Marind-Yakhai
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
The Marind-Yakhai family consists of as many as eight languages spoken in geographically separated enclaves along and inland from the southwest coast of New Guinea. The Yakhai (Yaqay, Jaqàj ) languages and Warkay-Bipim were separated from the Marind languages and from one another in recent times by the southward expansion of the only distantly related Awyu.
Subclassification
The internal classification of Marind-Yakhai is as follows:
Marind-Yakhai
Yakhai-Warkay
Warkay-Bipim
Yakhai
South Yakhai
North Yakhai
Marind
Mbian River Marind
Central Marind
Kumb River Marind
Southeast Marind
Atih Marind
West Marind
Voorhoeve (1968: 5, 1971: 93) gives lexicostatistics for Bian River Marind, Southeast Marind (Gawir,) Yaqay and Warkay as follows:
| Mbian | Gawir | Yaqay | Warkay | |
| Mbian | — | 67 | 30 | 12 |
| Gawir | 67 | – | 30 | ? |
| Yaqay | 30 | 30 | — | 29 |
| Warkay | 12 | ? | 29 | — |
The low Warkay figures suggest that Voorhoeve didn't account for loans into Warkay and/or gaps in the Warkay comparative vocabulary.
Sources
Nevermann (1940: 191-195) vocabulary of Enemur Sohur (North Yakhai)
Drabbe (1954: 73-98) grammar and (pp. 128-142) 428 comparative terms for Jaqàj (North Yakhai)
Voorhoeve (1971: 92-94) brief description and (pp. 110-114) 107 comparative terms for Warkay
Kainakainu, Paidi, Rinantanti and Morin (1998) phonology and (pp. 97-184) large comparative vocabulary of Yakhai (South Yakhai)
Kanakaimu (2000) Yakhai verbs (unobtained)
Kriens and Lebold (2010: 40-53) 239 comparative terms for Yaqay (North Yakhai) of Kogo, Kotup, Rayam, Wairu and Wanggate villages
Olsson (n.d.) vocabulary of Nambioman-Bapai (South Yakhai) (unobtained)
Historical phonology
[under construction]
Proto Marind-Yakhai had 17 consonants and perhaps 5 vowels: as follows:
| *m | *n | ||
| *p | *t | *k | |
| *b | *d | *g | |
| *mb | *nd | *ŋg | |
| *s | *h | ||
| *w | *ɾ | *j | *ɣ |
| *i | *u | |
| *e | *o | |
| *a |
Because there is so little Warkay data available to us, it's expedient to present Yakhai-Warkay alongside Marind-Yakhai, since the internal reconstruction of Yakhai-Warkay is largely dependent upon outcomparison to Marind.
Consonants correspond as follows:
| Mar.-Yakh. | Marind | Yakh.-War. | S. Yakhai | N. Yakhai | Warkay |
| *m | *m | *m | m | m | m |
| *n | *n | *n | n | n | n |
| *p- | *p | *p | f | p | ? |
| *-p- | *p | *p | f | p | w |
| *-p | *p | *p | f | p | p |
| *t | *t | *t | r | t [r t] | r |
| *k | *k | *k | … | k | … |
| *b | *b | *b | b | b | |
| *d | *d | *d | d | d [d r] | d |
| *g | *g | *… | … | … | k |
| *mb | *mb | *mb | mb | mb | b |
| *nd | *nd | *nd | nd | nd | d |
| *ŋg | *ŋg | *ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | k |
| *s | *s | *s | h | s [t s] | s |
| *h | *h | *h | ø | ø | h |
| *w | *w | *ø | ø | ø | ø |
| *ɾ | *ɾ | *ɾ | |||
| *-ɾ | *ɾ | *ɾ | ø | ø | r |
| *j | *j | *j | j | ||
| *ɣ | *ɣ | *… | … | … | … |
Voorhoeve (1971: 93-94) also gives Warkay phonemes /f ʔ/, but neither continue Yakhai-Warkay segments.
These correspondences are examplified as follows, with South Yakhai (Yakhai) forms drawn from Kainakainu, Paidi, Rinantanti and Morin (1998: 97-138,) North Yakhai (Jaqàj ) from Drabbe (1954: 73-98, 128-142) and Warkay from Voorhoeve (1971: 92-92, 110-114).
Bilabial nasal /*m/ …:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *m- | *m | *m | m | m | m | |
| bow | *mij | *mij | *mij | mi | mi | |
| tooth | *maŋg[e/a]t | *maŋgat | *maŋg[e/a]t | maŋar | maŋgɛr | |
| first | *maɣa[i/e] | *maɣa[i] | *maɣa[e] | maɣae | ||
| earth/ground | *mokan | *makan | *mok[o]n | mɤɣɤn | moˈɣon | |
| fruit/seed | *moko[…] | *moko[m] | mɤɣɤi | moˈɣoj | ||
| egg | *mogaw | *magaw | *mo[k/ɣ]a | mɤɣa | moˈka | |
| brain/skull | *moɣo[a][d] | *moɣoa | *moɣo[d] | mɤɣɤd | moˈɣod | |
| head | — | — | *muku | muɣu | muku | muː |
| *-m- | *m | *m | m | m | m | |
| bad/evil | *iaman | *iaman | *iaman | jaman | jaːmaːmbɛk | |
| weep/cry | — | — | *n[e/a]maɾ | nama | naˈma | nemar |
| nose | — | — | *s[e/a]maŋg | hamaŋ | taˈmaŋk | semæ |
| moon | — | — | *kam[e/o] | kaːˈmo | kæmæ | |
| sugarcane | *him[e]k | — | *himek | meːʔ | mɛk | |
| *-m | *m | *m | m | m | m | |
| tongue | *inVm | *inum | *in[e/a]m | inam | ˈinem | enem |
| younger brother | *am | *am | *am | am | ||
| cuscus | *mb[o]eam | *mbeam | *mb[o]eam | ˈmboeam | ||
| now/today | *naɣam | *na[ɣ]ma | *naɣam | naɣam ~ naʔm- | naˈɣam | |
| navel | *dekum | *dekum | *d[u]kum | duɣum | ||
| ground/sand | *ŋgem | *ŋgem | *ŋgem | ŋeːm | gem | |
| belly | *ɣandam | *ɣandam | *ɣandam | xandam | ˈkandœm | kadæm |
Apical nasal /*n/ …:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *n- | *n | *n | n | n | n | |
| weep/cry | — | — | *n[e/a]maɾ | nama | naˈma | nemar |
| excrement | *na[o] | *na | *na[o] | naːɤ | nao | næ |
| louse | *nambun | *n[a][h]un | *nambun | nambun | naˈmbun | nabun |
| neck | *naɣ | *naɣ | *naɣ | naʔ | naɣ | |
| now/today | *naɣam | *na[ɣ]ma | *naɣam | naɣam ~ naʔm- | naˈɣam | |
| banana | *napet | *napet | *napet | nafer | ˈnaper | ˈnawer |
| mosquito | *naŋgit | *naŋgit | *naŋgit | naŋir | naːˈŋgit | nikir |
| crocodile | *naŋgo | — | *naŋgo | naŋgo | noxo | |
| 1 sg. | *nok | *nok | *nok | a-nɤːʔ | a-ˈnok | no |
| young/new | *nVɣ[Vɣ] | *noɣ | *n[a/o]ɣV[k]V | naɣVɣV | noɣokV | |
| *-n- | *n | *n | n | n | ||
| tongue | *inVm | *inum | *in[e/a]m | inam | ˈinem | enem |
| *-n | *n | *n | n | n | ||
| bad/evil | *iaman | *iaman | *iaman | jaman | jaːmaːmbɛk | |
| canoe | *iawun | *iawun | *i[a]un | jun | jun | |
| earth/ground | *mokan | *makan | *mok[o]n | mɤɣɤn | moˈɣon | |
| thorn | *ban | *ban | *ban | ban-fi | ˈbanə-pi | |
| louse | *nambun | *n[a][h]un | *nambun | nambun | naˈmbun | nabun |
Medial /*n/ in the third person is reflected as [r] in Drabbe's Jaqàj ; it's not yet clear if this is a regular change:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *-n- | *n | *n | n | r | ||
| 3 pl. | *anip | *anip | *anip | anif | arip | |
| 3 sg. m. | *anep | *anep | *anep | arep | ||
| 3 sg. f. | *anup | *anup | *anup | aˈrup |
Bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *p- | *p | *p | f | |||
| cheek/jaw | *pip | *pip | *pip | fif | ||
| *-p- | *p | *p | f | p | w | |
| banana | *napet | *napet | *napet | nafer | ˈnaper | ˈnawer |
| phlegm | *kep[a/u]ɾ | *kep[a/u]ɾ | *k[a]p[a]ɾ | kafa |
Final /*p/ …:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *-p | *p | *p | f | p | p | |
| 3 pl. | *anip | *anip | *anip | anif | arip | |
| 3 sg. m. | *anep | *anep | *anep | arep | ||
| 3 sg. f. | *anup | *anup | *anup | ˈarup | ||
| lip(s) | *utup | *utup | *[u]tup | ruf | rup | |
| cheek/jaw | *pip | *pip | *pip | fif | ||
| rattan/rope | *tup | *tup | *tup | ruf ~ rɤuf | rup | arup |
Bilabial voiced stop /*b/ …:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *b- | *b | *b | b | b | b | |
| sago | — | — | *ba[i/j] | bai | baj | bæ |
| thorn | *ban | *ban | *ban | ban-fi | ˈbanə-pi | |
| pig | *basik | *basik | *basik | bahiʔ | baˈtik | basi |
| thigh | *baɣa | *baɣa | *baɣa | baɣa | ||
| breast/chest | *b[o/u]b | *bub | *b[o]b | bɤb | bob | |
| *… | ? | *b | b | b | b | |
| breast | — | — | *abut | abur | abur | abur |
| *-b | *b | *b | b | ? | ||
| armpit | *ab | *ab | *ab | ab | ab | |
| breast/chest | *b[o/u]b | *bub | *b[o]b | bɤb | bob |
Both Yaqay and Warkay typically reflect apical plain stop /*t/ as [r], though these must have been distinct in Proto-Yaqay-Warkay (below,) and appears to be synchronically subphonemic in Yaqay. Voiced /*d/ is also rhotacized, at least in Yaqay, though there aren’t enough examples to gauge the frequency of this occurance:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *t- | *t | *t | r | r [r t] | r | |
| fire | *tekaw | *tekaw | *teka | reɣa | reˈka ~ teˈka | reka |
| centipede | *ta[i]dV | *tad[o/u] | *ta[i]dV | raːde | rajˈdua | |
| rattan/rope | *tup | *tup | *tup | ruf ~ rɤuf | rup | arup |
| *-t- | *t | *t | r | r | r | |
| nail | *itiɾ | *itiɾ | *[i]tiɾ | riː | ri | |
| lip(s) | *utup | *utup | *[u]tup | ruf | rup | |
| *-t | *t | *t | r | r [r t] | r | |
| breast | — | — | *abut | abur | abur | abur |
| tooth | *maŋg[e/a]t | *maŋgat | *maŋg[e/a]t | maŋar | maŋgɛr | |
| banana | *napet | *napet | *napet | nafer | ˈnaper | ˈnawer |
| mosquito | *naŋgit | *naŋgit | *naŋgit | naŋir | naːˈŋgit | nikir |
| body hair | — | — | *saket | haɣar | ˈtakɛr | saker |
| ear | *kambet | *kambet | *k[e]mbet | kebərə |
Voiced /*d/ is also rhotacized, at least in Yaqay, though there aren’t enough examples to gauge the frequency of this occurance:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *d- | *d | *d | d | d [d r] | d | |
| tree | *de | *de | *de | de | de | |
| navel | *dekum | *dekum | *d[u]kum | duɣum | ||
| island | *dadi[n] | *dadi[n] | *dadi | dadi | daˈdi | |
| butterfly | *dud | *dud | *dud | rur | ||
| *-d- | *d | *d | d [d r] | d [d r] | d | |
| water | *adika | *ad[i/a]ka | *adika | adia | ||
| centipede | *ta[i]dV | *tad[o/u] | *ta[i]dV | raːde | rajˈdua | |
| island | *dadi[n] | *dadi[n] | *dadi | dadi | daˈdi | |
| frog | *ɣadoɾ | *ɣadoɾo | *ɣadoɾ | xɤrɤ | ɣaˈro | |
| *-d | *d | *d | d [d r] | |||
| butterfly | *dud | *dud | *dud | rur | ||
| fence | *ɾod | *ɾod | *ɾod | rod |
Initial plain velar stop /*k/ is preserved in both Yaqay and Warkay:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *k- | *k | *k | k [k ɣ] | k | ||
| eye | *kind | *kind | *kind | kind | kind | kiːt |
| phlegm | *kep[a/u]ɾ | *kep[a/u]ɾ | *k[a]p[a]r | kafa | ||
| tail | *k[e]nd[e]h | — | *kendeh | kɛndɛ | kendə | kedehe |
| moon | — | — | *kam[e/o] | kaːˈmo | kæmæ | |
| ear | *kambet | *kambet | *k[e]mbet | kebərə | ||
| ankle | *kawae[m] | *kawae | *kae[m] | xaim | ˈɣaem | |
| cassowary | *kViV | *kei | *kViV | kaju | ˈkuju | kojæ |
In one example, Warkay lenits medial /*k/ to [ø]:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *-k- | *k | *k | ɣ k | k [k ɣ] | k [k -x- -ø-] | |
| water | *adika | *ad[i/a]ka | *adika | adia | ||
| light (weight) | *akak | *akak | *[a]kak | kaːʔ | kaːk | |
| earth/ground | *mokan | *makan | *mok[o]n | mɤɣɤn | moˈɣon | |
| fruit/seed | *moko[…] | *moko[m] | mɤɣɤi | moˈɣoj | ||
| old (person) | *[b/mb]akaV | *baka[u] | *mbakaV | mbakɤ | mbaˈkaɛ ~ mbaˈkao | |
| fire | *tekaw | *tekaw | *teka | reɣa | reˈka ~ teˈka | reka |
| navel | *dekum | *dekum | *d[u]kum | duɣum | ||
| body hair | — | — | *saket | haɣar | ˈtakɛr | saker |
| smoke | *haku | *haku | *haku | aɣu | aˈku |
Warkay drops final velar stops /*k *ŋg/, which merge to /k/ in other positions (below):
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *-k | *k | *k | ʔ | k | ø | |
| light (weight) | *akak | *akak | *[a]kak | kaːʔ | kaːk | |
| tail/behind | *uak | *uak | *uak | waʔ | ||
| pig | *basik | *basik | *basik | bahiʔ | baˈtik | basi |
| 1 sg. | *nok | *nok | *nok | anɤːʔ | aˈnok | no |
| knife | *sok | *sok | *sok[ak] | tɤɣaʔ | toˈkak | |
| *-ŋg | ŋg [ŋ] | ŋg [ŋk] | ø | |||
| nose | — | — | *s[e/a]maŋg | hamaŋ | taˈmaŋk | semæ |
Velar non-stop /*ɣ/ generally yields … and /k/ in Warkay. Drabbe's (1954: 2) Jaqàj <q>, given here as /ɣ/, is characterized as a fricative with the quality like a trill, and is found only when followed by low central and low mid back vowels /a o/, as in not universally but overwhelmingly the case in Marind. Drabbe's Jaqàj attestations aren't quite consistent in this respect, sometimes giving [k] where /ɣ/ is expected and vice-versa (above); thus the argument for a distinction between Yaqay-Warkay /*k *q/ is statistical:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *ɣ- | *ɣ | *ɣ | x [x- -ɣ-] | ɣ [ɣ k] | k [k -x- -ø-] | |
| laughter | *ɣa[i/e] | *ɣa[i] | *ɣa[e] | xae | ||
| frog | *ɣadoɾ | *ɣadoɾo | *ɣadoɾ | xɤrɤ | ɣaˈro | |
| belly | *ɣandam | *ɣandam | *ɣandam | xandam | ˈkandœm | kadæm |
| afterbirth | *ɣ[o/u] | *i[a]ɣa[u] | ˈɣao | |||
| *-ɣ- | *ɣ | *ɣ | ɣ [ɣ k] | k [k -x- -ø-] | ||
| first | *maɣa[i/e] | *maɣa[i] | *maɣa[e] | maɣae | ||
| brain/skull | *moɣo[a][d] | *moɣoa | *moɣo[d] | mɤɣɤd | moˈɣod | |
| thigh | *baɣa | *baɣa | *baɣa | baɣa | ||
| now/today | *naɣam | *na[ɣ]ma | *naɣam | naɣam ~ naʔm- | naˈɣam | |
| wallaby | *s[e]aɣ[am] | *saɣam | *seaɣ | teˈaɣ | ||
| *-ɣ | *ɣ | *ɣ | ʔ | ɣ [ɣ k] | k [k -x- -ø-] | |
| 2 pl. | *eoɣ | *eoɣ | *eoɣ | a-jɤːʔ | a-eˈok | |
| 2 sg. | *oɣ | *oɣ | *[o]ɣ | aːʔ | aɣ | |
| neck | *naɣ | *naɣ | *naɣ | naʔ | naɣ | |
| young/new | *nVɣ[Vɣ] | *noɣ | *n[a/o]ɣV[k]V | naɣVɣV | noɣokV |
These discrepancies could mean that the allophonic ranges of Yaqay /k ɣ/ overlap, that Drabbe didn't always hear the Yaqay words correctly, or that the sounds were falliing together in Yaqay and becoming genuinely confused. One consequence of this uncertainly is that it's not obvious whether Marind-Yaqay plain voiced /*g/ has merged with /*k/ or with /*q/:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *-g- | *g | *[k/ɣ] | ɣ | [k ɣ] | k [k -x- -ø-] | |
| name | *[i/e]g[i/e]j | *igij | *[e][k/ɣ][e] | eɣe | eke | ?erakai |
| turtle | *[a]gau | *gau | *[a][k/ɣ]au | aɣaɤ | aˈɣau | |
| egg | *mogaw | *magaw | *mo[k/ɣ]a | mɤɣa | moˈka |
Bilabial prenasalized stop /*mb/ is reflected as plain stop /b/ in Warkay (Voorhoeve 1971: 94):
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *mb- | *mb | *mb | mb | b | ||
| cuscus | *mb[o]eam | *mbeam | *mb[o]eam | ˈmboeam | ||
| *-mb- | *mb | *mb | mb | b | ||
| testicle(s) | *[oa]mb[a/o] | *ombo | *[ua]mb[a] | wamba | ˈwamba | |
| louse | *nambun | *n[a][h]un | *nambun | nambun | naˈmbun | nabun |
| ear | *kambet | *kambet | *k[e]mbet | kebərə | ||
| knee | — | — | *[i/j]ambuɾ | jambɤ- | jaˈmbu | jabur |
| copulate | *j[a/o]mb[a] | *jomb | *j[a]mb[a] | jamba |
Apical prenasalized stop /*nd/ is reflected as plain voiced /d/ in Warkay (Voorhoeve 1971: 94):
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *-nd- | *nd | *nd | nd | nd | d | |
| tail | *k[e]nd[e]h | — | *kendeh | kɛndɛ | kendə | kedehe |
| belly | *ɣandam | *ɣandam | *ɣandam | xandam | ˈkandœm | kadæm |
| palm/hand | *[i/j]andV[p] | — | *[i/j]andV[p] | jandɤ | jaˈndo | idæp |
…:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *-nd | *nd | *nd | nd | nd | t | |
| eye | *kind | *kind | *kind | kind | kind | kiːt |
Velar prenasalized stop /*ŋg/ is merged with plain stop /k/ in Warkay:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *ŋg- | *ŋg | *ŋg | g | |||
| ground/sand | *ŋgem | *ŋgem | *ŋgem | ŋeːm | gem | |
| *-ŋg- | *ŋg | *ŋg | ŋg | k [k -x-] | ||
| tooth | *maŋg[e/a]t | *maŋgat | *maŋg[e/a]t | maŋar | maŋgɛr | |
| mosquito | *naŋgit | *naŋgit | *naŋgit | naŋir | naːˈŋgit | nikir |
| crocodile | *naŋgo | — | *naŋgo | naŋgo | noxo | |
| stone | *seŋgV | *seŋga | *seŋgV | heŋi |
Fricative /*s/ is … and merged with plain apical stop /t/ in Drabbe's Jaqàj (Voorhoeve 1971: 94):
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *s- | *s | *s | h | t | s | |
| wallaby | *s[e]aɣ[am] | *saɣam | *seaɣ | teˈaɣ | ||
| stone | *seŋgV | *seŋga | *seŋgV | heŋi | ||
| nose | — | — | *s[e/a]maŋg | hamaŋ | taˈmaŋk | semæ |
| body hair | — | — | *saket | haɣar | ˈtakɛr | saker |
| *-s- | *s | *s | h | t | s | |
| pig | *basik | *basik | *basik | bahiʔ | baˈtik | basi |
This change is shared with Yelmek, where Bulaka River /*s/ was borrowed from Marind (Usher 2014: 46-47.)
One exception may be a loan between dialects; Kainakainu, Paidi, Rinantanti and Morin (1998: 97-138) give only ten examples of words with initial /t/, suggesting it to exist only in loans:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *s- | *s | *s | t | t | ||
| knife | *sok | *sok | *sok[ak] | tɤɣaʔ | toˈkak |
Unoccluded fricative /*h/ is lost in Yaqay:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *h- | *h | *h | ø | ø | h | |
| bone | *hia[u] | *hiau | *hia | id͜ʒa | iˈa | ?imə-hæ |
| sugarcane | *him[e]k | — | *himek | meːʔ | mɛk | |
| smoke | *haku | *haku | *haku | aɣu | aˈku | |
| *-h | *? | *h | ø | h | ||
| tail | *k[e]nd[e]h | — | *kendeh | kɛndɛ | kendə | kedehe |
Bilabial non-stop /*w/ is dropped in Yaqay-Warkay:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *w- | *w | *ø | ø | ø | ||
| father | *w[e/ai] | *wai | *e | e | ||
| mother | *wu | *wu | *u | u | ||
| *-w- | *w | *ø | ø | ø | ||
| canoe | *iawun | *iawun | *i[a]un | jun | jun | |
| ankle | *kawae[m] | *kawae | *kae[m] | xaim | ˈɣaem | |
| *-w | *w | *ø | ø | ø | ||
| egg | *mogaw | *magaw | *mo[k/ɣ]a | mɤɣa | moˈka | |
| fire | *tekaw | *tekaw | *teka | reɣa | reˈka ~ teˈka | reka |
Yaqay drops final apical non-stop /*ɾ/, distinguishing it from the rhotic reflexes of stops /*t *d/:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *-ɾ | *-ɾ | *-ɾ | ø | ø | r | |
| nail | *itiɾ | *itiɾ | *[i]tiɾ | riː | ri | |
| weep/cry | — | — | *n[e/a]maɾ | nama | naˈma | nemar |
| phlegm | *kep[a/u]ɾ | *kep[a/u]ɾ | *k[a]p[a]ɾ | kafa | ||
| frog | *ɣadoɾ | *ɣadoɾo | *ɣadoɾ | xɤrɤ | ɣaˈro | |
| knee | — | — | *[i/j]ambuɾ | jambɤ- | jaˈmbu | jabur |
Palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *j- | *j | *j | ||||
| copulate | *j[a/o]mb[a] | *jomb | *j[a]mb[a] | jamba |
…/*j/ …:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *j- | *j | *j | ||||
| name | *[i/e]g[i/e]j | *igij | *[e][k/ɣ][e] | eɣe | eke | ?erakai |
| *-j | *j | *j | ||||
| bow | *mij | *mij | *mij | mi | mi |
…/*j/ …:
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *-j | *j | *j | ||||
| older brother | *ij | *ij | *ij |
…
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *VCVC | *VCVC | *[V]CVC | CVC | CVC | ||
| nail | *itiɾ | *itiɾ | *[i]tiɾ | riː | ri | |
| light (weight) | *akak | *akak | *[a]kak | kaːʔ | kaːk | |
| lip(s) | *utup | *utup | *[u]tup | ruf | rup | |
| *hVCVC | *hVCVC | *hVCVC | CVC | CVC | ||
| sugarcane | *him[e]k | — | *himek | meːʔ | mɛk |
…
| Marind-Yaqay | Marind | Yakhai-Warkay | Yakhai | Jaqàj | Warkay | |
| Kainakainu | Drabbe | Voorhoeve | ||||
| *VCVC | *VCVC | *VCVC | VCVC | VCVC | ||
| tongue | *inVm | *inum | *in[e/a]m | inam | ˈinem | enem |
| 3 pl. | *anip | *anip | *anip | anif | arip | |
| 3 sg. m. | *anep | *anep | *anep | arep | ||
| 3 sg. f. | *anup | *anup | *anup | aˈrup | ||
| *hVCV | *hVCV | *hVCV | VCV | VCV | ||
| smoke | *haku | *haku | *haku | aɣu | aˈku |
…
Pronouns
[under construction]
…
Gender
[under construction]
…
Verbal morphology
[under construction]
…
Loans from neighboring languages
[under construction]
…