e) | — | |
| loincloth | *malaw | [*mal] | mál(-u) | maːl(-a) | — | ||
| seven | *pitu | [*pitu] | fitu | fitu | fitu | pitu | — |
| feed | [*…] | *pan | fan | fan-e [JH] | pan-e | — | |
| seed | *binəhiq | [*w[i/e]n] | ven-u [JH] | win-u | — | ||
| boil (n.) | *bisul | [*wisul] | vihil(-u) [FLP] | wil | — | ||
| copper | *… | [*b₂ira] | bira | pira | hira | — | |
| bamboo sp. | *bətuŋ | [*b₂etun] | betu | petun | petun(-u) | hetun | — |
| pig | *babuj | [*b₂aji] | bai | pai | pai | hai | *baj |
| trunk of tree | *bataŋ | [*b₂ata] | bata | pata | pata | hata | — |
| cross-cousin | *… | [*b₁agin] | fai | fain | paʔin(-u) | hain(-i) | — |
| wife's parent | *… | [*b₂ag₂in] | bagi | paːkin | paʔin(-u) | — | |
| garden/swidden | *bala | [*bala] | pala | hala | — | ||
| pigeon sp. | *baluɡʲ | [*walur] | valur(-u) | walur | — | ||
| dry season | *… | [*b₂ar[i/e]r] | barere | pare | parir(-e) | harir | — |
| widow | *balu | [*b₂a[l/r]u] | baru | paːr- | paru [JH] | halu ~ haru | — |
| wrap/wind | *… | [*b₂or[o]] | por ~ pora | poro-poro [JH] | horo | — | |
| fruit | *buaq | [*uwan] | wa- | ua- | uan(-u) | uan- | — |
| sell/price | *… | [*b₂ura] | bura | pura | pura | bura | *bura |
| know | *… | [*nawar] | navar(-e) | nawar-e | — | ||
| drum sp. | *tibal | [*tib₂al] | tiba | tipal | tipal(-u) | tihal(-a) | — |
| calm/quiet | *… | [*teb₂ar] | tepar | teper-e [FLP] | teher(-e) | — | |
| gecko | *təktək | [*toke] | toke | toke | toke | toko | — |
| sea | *tasik | [*tasi] | tahi | tai | — | ||
| indigo | *taʁum | [*[t/d]arum] | daru | darunako | carun(-u) | taruma | — |
| half c. shell | *… | [*towo] | toː [JH] | to | — | ||
| deaf | *… | [*diku] | diku | ceu | diku | — | |
| wall | *… | [*sidin] | sidi | hir | *sirin | ||
| hearth | *dapuʁ | [*dap₂ur] | dafuru | dapur | capur-u [JH] | dapuru | — |
| hearth | *dapuʁ | [*lapur] | lafur(-u) | lapur(-u) | — | ||
| noble caste | *datu | [*ratu] | 'rata [AC] | ratu | ratu | ||
| nine | *siwa | [*tsiwa] | siwa | siua ~ siwa | siva | siwa | — |
| difficult | *… | [*seg₂e] | sege | heke ~ -seke | heʔe | — | |
| spoon/ladle | *sudu | [*sulV] | sulu [WS] | hulu | hula [JH] | ulia | *sula |
| spoon out | *sudu | [*usulew] | uhulev-e | ulew-e | — | ||
| needle | *dʒaʁum | [*dzarum] | cárum-a | arum-a | — | ||
| nail/claw | *… | [*kelets] | -keles(-u) | keles(-e) | — | ||
| skin | *kulit | [*ulit] | -uli | ulit ~ uli | — | ||
| breadfruit | *kuluʁ | [*[k]ulur] | kulu | ulur(-u) | kulur | — | |
| lime | *qapuʁ | *a[g]ur | aur(-u) [JH] | aʔur(u) | — | ||
| salt | *qasiʁa | [*gatsir] | asi ~ gasi | kasi | asir(-u) | asir | — |
| rain (v.) | *qudʒan | [*uta] | uta | -uta [JH] | -uta | — | |
| worm | *quləɡʲ | [*ura] | ura | ura | ura | — | |
| west | *habaʁat | [*warat] | varat-e [FLP] | warat(-a) | — | ||
| bee/honey | *wani | [*wani] | wani | uani | vani | wani | — |
| river | *wahiʁ | [*waⁱr] | wai(ri) | ueir | ver(-u) | wer- | — |
| five | *lima | [*lima] | lima | lima | lima | limi | — |
| sky | *laŋit | [*laⁱn] | nél(-u) | leːn(e) | — | ||
| go/walk | *lakaw | [*laga] | laʔa | laʔa | laʔa | *lakor | |
| fly (v.) | *… | [*lor] | lor [AS] | lor | *lore | ||
| moss/green | *lumut | [*lumur] | lumuru | lumur(-e) [FLP] | — | ||
| mortar | *lusuŋ | [*lutu] | lutu | lutu | — | ||
| thousand | *ʁibu | [*ri[h]un] | rihu(nu) | rihun | rehun(-u) | riun(u) | — |
| house | *ʁuma | [*uma] | uma | — |
Reflexes of Malayo-Polynesian /*b/ include /*b, *b₂ *w/, necessitating at least three distinct immediate sources for Malayo-Polynesian vocabulary, leading in some instances to doublets:
| PMP | East Timor | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | Schapper et al. | |
| cross-cousin | *… | [*b₁agin] | fai | fain | paʔin(-u) | hain(-i) | — |
| wife's parent | *… | [*b₂ag₂in] | bagi | paːkin | paʔin(-u) | — | |
| hearth | *dapuʁ | [*dap₂ur] | dafuru | dapur | capur-u [JH] | dapuru | — |
| hearth | *dapuʁ | [*lapur] | lafur(-u) | lapur(-u) | — |
…regional…with Tetun drawn from Morris (1984,) Tetun and Waima'a from Belo, Bowden, Hajek, Himmelmann and Tilman (1999: 11-78) and Maku'a from Sudana, Indra, Aridawati and Taum (1996: 65-83.) …:
| Tetun | Waima'a | Maku'a | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | |
| ivory | odas | ocoh-u [FLP] | odo | ||||
| sea/tide | meti | meti | meti | meti | meti | ||
| shadow | mahon | moː ~ mo | moː ~ mo | ||||
| betel pepper | malus | malu | malu | malu | maluh(-u) | malu | |
| greens | modo | modo | modo | modo | |||
| bedbug | nati | nati | panatika | hanatia | |||
| heart | fuan | wuo-boku | wa-boku | ua-poku | uan(-u) | uan-tapul | |
| goat | bibi | bibi | pipikewa | bibi | pipi | pipi | hihi |
| mat | biti | biti | biti | piti | pét(-u) | he:t(e) | |
| candle | badut | badu | badu | padu | pacu | ||
| palm wine | tua | tuo | tuʔa | tua | tua | ||
| wall | sidi | sidi | hir | ||||
| noble caste | dato | dato | 'rata [AC] | ratu | ratu | ||
| bell/gong | dadir | dadili | dadili | dadil | cacil(-u) | dadil-a | |
| gourd spp. | sebu | sebu ~ -hebu | sepu | sepu | |||
| citrus sp. | saburaka | saburaka | sap(u)rake(wa) | saburaka | sapu | sapuraka | sahuraki |
| look for | saga | saga ~ haga | haka ~ -saka | haʔa | |||
| pineapple | hedan | dei-dai | cecen | cecen [JH] | eden | ||
| crow sp. | kaoa ~ kaua | bau-kˀua | kaba | kapua ~ pakua [FLP] | hakua | ||
| eight | kaha | afo | afo | kafa | kapa | ||
| water buffalo | karau | karabau | arpowa | arabau | arapou | ||
| worm | ular | ulo | ura | ura | ura | ||
| house | uma | umo | uma | ||||
| bee/honey | uani ~ bani | wani | wani | uani | vani | wani | |
| house | laː-hai | le | le ~ le: | ||||
| crocodile | lafaek | lawahae | lavei | lawahae | lávei | laʔui | |
| mortar | lesu | lesun | lutu | lutu | |||
| moss/green | lumut | lumu | lumuru | lumur(-e) [FLP] | |||
| fence/wall | lutu | lˀutu | lutur | lutur(-u) | lut(u)r(-e) |
In at least few instances, Waima'a looks to have borrowed from East Timor:
| East Timor | Waima'a | |
| grass | *pojes | hae |
| name | *naⁱ | nai |
… Malay or Indonesian …:
| Indonesian | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | |
| kitchen | dapur | dafuru | dapur | capur-u [JH] | dapuru |
| needle | dʒarum | cárum-a | arum-a | ||
| sugar | gula | kula |
… Sanskrit via Malay or Indonesian…:
| Sanskrit | Indonesian | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | |
| horse | … | kuda | kuda | kuca | kuda |
… Sanskrit via Malay must be immediately from Waima'a, else Oirata /ala/ (cf. “needle” above):
| Sanskrit | Indonesian | Waima'a | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | |
| casting net | … | dʒala | dala | cala | dala |
… Portuguese … standard orthography …:
| Portuguese | Tetun | Waima'a | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | |
| oil | óleo | óleu | oli | voru | wuru | ||
| one | um | u | u ~ un | ||||
| pigeon sp. | pombo | pombu | bombu | faho | hoho | ||
| tobacco | tabaco | tabaku | tabaku | tabaku | ta(ː)paku | cápaku | |
| raise/care for | criar | kria | kria | ria [JH] | ria |
At least one comparison comes ultimately from Dutch (de Josselin de Jong 1937: 267):
| Dutch | Makasae | Makalero | Fataluku | Oirata | |
| arrow | pijl | fel | fel(-u) | peːl(e) |