Tomui River
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
The Tomui River family consists of four or five languages spoken both north and south of the Tomui river, a tributary of the Guam and Ramu rivers to the west, in the Middle Ramu district of Papua New Guinea's Madang province. Its nearest relatives are the Sogeram River languages spoken immediately to the south and east.
Subclassification
The internal classificaiton of Tomui River is as follows:
Tomui River
Utarmbung (Osum)
Anam (Pondoma)
Anamuxra
Ikundun
Moresada
Wadaginam
Z'graggen (1971: 61) gives lexicostatistical relationships between the languages of the Josephstaal Stock (excluding Katiati i.e. Mum which belongs with the Sogeram River family, Daniels 2010, 2015) as follows:
Osum | Pondoma | Ikundun | Moresada | Wadaginam | |
Osum | — | 34 | 30 | 31 | 28 |
Pondoma | 34 | — | 45 | 37 | 22 |
Ikundun | 30 | 45 | — | 66 | 45 |
Moresada | 31 | 37 | 66 | — | 54 |
Wadaginam | 28 | 22 | 45 | 54 | — |
The impression is that of a chaining relationship from Osum in the south to Wagaginam in the north. It is likely that the Pondoma figures have been depressed somewhat by a number of loans from Katiati (Mum) of the Sogeram River family (below.)
A primary division between Osum (Utarmbung) and the other Tomui River languages might be supported by a number of isoglosses in which the Osum word is found also in the Sogeram River family, thus presumably descending from proto-Sogeram and Tomui Rivers, while the other languages have their own term. It is however possible that most of these are loans from Katiati (Mum) (below):
Sogeram River | Osum | non-Osum | |
egg | *maŋga | makə- | *mukuN |
snake | *takʷɨ | raːwuː- | *wanzirʉŋ |
coconut | *kuimaŋ | goima- | *aw[ʉ/a]nʉ |
mosquito | *jaŋgur | jakur | *sawuɣʉ |
Sources
Capell (1951-1952: 201-203) 75 comparative terms for Murusapa
Z'graggen (1971: 72) 17 cognate series for Moresada, Ikundun, Pondoma, Wadaginam and Osum
Z'graggen (1980: 1-80) 330 comparative terms and (pp. 81-82) pronimnal paradigms for Osum, Pondoma, Ikundun, Moresada and Wadaginam
Ingram (2001) grammar of Anamuxra
Ingram (2003) Anamuxra nominal classifiers
History of classification
[under construction]
Capell (1951-1952: 206) placed Murusapa (Moresada) with the Ramu River languages
Wurm (1969) placed Murusapa with his Western Family (Lower Ramu River) while stating that it belongs typologically to his Central Family, i.e. the Adelbert Range languages Bunabun (Brem) and Wanambre.
Z'graggen (1971, 56-61) … Josephstaal Stock … Pomoikan Family … included Katiati (Mum) …
Z'graggen (1975) … added the newly-documented Sileibi (Sirva) language to the Josephstaal Stock, forming with Katiati the Sikan Family
Greenberg (1971: …) …
Daniels (2010: …, 2015: …) removed Mum and Sirva from Z'graggen's Josephstaal Stock, placing them immedaitely with Apalɨ (Emerum) in the Central Sogeram subgroup of his Sogeram River family, an expansion of Z'graggen's (1969: 61-64) Wanang Stock
Historical phonology
[under construction]
Proto-Tomui River had 17 consonants and 4 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | *ŋ | ||
*p | *t | *s | *k | *kʷ |
*mb | *nd | *nz | *ŋg | *ŋgʷ |
*w | *r | *j | *ɣ |
*i | *ʉ | *u |
*a |
This inventory is very similar to the system reconstructed for proto-Sogeram River in Daniels (2010, 2015,) but with a few key differences. Daniels does not reconstruct a velar non-stop /*ɣ/. Daniels reconstructs a palatal nasal /*ɲ/, but most of the examples are consistent with the interpretation of [ɲ] as a nasalized allophone of non-stop /*j/ as presented here (below.) Daniels reconstructs the prenassalized stops as voiceless because they are devoiced in Mand and Nend and he assumes voiceing rather than devoicing to be the more likely direction of change.
There are also very strong phonological similarities to the Guam and Moam subgroups of Ramu River immediately to the west, as well as a number of common roots which are presumed to be loans in one direciton or the other (below.).
…
Only a restricted subset of consonants occurs initially:
*m | *n | |||
*p | *t | *s | *k | *kʷ |
*w | *j |
Any consonant cna occur medially.
Only a restricted subset of consonants occurs finally.
[*m] | *n | *ŋ |
*r |
Initial consonants correspond as follows:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra |
*m- | m | m | m | m | m | m |
*n- | n | n | n | n | n | n |
*p- | β | |||||
*t- | r | t | t | t | t | t |
*s- | s | s | ts | s | t | s |
*k- | ɣ | |||||
*kʷ- | ||||||
*w- | w | w | w | w | w | w |
*j- | ||||||
*j-/_N NC | ɲ | n | n | j | n | n |
Medial consonants correspond as follows:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra |
*-m- | m | m | m | m | m | m |
*-n- | n | n | n | n | n | n |
*-ŋ- | ||||||
*-p- | p | p | p | p | p | p |
*-t- | ||||||
*-s- | s | s | ts | s | t | s |
*-k- | k | k | k | k | k | k |
*-kʷ- | ||||||
*-mb- | p | mb | mb | mb | mb | mb |
*-nd- | t | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd |
*-nz- | s | nz | nd | nz | nd | nz |
*-ŋg- | k | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg |
*-ŋgʷ- | ||||||
*-w- | ||||||
*-r- | ||||||
*-j- | ||||||
*-j-/_N NC | ||||||
*-ɣ - |
Final consonants correspond as follows:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra |
*-… |
Vowels correspond as follows:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra |
*… |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Osum, Pondoma, Wadaginam, Moresada and Ikundun attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 1-180) and Anamuxra from Ingram (2001.)
… initial consonants …
Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*m- | m | m | m | m | m | m | |
vomit | *miŋʉr[ʉ]- | miŋrʉ- | migri- | mɨg- | mʉŋe- | mʉŋu- | |
pour | *miŋg[i/u]- | meːku- | miŋgi- | miŋgi- | miŋgi- | miŋg- | miŋg- ~ mɨŋg- |
tongue | *mir | mir-gʌ- | mir̃ | -mɛr̃ə-k | -mir-pa | -mir-(ka) | |
light (of fire) | *mira | mira- | mira | merʌ-k | mira-pa | ||
one | *m[i/ʉ]nza | mɨsa-ka | minsa-ka | mɨnda-mbʌt | minzʌ-k | minda-ka | mɨnza-(ka) ~ minza- |
cough (n.) | *mʉnʉ | mun | mʉnu | mənə- | mʉnʉ-p | ||
fruit/seed | *mʉnu | mɨnɨ-p | munu-k | munu-kwa | mɨnu-(ka) ~ munu-ka |
||
wet | *mʉTʉ- | matə-ti | mət- | mtə-tə- | mete- | mɨtɨ- | |
male | *mʉndʉ | miti- | mində-kara | mindi-mp | mində-k | mundu ~ mundu-ka | mɨndɨ- |
sit | *mʉnzʉrV- | mʉsirʉ | mʉnzira | mindra- | md- | mʉndr- | mɨnzɨrɨ- ~ mɨnzɨra- |
sap | *mʉrʉŋ | mrʉ- | mʉrʉŋ- | mɨrɨŋʌ-mp | murŋa-mba | ||
penis | *mʉŋgʉn | maŋr- | mʉgrʉ | -mɨŋgɨn-amp | -məŋgən-ʌmp | -muŋgɨnʌ-mba-ŋ | muŋguN- |
dog | *mʉrʉkʉN | mʉrəkŋ | murukŋ-amba | mɨrɨkɨN-(amba) | |||
liver | *mamʉn | mamuŋ | -mʌminʌ-ŋk | -mamɛŋ-amba | |||
liver | *mapʉn | -mapɨŋ-gᵊna-mp | |||||
knee | *mamba | mamba-kuŋg | -mamba-kən | ||||
banana | *manʉŋ | manu- | mʌna | manaŋ-amp | manəŋ-ʌmba | manɨN-(amba) | |
crocodile | *maTʉkʉ | matak- | mʌtiki-p | matᵊkʉ-pa-ŋ | matɨkɨ-(pa) | ||
comb | *mandapiN | mandapiŋ | mandʌːpi-m | mandʌpɛ-mp | mandapi-mba | mandapiN- | |
cassowary | *masuɣuN | masuguŋ | mʌtsuɣu-mp | mʌsogu-mp | matuŋu-mba | masuɣuN | |
wooden plate | *makiN | maːki- | makiŋ | ||||
buy | *maɣʉwi[ni]- | mʌgə wiɲi- | mawugᵊni- | mʌgɨwɨ- | maiβ- | maiβ- | maiβ- |
egg/fruit | *maŋga | makə- ~ mʌːkə- | |||||
sago | *mawa[m] | mawam | mʌwʌ | mʌwʌː-mp | mawʌ-p | mʌwa-pa | mawa-(pa) |
knife | *mawajiTa | maita | maita | muwajɨt- | moʌit | mʌita | |
flying fox | *marambuN | marambuŋ | marambu-ŋa-ŋ | marambuN-(pa) | |||
shoulder | *maraŋgV | -maraŋga-mp | -mʌraŋgin | -mʌraŋgo-pa | |||
yam sp. | *muN | mo- | mɔ-mɔ-k | mu-mba | muN-(pa) | ||
child | *mumuN | momo- | mumuŋ | mumuŋ(-ga) | mumuN-(ka) | ||
go up | *mundu- | mundu- | mundu- | mundo- | mundo- | mundu- | |
ripe | *muŋuN | muŋu- | muŋu- | mugu- (?) | muŋu- | muŋuN- | |
tree possum | *mukʉr | mokr- | mukr̃ | mɔkər̃-əp | mukr̃-pa | mukɨr-pa | |
egg | *mukuN | mukuŋ | muku-p | mukŋ-aŋga | mɨkɨN-aŋga mɨkɨN-amba |
||
house | *muŋgu | muŋgu | muŋgu-p | muŋgu-pa | muŋgu-(pa) | ||
go down | *muŋgu- | moko- | muŋgu- | muŋgu- | muŋgo- | muŋgo- | muŋgu- ~mɨŋgu- |
sweat | *murʉ | mur̃ | mujɨ-mp | -mor̃ə-p | mor̃-pa | murɨ-pa ~ mor- | |
meat/flesh | *muru | muru- | muru | mɨrɨ-p | muru-k | muru-ka | muru-ka |
Initial apical nasal /*n/ is found nearly only in monosyllabes, where it is retained as such in all descendants; the sole example of a disyllable with initial /*n/ is probably a reduplication:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*n- | n | n | n | n | n | n | |
eat | *n[i]- | ni- | ni- | ni- | jʌ- (?) | n- | nɨ- ~ na- |
3 sg. | *nʉ | nʉ- | nʉ | nɨ- | nə- | nʉ | |
3 pl. | *nʉ-ŋ | nʉ-ŋ | nʉ-ŋ | nɨ-ŋ | nɨ-ŋ- | nʉ-ŋ | nɨ-ŋ |
2 sg. | *na | na- | na | na- | na- | na | na |
2 pl. | *na-ŋ | na-ŋ | na-ŋ | na-ŋ | na-ŋ- | na-ŋ | na-ŋ |
old (thing) | *nunu- | nunu- | nuno- | nunu- | nunu-(ka) |
Velar nasal /*ŋ/ has not been found to occur initially.
Initial peripheral voiceless stops /*p *k/ are lenited or dropped in all descendants, a latter-day phenomenon shared with most descendants of Ramu River to the west; however apical and laminal /*t *s/ are not affected by lenition.
Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is lenited to voiced fricative /β/ in Anamuxra and typically to non-stop [w] elsewhere, sometimes making it difficult to distinguish it from non-stop /*w/ (below):
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*p- | w | w | w | w | w | β | |
come | *p[i]- | we- | wa- | wi- | we- | wi- | βi- |
take/get | *p[i]- | ɸi- (?) | wi- | βɨ- | |||
go | *pʉ- | o- ~ p- | u- | wʌ- | wi- | wu- | βɨ- |
walk | *pʉ-taŋgu- | p-raŋgu- | wi-tʌŋgu- | wu-taŋgu- | βɨ-taŋgu- | ||
skin | *pʉsa | wʉsa- | wəsa | -wʉtʌ-mbʌ | βɨsa- ~ -βɨsa | ||
fear (n.) | *pʉ[ŋ/ɣ]i | wuŋe- | wugi- | wugi- | βɨɣi- | ||
bamboo | *pʉkʉ | wuku- | wʉkʉ | wukɨ-p | wukə-p | wukʉ-pa | βɨkɨ-(pa) ~ -βɨk |
pull/tie | *pʉŋgʉr[ʉ]- | wukrʉ- ~ -pʉkrʉ- | wuŋgr- | sɨw-iŋgi- | sɨ-wiŋgi- | tʉ-bʉŋg- | |
bathe | *pʉji- | wi- | wi- | wɨji- | ʌnɨm-b- | anm-b- | (anɨN)-βi- |
vine | *pʉɣʉn | wʉgʉŋ | wɨgɨnʌ-mp | wugɛnʌ-mp | wuguŋa-mba | βɨŋgɨN- ~ βɨɣ- | |
sharpen | *pand[i]- | wat- | wandi- | pʌnd- | wʌndə- | pand- | |
grass skirt | *pandʉ | wand | wandɨ-pa | βandɨ-pa | |||
vulva/vagina | *paji | waji | wai-p | waji-pa-ŋ | -βaiji- | ||
net bag | *paɣan | wagaŋ | waɣana-mp | waɣʌnʌ-mp | wʌɣa-mba | βaɣa-mba | |
sickness/illness | *puraN | urʌ-mp | ura-mp | ura-m- | βɨra | ||
short | *p[u]ru | wuru- | wuru- | wuru- | βɨru- | ||
fall over | *[p]uruɣu- | urugu- | urugu- | urogu-~ur̃ɔɣu- | puruw- | ||
village | *puɣar | wugo- | wugu | uwara-mp | wuɣʌrʌ-mp | wʉga-pa | βwa- ~ βwa-r |
Root-initial /*p/ in verbs however is retained as such when it is preceded by a prefix (compare “bathe” above):
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*(-)p- | |||||||
wash | *(-)pʉji-tam- | -pi-ram | wi-ram- | -pi-tam- | -pi-rʌma- | -pig-ram- | -pi-ram- |
Similarly, the initials of /*pʉsa/ “skin” and /*pʉriN/ “side” are not lenited when they are preceded by another word in a compound:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*(-)p- | |||||||
sky | *iɣuN-pʉsa | igum-bᵘsa | igum-bɨta-ka | ||||
loincloth | *asʉN-pʉsa | asim-bisa- | asʉm-psa | atɨm-bɨtʌ-pa | |||
right side | *kandʉ-pʉriN | atə-bri | -andə-pər | andə-priŋ |
One example in which apparent initial /*p/ does not undergoe lenition is mandatorily a loan:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*P- | |||||||
axe | *Putu-Putu | polo-polo- | putu puru | poro-por |
Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is usually lenited to non-stop /r/ in Osum, which does not otherwise occur initially, although this appears to be in free variation with [t]:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*t- | r [r t] | t | t | t | t | t | |
do/make | *tʉ- | -d- | -t- ~ -di- | tɨ- | tə- | t- ~ -d- | tɨ- ~ -tɨ- |
run/run away | *tʉm[i]- | r̩m- ~ tum- | tʉmi- ~ təmi- | tumə- | tʉm- | tɨm-~tim-~tɨma- | |
plant/bury | *tʉmbu- | rʉpu- | tumbu- | tumbu- | tɨmb- | ||
tie/fasten | *tʉmbu- | rpu- | tumbu- | tumbu- | |||
straight | *tʉTʉ- | rtɛ- | tətə- | tətə- | tɨtɨ- | ||
full | *tʉk[i]- | rku- | tukuri- | tiki- | tuki- | tɨkɨ- | |
mountain | *tʉŋgʉ | rʉkə- | tɨŋgə-k | ||||
fence | *tʉwa | tʌpʌ ~ tuwa | tɨwʌː-p | tʉwʌ-p | tuwa-pa | tɨβa-(pa) | |
kill | *tʉɣim[u]- | tʉgimi- | tiɣimu- | -tɛgumu- | tʉgim- | ||
put/bury | *tam- | tam- | tam- | tʌm- | tʌmə- | tʌm- ~ tam- | tam- |
piece/stump | *tambuN | tʌmbuŋ | tambu-ŋga dambu-mba (?) | -tambuN- | |||
thigh | *tandam | ɣatam-bat- (?) | tʌndam-bat | -tʌndʌ-mp | -tʌnda-gər̃ | -tanda-mba | |
moon | *takun | tʌkuŋ | tʌkuŋ-omp | tʌkuŋ-umba | |||
step | *taŋgu- | -raŋgu- | -tʌŋgu- | -taŋgu- | taŋgu- | ||
stand | *taŋgʷa-tam- | rako-ra- | tangu-ram- | taŋʷa-tam- | taŋgʷa-ram- | ||
cut | *tawVɣV | rʌbugu- ~ raβuɣʉ- | taːwog- | tʌw- | taːβʉg- | taβaɣ-~taβɨɣa- | |
chop/fell | *taɣʉr[ʉ]- | rʌgrʉ- | tʌgr- | tʌɣ- | tʌɣə- | tʌg- | taɣ- ~ taɣa- |
cook/burn | *tu | ro | tu | tɔ | to | tu- | |
arrow sp. | *tumbʉraŋgi | tombraŋ | tumbraŋgi-pa | ||||
shoulder | *tuwuŋguN | rubuŋgu- | tubuŋguŋ | ||||
sea | *tu[w/ɣ]ʉn | towuŋ | suwun-ʌmp (?) | towən-ʌmp | toːgŋ-amba | ||
basket | *tu[w/ɣ]a | tuwa-tuwata- | tuga | tuɣuʌ-p | tuwa-p | tɨβa-(pa) | |
hold | *turV- | turi- | tɔrə- | utur- | tur- ~ tura- | ||
hit/say | *tuɣu- | tuɣu- ~tugu -~rugu- ~ ro- | tugu- ~ tuɣʉ- | tuɣu- ~ tugu- | tugu- ~ tu- | tuɣu- ~ tuwu- | |
cough (v.) | *tuɣu- | rugu- | tugu- | tugu- | tu- | ||
blow (fire) | *tuɣuwar- | rugowar- | tugowar- | tuɣowʌre- | tuguwʌr | tuwu-βar- |
Initial laminal voiceless /*s/ is merged with apical /t/ in Ikundun and varies between [t s] in Wadaginam:
:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*s- | s | s | ts [ts s] | s | t | s | |
shoot (v.) | *simu- | simu- ~ sumu- | simu- | -səmu- | -tum- | simu- | |
young/child | *simbun | simbuŋ | simbina-ŋk | simbuN- | |||
crayfish | *siwʉ | siv | tiwə-pu | siβɨ-pa | |||
slit drum | *s[i/ʉ]mbuN | tɨmbɨ-mp | sumbuno-mp | tɨmbuŋa-mba | simbuN-amba | ||
be | *sʉ- | sʉ - | si- | t- | is- | ta- | s- |
pull/tie | *sʉ-pʉŋgʉr[ʉ]- | sɨw-iŋgi- | sɨ-wiŋgi- | tʉ-bʉŋg- | |||
navel | *sʉndʉwu | -tindᵊwu-kən-amp | -səndəwi-p | -tundəwu-p | -sinziwu- | ||
rattan | *sʉkiN | skiŋ | təki-ŋga | sikiN-(pa) ~ -siki | |||
carry on back | *sʉɣ[ʉ]- | zigʉ- | sʉg- | tɨgɨ- | si- | tʉgʉ- | sɨɣɨ- siɣɨ-~ sɨɣi- |
mosquito | *sawuɣʉ | sagobogo | tuɣu-mp | sʌwuɣə-p | tawuɣu-pa | ||
rat | *sʉkaw | sikow- | skow | təkɔː-pa | |||
nose | *sʉkuwar | skuar | -tukwʌr-pʌ | sɨkɨwar- | |||
rain | *sʉra | r̃ːa- (?) | trʌ | sirʌ-p | sɨrʌ-p | tr̃ʌ-pa | tɨra-(pa) (?) |
trunk | *sawi | sʌwi | tʌpa-kᵊnʌ-mp | sawɛ-k | tʌːβi-ka | saβi(-) | |
stomach | *sawʉ | sɔ- | tawu-tɨŋʌ-p | -sʌwi-p | -tawu-ka | ||
pig | *sawun | savuŋ | tʌpun-ump | sʌwon-omp | tawu-mba | sawuN- ~ saɣuN-pa |
|
excrement | *su | su- | sugu | -sɔː-p | -to-pa | su-(pa) | |
lime | *su[w/ɣ]an | sugɔŋ | tuwʌn-amp | sugʷʌnʌ-mp | tuwa-mba | suwaN-(pa) |
Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*k- | |||||||
garden | *kima[na]N | gimanaŋ | iːmʌ-mp | jɛː-mp | |||
crooked | *kina-kina | ina-kena- | ina-kina- | ina-kina- | ɣina-kina- | ||
arrow sp. | *kindʉ | gitʌ- | giːndə | indɨ-kənʌ-mp | ində-pa | ||
speak (tr.) | *kisuɣar[u]- | -gisugoru- | isigor- | -gituar- | isɨwar- | ||
elbow | *kiŋgu[N/ŋga] | gikoŋga- | -giŋguŋ | ||||
dream (n.) | *kijʉN | giɲi- | gijʉŋ | inə- | ɣunu- | ||
dream (v.) | *kijʉN-was[i]- | gijʉŋ osi | inə-wʌse- | ɣunu-wat- | |||
mouth/speech | *kija | jaː- | gia- | -gia- | ɣɨja-(pa) | ||
mouth | *kija-kumbaN | jaː-goŋba- | -gia-ɣʉmbaŋ-ga | -ɣɨja-ɣʉmbaN-ka | |||
watch (intr.) | *kiɣʉr[ʉ]- | jegrʉ- | igr- | igi- | irəgə- | igra-ram- | iɣɨr- ~ iɣɨra |
bow | *kʉmi | gumu | gʉm | ɣɨmi-kʌ-mp | iːmi-p | ɣɨmu-pa | ɣɨmɨ- ~ -ɣɨmb |
sleep (v.) | *kʉn[i]- | ɣuɲi | gi- | gɨnɨ- | in- | gʉn | ɣɨnɨ- |
root | *kʉndʉr | gɨndi- | gʉndə | gɨntsir-ʌmp | ndə-k | gundə-pa | ɣɨndɨ- ~ -ɣɨnd |
armpit | *kʉnzi | is- | gʉnsi | ||||
bean | *kʉsipʉ | isip- | sɛːpi-p | ɣutipᵊ-pa | ɣɨsi-pa | ||
singsing | *kʉnzʉ-kʉnzʉ | si-ginsi– | gunzi-gunz | gundu-gund | ɣɨnzɨ-ɣɨnzɨ | ||
afternoon | *kʉnzʉr | gunzᵋrʉŋ | insər | ɣʉndir | ɣɨnzɨr | ||
ear | *kʉnzʉɣiw | ginsɛgiw | -ɣundəgiwə-pʌ | -ɣɨnzɨɣiβ- ~ -ɣɨnzɨɣɨβ- |
|||
burn/roast | *kʉr[i]- | ɣrʉ- | gri | kɨr- | ir- | gɨr- | kɨr- ~ kɨra- |
cold | *kʉrʉN | gurun-di | gurun-d- | ɣɨrɨN-tɨ- | |||
wind | *kʉjiŋgasa | uɲugasa- | gwingasa | ||||
swell | *kamu- | ɣʌːɣumu- | -ɣʌmu- | gam- | |||
tooth | *kambur | gʌpɔ- | -gʌmbru-mp | -gʌmbɔ-p | -gambu-pʌ-ŋ | ||
right (side) | *kandʉ | atə- | andɛ- | -kandə- | -andə- | andə- | |
be sick/ill | *kandʉɣi- | katigi-ɲi- | andəgi- | ||||
smell (n.) | *kanduwa | katuwa- | ganduwa-p | ||||
fat/grease | *kasʉ | gʌːsi- | as-ka | -gʌsə-p | gatə-pa | ||
sand | *kasʉN | gasi- | asʉmna | atɨŋ-amp | asəŋ-ʌmp | ||
saliva | *kawa | - | aba | -ɣawʌ-pʌ-ŋ | ɣaβa- ~ aβa- | ||
bone | *kawaŋ | ɣʌwa- | awaŋ | -gʌwʌ-mp | -ɣʌwʌ-ŋk | -ɣawa-mba | |
areca nut | *kariN | ajʌː-mp | ar̃ɛ-mp | ari-mba | ariN-(pa) | ||
flying fox | *karawVn | ɣaraw- | arʌwi-mp | ar̃ʌwɛnʌ-mp | |||
wallaby | *kajuɣara | gaigora- | aigura | aiwara-pa | aiwara- | ||
slit drum | *kaɣʉndʉ | kʌːgɛnd- | agʉndʉ | ||||
fasten/bind | *kaɣa- | ɣaga-ɲi- | ʌgi- | ʌgə- | aɣa- | ||
path | *kumbʉ | ɣupu- | umbu | bu-mp | mbəː-p | gumbu-pa | ɣumpɨ-(pa) |
hot | *kumbʉN | gʉpʉn-d- | gjumbən-di- | -gumbaj | gumbun-d- | ɣɨmbɨN-tɨ- ~ ɣumb |
|
hole | *kumbaN | -komba-~-goŋba- | gumbaŋ | ɣʉmbaŋ-ga ~ -giumbaŋ-ga | ɣumbaN-(ka) | ||
arm | *kumbuŋgʉr | umbuŋgʉr | -gɔmbogər̃ | -ɣumbuŋgʉr | ɣumbuŋgɨr | ||
wooden plate | *kunaN | unaŋ | unʌ-mp | una-mba | ɣunaN-(pa) | ||
calf | *kunzuN | utsumak- | guntsuŋ | -gundɨ-mɨnɨ-p | -gunzuŋo-mp | -gunduŋ-ump | |
yellow | *kuŋgaN | uŋga- | uŋga- | uŋgaN-(ka) | |||
sore | *kuwi | gui | -goi-pa-ŋ | ɣui- | |||
split | *kuwand[ʉ]- | kuwand- | uwʌndə- | uwand- | βand- | ||
dawn | *kuwʉɣV | goβugia | ubugia | ɣʌwɨɣ | uwogaj | uβəɣia | uβɨɣɨ- |
man | *kuram | oro- | kural (?) | ura-mp | urʌ-mp | kurʌ ~ kura | ɣuraN-(pa) ~ -kura |
spear | *[k]uja | ja- | uja | uja-p | uja-p | uijʌ-pa | ɣuja- |
… /*k/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*k- | |||||||
betel pepper | *kamura | ramura | amɔːrʌ-p | amurʌ-pʌ | amura- |
Root-initial /*k/ in verbs however is retained as such when it is preceded by a prefix (cf. “watch (intr.)” above):
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*(-)k- | |||||||
see | *kiɣʉr[ʉ]- | -kʉ- | igr- | -kiːɣ- | -kɛr̃ɣə- | -kir- | -kiɣɨr-~-kiɣɨra |
carry on shoulder | *(-)kam[u]- | -kam- | amu- | -kam- | |||
*(-)k- | |||||||
bite | *(-)kʉŋg[i]- | nuŋgi- | -kɨŋgɨ- | -kiŋgi- | -kuŋg- |
One example in which apparent initial /*k/ does not undergo lenition is mandatorily a loan:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*K- | |||||||
Sing. taro | *K… | kondenu- | kɔndim | kundiː-mp | kodem | kundim(-) |
Initial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*kʷ- | |||||||
clay pot | *kʷamʉn | umuŋ | wʌmənʌ-mp | wʌmənʌ-mp | wamuŋa-mba | wamiN-amba | |
belly | *kʷanʉN | wanʉŋ | -koʌnŋʌ-mp | kʷanaŋa-mba | -kʷanɨN- | ||
fill | *kʷasʉɣ[ʉ]- | wosigʉ- | asʉgi- (?) | kʷʌtɨg- | wʌs- | wʌtɨɣ- | |
boil (v.) | *kʷaŋgʉr[ʉ]- | grʉ- | uŋgri- | waəg- | waŋgə- | waŋg- | waŋgi- |
As in the closely-related Sogeram River family, prenasalized voiced stops /*mb *nd *nz *ŋg/ do not occur word-initially.
Intiial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is sporadically dropped in Osum and Pondoma:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*w- | w [w Ø] | w [w Ø] | w | w | w | w | |
kunai grass | *[p/w]a[n/nd]aN | una- | ẉnaŋ- | wʌndamp | wʌndʌp | wanda-mba | |
watch/see | *was[i]- | -osi | -wʌse- | -wat- | was- ~ wasa- | ||
dream (v.) | *kijʉN-was[i]- | gijʉŋ osi | inə-wʌse- | ɣunu-wat- | |||
snake | *wanzirʉŋ | unzirʉŋ | wʌnzᵊrᵊŋ-ʌmp | wandrɨŋ-amba | wanzirɨN-amba | ||
forest | *waraŋ | wora- | ura ndəmba | wara-mp | wʌrʌ-mp | wʌra-j | waraN |
pandanus | *[p/w]uŋga | wogiji- | wəŋga | wuŋgʌ-p | wuŋgʌ-p | wuŋga-pa | |
jump | *[p/w]uŋgar[ʉ]- | wuŋgari- | wuŋgə- |
Apical non-stop /*r/ does not occur intially.
Intiial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*j- | |||||||
morning | *jʉwʉsa | ubusa | iwisa-t | iβɨta | jiβɨsa | ||
1 sg. | *ja | j- | ji ~ ja | ja- | jɛ- | ji | ji ~ ja |
ashes | *japuN | japo- | japu ~ japuŋ- | japɔ-mp | japu-mba |
When followed by a nasal consonant or a prenasalized voiced stop in the onset of the next syllable, initial /*j/ is retained as such only in Moresada and cocasionally in Osum. Elsewhere it is nasalized to [ɲ] in Osum and merged with apical /n/ in Pondoma, Wadaginam and Ikundun:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*j-/_VN VNC | ɲ j Ø | n | n | j Ø | n | n Ø | |
hunger | *jiŋgi | neke- | nɨŋgi | niŋgi-mp | iŋge-p | niŋge- | niŋgi- |
head/top | *j[i/ʉ]mbuN | nɨmbuŋ ~ numbuŋ | nimbɨŋ-gənʌ-p | -mbu- | nʉmbuŋa-ŋga nʉmbuŋ- | nimbuN- | |
sun | *j[i/ʉ]ŋar | ɲiŋar- | |||||
louse | *jʉman | nʉmaŋ | nimʌn-amp | imʌ-mp | nʉma-mba | nɨmaN-pa | |
name | *jʉmbi | pi- | numbi- | -nimbiː-mp | -mbɛ-p | -numbi-pa-ŋ | -mbi- |
die | *jʉmbʉr[ʉ]- | prɨ- | nʉmbr- | nɨmb- | imbə- | nʉmb- | nɨmbɨ- |
tail | *jʉŋaN | niŋa- | nʉŋaŋ | uŋʉn-amba (?) | |||
give | *jʉŋgu- | -ku- | nuŋgu- | -ŋgu- (sg.) -nuŋgu- (pl.) | -ku- | -kʷ- | -ku- |
fog | *jʉŋguŋ | ɲiku- | nuŋguŋ | iŋguŋ-omp | nuŋguŋ-amba | ||
swallow (v/) | *jamuŋgV- | ɲamuŋgʉ- | namuŋgu- | namɣ- | jʌːmŋgə- | namŋg- | |
yam sp, | *jamba[N/r] | japara- | nambaŋ | jambʌ-b | nambʌ-mba | nambaN-pa | |
blood | *jaŋguN | ɲaku- | naŋguŋ | nʌːŋgu-mp ~ -nʌŋgu-mp | -ŋgun-ump | naŋguŋ-umbaŋ | naŋguN- |
red | *jaŋguN | ɲaku- | naŋguŋg- | naŋgu- | jaŋgu- | naŋgu- | naŋguN- |
mosquito | *jaŋgur | jakur- |
… initial /*j/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*j-/_VN VNC | |||||||
star | *jʉndiN | nʉndʉŋ | insəŋʌ-mp | indɨŋa-mba | indiN-pa |
Initial velar non-stop [*ɣ] exists phonetically, but in most if not all instances is the initial allophone of /*k/ (above.)
… medial consonants
Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-m- | m | m | m | m | m | m | |
think | *indar-tam- | dara ram- | da-ram- | ||||
laugh | *irʉmu- | irmu- | irumi- | iramu- | irmʉ- | irɨmu- | |
breast | *aman | ama | amaŋ | mʌn-ʌmp | ʌmʌː-mp | ʌmʌ-mba-ŋ | amaN-(pa) |
tomorrow/td> | *amu | amu | ʌmu | ʌmɔ-j | amo-j | amu | |
smell (n.) | *umi | omi | umi- | ||||
liver | *mamʉn | mamuŋ | -mʌminʌ-ŋk | -mamɛŋ-amba | |||
be afraid | *pʉ[ŋ/ɣ]i-tʉm[i]- | wuŋe-tum- | wugi-təmi- | wugi-tʉm-; | βɨɣi-tɨmɨ- | ||
wash | *pʉji-tam- | -pi-ram | wi-ram- | -pi-tam- | -pi-rʌma- | -pig-ram- | -pi-ram- |
fly (v.) | *[p/k]ʉmʉr[ʉ]- | rʉmrʉ- | gumᵋri- | wumə- | bʉm- | ||
run/run away | *tʉm[i]- | r̩m- ~ tum- | tʉmi- ~ təmi- | tumə- | tʉm- | tɨm-~tim-~tɨma- | |
kill | *tʉɣim[u]- | tʉgimi- | tiɣimu- | -tɛgumu- | tʉgim- | ||
put/bury | *tam- | tam- (?) | tam- | tʌm- | tʌmə- | tʌm- ~ tam- | tam- |
stand | *taŋgʷa-tam- | rako-ra- (?) | tangu-ram- | taŋʷa-tam- | taŋgʷa-ram- | ||
shoot (v.) | *simu- | simu- ~ sumu- | simu- | -səmu- | -tum- | simu- | |
garden | *kima[na]N | gimanaŋ | iːmʌ-mp | jɛː-mp | |||
bow | *kʉmi | gumu | gʉm | ɣɨmi-kʌ-mp | iːmi-p | ɣɨmu-pa | ɣɨmɨ- ~ -ɣɨmb |
carry on shoulder | *kam[u]- | -kam- | amu- | -kam- | |||
betel pepper | *kamura | ramura | amɔːrʌ-p | amurʌ-pʌ | amura- | ||
swell | *kamu- | ɣʌːɣumu- | -ɣʌmu- | gam- | |||
clay pot | *kʷamʉn | umuŋ | wʌmənʌ-mp | wʌmənʌ-mp | wamuŋa-mba | wamiN-amba | |
louse | *jʉman | nʉmaŋ | nimʌn-amp | imʌ-mp | nʉma-mba | nɨmaN-pa | |
swallow (v/) | *jamuŋgV- | ɲamuŋgʉ- | namuŋgu- | namɣ- | jʌːmŋgə- | namŋg- |
Mdeial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-n- | n | n | n | n | n | n | |
sun | *ina | ina | iːnʌ-p | inʌ-pa | |||
water | *anʉm | anɨ- | anuŋ | ani-mp | anəŋʌ-mp | anɨŋa-mba | anɨN-(amba) |
salt/saltwater | *unuN | unu- | unuŋo-mp | unuŋa-mba | |||
cough (n.) | *mʉnʉ | mun | mʉnu | mənə- | mʉnʉ-p | ||
fruit/seed | *mʉnu | mɨnɨ-p | munu-k | munu-kwa | mɨnu-(ka) ~ munu-ka |
||
banana | *manʉŋ | manu- | mʌna | manaŋ-amp | manəŋ-ʌmba | manɨN-(amba) | |
old (thing) | *nunu- | nunu- | nuno- | nunu- | nunu-(ka) | ||
crooked | *kina-kina | ina-kena- | ina-kina- | ina-kina- | ɣina-kina- | ||
sleep (v.) | *kʉn[i]- | ɣuɲi | gi- (?) | gɨnɨ- | in- | gʉn | ɣɨnɨ- |
wooden plate | *kunaN | unaŋ | unʌ-mp | una-mba | ɣunaN-(pa) | ||
belly | *kʷanʉN | wanʉŋ | -koʌnŋʌ-mp | kʷanaŋa-mba | -kʷanɨN- |
Medial velar nasal /*ŋ/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-ŋ- | |||||||
call out/cry out | *aŋi- | aŋi- | ʌŋe- | aŋ- | aŋi- | ||
vomit | *miŋʉr[ʉ]- | miŋrʉ- | migri- | mɨg- | mʉŋe- | mʉŋu- | |
ripe | *muŋuN | muŋu- | muŋu- | mugu- (?) | muŋu- | muŋuN- | |
sun | *j[i/ʉ]ŋar | ɲiŋar- | |||||
tail | *jʉŋaN | niŋa- | nʉŋaŋ | uŋʉn-amba |
Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-p- | p | p | p | p | p | p | |
wallaby | *ipar | ipʌr-amp | iːpʌ-p | ipa-pa | |||
butterfly | *apapura | apapura | apuparʌː-p | apʌporʌ-p | apapura | ||
liver | *mapʉn | -mapɨŋ-gᵊna-mp | |||||
comb | *mandapiN | mandapiŋ | mandʌːpi-m | mandʌpɛ-mp | mandapi-mba | mandapiN- | |
ashes | *japuN | japo- | japu ~ japuŋ- | japɔ-mp | japu-mba | ||
bean | *kʉsipʉ | isip- | sɛːpi-p | ɣutipᵊ-pa | ɣɨsi-pa (?) |
Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-t- | |||||||
think | *indar-tam- | dara ram- | da-ram- | ||||
be afraid | *pʉ[ŋ/ɣ]i-tʉm[i]- | wuŋe-tum- | wugi-təmi- | wugi-tʉm-; | βɨɣi-tɨmɨ- | ||
wash | *pʉji-tam- | -pi-ram | wi-ram- | -pi-tam- | -pi-rʌma- | -pig-ram- | -pi-ram- |
walk | *pʉ-taŋgu- | p-raŋgu- | wi-tʌŋgu- | wu-taŋgu- | βɨ-taŋgu- | ||
stand | *taŋgʷa-tam- | rako-ra- | tangu-ram- | taŋʷa-tam- | taŋgʷa-ram- |
… /*T/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-T- | |||||||
wet | *mʉTʉ- | matə-ti | mət- | mtə-tə- | mete- | mɨtɨ- | |
crocodile | *maTʉkʉ | matak- | mʌtiki-p | matᵊkʉ-pa-ŋ | matɨkɨ-(pa) | ||
knife | *mawajiTa | maita | maita | muwajɨt- | moʌit | mʌita | |
straight | *tʉTʉ- | rtɛ- | tətə- | tətə- | tɨtɨ- |
Medial laminal voiceless /*s/ is merged with apical /t/ in Ikundun and varies between [t ts s] in Wadaginam:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-s- | s | s | ts [t ts s] | s | t | s | |
loincloth | *asʉN-pʉsa | asim-bisa- | asʉm-psa | atɨm-bɨtʌ-pa | |||
tobacco | *asaraN | asara- | asaraŋ | aisʌrʌ-p | atʌra-mba | ||
tail of bird | *[a]wasu | wasu | awatu-pa-ŋ | ||||
g-string | *usaN | wutu- | usaŋ | utʌ-mp | usʌ-mp | uta-mba | |
new | *usu | us | su | usu | utu | wusu | |
fire | *u[w/ɣ]ʉsʉ | woɣutɨ- | oːwus | uwisʌ-p | obutɨ-pa | uβɨsɨ-(pa) | |
cassowary | *masuɣuŋ | masuguŋ | mʌtsuɣu-mp | mʌsogu-mp | matuŋu-mba | masuɣuN | |
skin | *pʉsa | wʉsa- | wəsa | -wʉtʌ-mbʌ | βɨsa- ~ -βɨsa | ||
speak (tr.) | *kisuɣar[u]- | -gisugoru- | isigor- | -gituar- | isɨwar- | ||
bean | *kʉsipʉ | isip- | sɛːpi-p | ɣutipᵊ-pa | ɣɨsi-pa | ||
wind | *kʉjiŋgasa | uɲugasa- | gwingasa | ||||
fat/grease | *kasʉ | gʌːsi- | as-ka | -gʌsə-p | gatə-pa | ||
sand | *kasʉN | gasi- | asʉmna | atɨŋ-amp | asəŋ-ʌmp | ||
fill | *kʷasʉɣ[ʉ]- | wosigʉ- | asʉgi- (?) | kʷʌtɨg- | wʌs- | wʌtɨɣ- | |
watch/see | *was[i]- | -osi | -wʌse- | -wat- | was- ~ wasa- | ||
dream (v.) | *kijʉN-was[i]- | gijʉŋ osi | inə-wʌse- | ɣunu-wat- | |||
morning | *jʉwʉsa | ubusa | iwisa-t | iβɨta | jiβɨsa |
Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all descendants:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-k- | k | k | k | k | k | k | |
chicken | *akakura | akakara- | akakara | ʌkʌkʌr̃ʌ-p | akʌkʌrʌ-pa | akakara-(pa) | |
heart | *akuN | aku- | akuŋ- | ||||
all/many | *akuŋ | okuŋu | akuŋ | ||||
dog | *mʉrʉkʉN | mʉrəkŋ | murukŋ-amba | mɨrɨkɨN-(amba) | |||
crocodile | *maTʉkʉ | matak- | mʌtiki-p | matᵊkʉ-pa-ŋ | matɨkɨ-(pa) | ||
wooden plate | *makiN | maːki- | makiŋ | ||||
tree possum | *mukʉr | mokr- | mukr̃ | mɔkər̃-əp | mukr̃-pa | mukɨr-pa | |
egg | *mukuN | mukuŋ | muku-p | mukŋ-aŋga | mɨkɨN-aŋga mɨkɨN-amba |
||
bamboo | *pʉkʉ | wuku- | wʉkʉ | wukɨ-p | wukə-p | wukʉ-pa | βɨkɨ-(pa) ~ -βɨk |
full | *tʉk[i]- | rku- | tukuri- | tiki- | tuki- | tɨkɨ- | |
moon | *takun | tʌkuŋ | tʌkuŋ-omp | tʌkuŋ-umba | |||
rattan | *sʉkiN | skiŋ | təki-ŋga | sikiN-(pa) ~ -siki | |||
rat | *sʉk[a/u]w | sikow- | skow | təkɔː-pa | |||
nose | *sʉkuwar | skuar | -tukwʌr-pʌ | sɨkɨwar- | |||
crooked | *kina-kina | ina-kena- | ina-kina- | ina-kina- | ɣina-kina- | ||
sharp | *[j]ikaN | jika- | iŋʌ- (?) | ika | ikaN |
Medial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ is devoiced and denasalized to /p/ in Osum:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-mb- | p | mb | mb | mb | mb | mb | |
wing | *ambʉŋ | apʉŋ- | ambuŋ | ||||
how/how many | *ambʉɣiN | ambʉgiŋ | ambowe- | ambuɣ- -ambuɣe | ambʉɣi- (-ambʉɣi) |
||
knee | *mamba | mamba-kuŋg | -mamba-kən | ||||
flying fox | *marambuN | marambuŋ | marambu-ŋa-ŋ | marambuN-(pa) | |||
arrow sp. | *tumbʉraŋgi | tombraŋ | tumbraŋgi-pa | ||||
plant/bury | *tʉmbu- | rʉpu- | tumbu- | tumbu- | tɨmb- | ||
tie/fasten | *tʉmbu- | rpu- | tumbu- | tumbu- | |||
piece/stump | *tambuN | tʌmbuŋ | tambu-ŋga dambu-mba | -tambuN- | |||
young/child | *simbun | simbuŋ | simbina-ŋk | simbuN- | |||
slit drum | *s[i/ʉ]mbuN | tɨmbɨ-mp | sumbuno-mp | tɨmbuŋa-mba | simbuN-amba | ||
tooth | *kambur | gʌpɔ- | -gʌmbru-mp | -gʌmbɔ-p | -gambu-pʌ-ŋ | ||
path | *kumbʉ | ɣupu- | umbu | bu-mp | mbəː-p | gumbu-pa | ɣumpɨ-(pa) |
hot | *kumbʉN | gʉpʉn-d- | gjumbən-di- | -gumbaj | gumbun-d- | ɣɨmbɨN-tɨ- ~ ɣumb |
|
hole | *kumbaN | -komba- - -goŋba- (?) | gumbaŋ | ɣʉmbaŋ-ga ~ -giumbaŋ-ga | ɣumbaN-(ka) | ||
arm | *kumbuŋgʉr | umbuŋgʉr | -gɔmbogər̃ | -ɣumbuŋgʉr | ɣumbuŋgɨr | ||
head/top | *j[i/ʉ]mbuN | nɨmbuŋ ~ numbuŋ | nimbɨŋ-gənʌ-p | -mbu- | nʉmbuŋa-ŋga nʉmbuŋ- | nimbuN- | |
name | *jʉmbi | pi- | numbi- | -nimbiː-mp | -mbɛ-p | -numbi-pa-ŋ | -mbi- |
die | *jʉmbʉr[ʉ]- | prɨ- | nʉmbr- | nɨmb- | imbə- | nʉmb- | nɨmbɨ- |
yam sp, | *jamba[N/r] | japara- | nambaŋ | jambʌ-b | nambʌ-mba | nambaN-pa |
Onr example in which [*mb] remains as such in Osum results from a compound with /*-pʉsa/ “skin”:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-N-p- | |||||||
sky | *iɣuN-pʉsa | igum-bᵘsa | igum-bɨta-ka | ||||
loincloth | *asʉN-pʉsa | asim-bisa- | asʉm-psa | atɨm-bɨtʌ-pa |
Medial apical prenasalized voiced stop /*nd/ is generally devoiced and denasalized to /t/ in Osum:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-nd- | t | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | |
hear/sense/think | *indar- | dara | -indʌ- | -indʌrʌ- ~ dara- | -ndʌr- | ndar- | |
think | *indar-tam- | dara ram- | da-ram- | ||||
woman/female | *awundʉ | awund awundə-ka | awundi-mp ~ ʌwundi-mp | awondə-k awondə-nʌnt | awundə-) awundə-ka | awundɨ-(pa) | |
male | *mʉndʉ | miti- | mində-kara | mindi-mp | mində-k | mundu ~ mundu-ka | mɨndɨ- |
comb | *mandapiN | mandapiŋ | mandʌːpi-m | mandʌpɛ-mp | mandapi-mba | mandapiN- | |
go up | *mundu- | mundu- | mundu- | mundo- | mundo- | mundu- | |
sharpen | *pand[i]- | wat- | wandi- | pʌnd- | wʌndə- | pand- | |
grass skirt | *pandʉ | wand | wandɨ-pa | βandɨ-pa | |||
thigh | *tandam | ɣatam-bat- | tʌndam-bat | -tʌndʌ-mp | -tʌnda-gər̃ | -tanda-mba | |
navel | *sʉndʉwu | -tindᵊwu-kən-amp | -səndəwi-p | -tundəwu-p | -sinziwu- (?) | ||
arrow sp. | *kindʉ | gitʌ- | giːndə | indɨ-kənʌ-mp | ində-pa | ||
right (side) | *kandʉ | atə- | andɛ- | -kandə- | -andə- | andə- | |
be sick/ill | *kandʉɣi- | katigi-ɲi- | andəgi- | ||||
smell (n.) | *kanduwa | katuwa- | ganduwa-p | ||||
slit drum | *kaɣʉndʉ | kʌːgɛnd- | agʉndʉ | ||||
split | *kuwand[ʉ]- | kuwand- | uwʌndə- | uwand- | βand- | ||
star | *jʉndiN | nʉndʉŋ | insəŋʌ-mp (?) | indɨŋa-mba | indiN-pa |
There are everal unexplained exceotions in which /*nd/ is retained as such in Osum, two of which strangely look to have irregular reflexes /nz/ in other Tomui River languages::
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-nd- | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | |
vein | *aŋgʉndʉ | akində- | aŋg-aŋgʉdɛ | -ŋgugudə-p | |||
fly (n.) | *u[w/ɣ]ʉndʉ | wundək- | ʌwiːndʉ-p | winzʌ-p (?) | wuɣundə-pa-ŋ | ||
root | *kʉndʉr | gɨndi- | gʉndə | gɨntsir-ʌmp (?) | ndə-k | gundə-pa | ɣɨndɨ- ~ -ɣɨnd |
Some examples of medial [nd] arise from the suffixation of auxilliary verb /*tɨ/ “do/male” to a root with a final nasal consonant:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-N-t- | |||||||
speak (intr.) | *aŋgaN-tɨ- | (a)ka-t- | aŋgan-d- | ||||
make/work | *ujaN-tɨ- | ujan-di- | ujan-d- | ||||
be cold | *kʉrʉN-tɨ- | gurun-di | gurun-d- | ɣɨrɨN-tɨ- | |||
be hot | *kumbʉN-tɨ- | gʉpʉn-d- | gjumbən-di- | -gumbaj | gumbun-d- | ɣɨmbɨN-tɨ- ~ ɣumb |
Medial laminal prenasalized voiced /*nz/ is devoiced and denasalized to /s/ in Osum and merged with apical /nd/ in Ikundun and Wadaginam:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-nz- | s | nz [nz ns] | nd | nz | nd | nz | |
one | *m[i/ʉ]nza | mɨsa-ka | minsa-ka | mɨnda-mbʌt | minzʌ-k | minda-ka | mɨnza-(ka) ~ minza- |
sit | *mʉnzʉrV- | mʉsirʉ | mʉnzira | mindra- | md- | mʉndr- | mɨnzɨrɨ- ~ mɨnzɨra- |
armpit | *kʉnzi | is= | gʉnsi | ||||
singsing | *kʉnzʉ-kʉnzʉ | si-ginsi– | gunzi-gunz | gundu-gund | ɣɨnzɨ-ɣɨnzɨ | ||
afternoon | *kʉnzʉr | gunzᵋrʉŋ | insər | ɣʉndir | ɣɨnzɨr | ||
ear | *kʉnzʉɣiw | ginsɛgiw | -ɣundəgiwə-pʌ | -ɣɨnzɨɣiβ- ~ -ɣɨnzɨɣɨβ- |
|||
calf | *kunzuN | utsumak- | guntsuŋ | -gundɨ-mɨnɨ-p | -gunzuŋo-mp | -gunduŋ-ump | |
snake | *wanzirʉŋ | unzirʉŋ | wʌnzᵊrᵊŋ-ʌmp | wandrɨŋ-amba | wanzirɨN-amba |
Medial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ is generally devoiced and denasalized to /k/ in Osum:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-ŋg- | k | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | |
leg/foot | *iŋgʉrʉ | jikr- | -iŋgr | -iŋgər | -iŋgrɨ-pa | -iŋgɨrɨ(-pa) | |
vein | *aŋgʉndʉ | akində- | aŋg-aŋgʉdɛ | -ŋgugudə-p | |||
wild fowl | *aŋga | aŋga | aŋgʌ-p | aŋa-pa-ŋ (?) | aŋga-(pa) | ||
speak (intr.) | *aŋgaN- | (a)ka-t- | aŋgan-d- | ||||
hand drum | *uŋgʉ | uŋk | uŋgʉ-pa | uŋgu-pa ~ uŋgɨ- | |||
pour | *miŋg[i/u]- | meːku- | miŋgi- | miŋgi- | miŋgi- | miŋg- | miŋg- ~ mɨŋg- |
egg/fruit | *maŋga | makə- ~ mʌːkə- | |||||
shoulder | *maraŋgV | -maraŋga-mp | -mʌraŋgin | -mʌraŋgo-pa | |||
house | *muŋgu | muŋgu | muŋgu-p | muŋgu-pa | muŋgu-(pa) | ||
go down | *muŋgu- | moko- | muŋgu- | muŋgu- | muŋgo- | muŋgo- | muŋgu- ~mɨŋgu- |
pull/tie | *pʉŋgʉr[ʉ]- | wukrʉ- ~ -pʉkrʉ- | wuŋgr- | sɨ-wiŋgi- | sɨ-wiŋgi- | tʉ-bʉŋg- | |
vine | *pʉɣʉn | wʉgʉŋ | wɨgɨnʌ-mp | wugɛnʌ-mp | wuguŋa-mba | βɨŋgɨN- ~ βɨɣ- (?) |
|
mountain | *tʉŋgʉ | rʉkə- | tɨŋgə-k | ||||
step | *taŋgu- | -raŋgu- | -tʌŋgu- | -taŋgu- | taŋgu- | ||
arrow sp. | *tumbʉraŋgi | tombraŋ (?) | tumbraŋgi-pa | ||||
elbow | *kiŋgu[N/ŋga] | gikoŋga- | -giŋguŋ | ||||
bite | *kʉŋg[i]- | nuŋgi- | -kɨŋgɨ- | -kiŋgi- | -kuŋg- | ||
wind | *kʉjiŋgasa | uɲugasa- | gwingasa | ||||
arm | *kumbuŋgʉr | umbuŋgʉr | -gɔmbogər̃ | -ɣumbuŋgʉr | ɣumbuŋgɨr | ||
yellow | *kuŋgaN | uŋga- | uŋga- | uŋgaN-(ka) | |||
boil (v.) | *kʷaŋgʉr[ʉ]- | grʉ- | uŋgri- | waəg- | waŋgə- | waŋg- | waŋgi- |
pandanus | *[p/w]uŋga | wogiji- | wəŋga | wuŋgʌ-p | wuŋgʌ-p | wuŋga-pa | |
jump | *[p/w]uŋgar[ʉ]- | wuŋgari- | wuŋgə- | ||||
hunger | *jiŋgi | neke- | nɨŋgi | niŋgi-mp | iŋge-p | niŋge- | niŋgi- |
give | *jʉŋgu- | -ku- | nuŋgu- | -ŋgu- (sg.) -nuŋgu- (pl.) | -ku- (?) | -kʷ- (?) | -ku- (?) |
fog | *jʉŋguŋ | ɲiku- | nuŋguŋ | iŋguŋ-omp | nuŋguŋ-amba | ||
blood | *jaŋguN | ɲaku- | naŋguŋ | nʌːŋgu-mp ~ -nʌŋgu-mp | -ŋgun-ump | naŋguŋ-umbaŋ | naŋguN- |
red | *jaŋguN | ɲaku- | naŋguŋg- | naŋgu- | jaŋgu- | naŋgu- | naŋguN- |
mosquito | *jaŋgur | jakur- |
… medial /*ŋg/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-ŋg- | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | ŋg | |||
penis | *mʉŋgʉn | maŋr- (?) | mʉgrʉ (?) | -mɨŋgɨn-amp | -məŋgən-ʌmp | -muŋgɨnʌ-mba-ŋ | muŋguN- |
walk | *pʉ-taŋgu- | p-raŋgu- | wi-tʌŋgu- | wu-taŋgu- | βɨ-taŋgu- | ||
shoulder | *tuwuŋguN | rubuŋgu- | tubuŋguŋ | ||||
swallow (v/) | *jamuŋgV- | ɲamuŋgʉ- | namuŋgu- | namɣ- (?) | jʌːmŋgə- | namŋg- |
Medial rounded velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋgʷ/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-ŋgʷ- | |||||||
stand | *taŋgʷa-tam- | rako-ra- | tangu-ram- | taŋʷa-tam- | taŋgʷa-ram- |
Medial bilabial non-stop /*w'/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-w- | |||||||
good | *awiN | awi- | awi- | avi- | awe- | awi- | aβiN-ka |
coconut | *aw[ʉ/a]nʉ | ʌβʌŋ | awanə-p | awɨnɨ-pa | aβɨnɨ-(pa) | ||
tail of bird | *[a]wasu | wasu | awatu-pa-ŋ | ||||
woman/female | *awundʉ | awund awundə-ka | awundi-mp ~ ʌwundi-mp | awondə-k awondə-nʌnt | awundə-) awundə-ka | awundɨ-(pa) | |
few | *uwaŋ | owaŋ | uwaŋ | wʌŋg- | owaŋ | ||
sago | *mawa[m] | mawam | mʌwʌ | mʌwʌː-mp | mawʌ-p | mʌwa-pa | mawa-(pa) |
knife | *mawajiTa | maita | maita | muwajɨt- | moʌit | mʌita | |
buy | *maɣʉwi[ni]- | mʌgə wiɲi- | mawugᵊni- | mʌgɨwɨ- | maiβ- | maiβ- | maiβ- |
fence | *tʉwa | tʌpʌ ~ tuwa | tɨwʌː-p | tʉwʌ-p | tuwa-pa | tɨβa-(pa) | |
cut | *tawVɣV | rʌbugu- ~ raβuɣʉ- | taːwog- | tʌw- | taːβʉg- | taβaɣ-~taβɨɣa- | |
shoulder | *tuwuŋguN | rubuŋgu- | tubuŋguŋ | ||||
crayfish | *siwʉ | siv | tiwə-pu | siβɨ-pa | |||
navel | *sʉndʉwu | -tindᵊwu-kən-amp | -səndəwi-p | -tundəwu-p | -sinziwu- | ||
nose | *sʉkuwar | skuar | -tukwʌr-pʌ | sɨkɨwar- | |||
trunk | *sawi | sʌwi | tʌpa-kᵊnʌ-mp | sawɛ-k | tʌːβi-ka | saβi(-) | |
stomach | *sawʉ | sɔ- | tawu-tɨŋʌ-p | -sʌwi-p | -tawu-ka | ||
mosquito | *sawuɣʉ | sagobogo | tuɣu-mp | sʌwuɣə-p | tawuɣu-pa | ||
pig | *sawun | savuŋ | tʌpun-ump | sʌwon-omp | tawu-mba | sawuN- ~ saɣuN-pa |
|
smell (n.) | *kanduwa | katuwa- | ganduwa-p | ||||
saliva | *kawa | - | aba | -ɣawʌ-pʌ-ŋ | ɣaβa- ~ aβa- | ||
bone | *kawaŋ | ɣʌwa- | awaŋ | -gʌwʌ-mp | -ɣʌwʌ-ŋk | -ɣawa-mba | |
flying fox | *karawVn | ɣaraw- | arʌwi-mp | ar̃ʌwɛnʌ-mp | |||
sore | *kuwi | gui | -goi-pa-ŋ | ɣui- | |||
dawn | *kuwʉɣV | goβugia | ubugia | ɣʌwɨɣ | uwogaj | uβəɣia | uβɨɣɨ- |
split | *kuwand[ʉ]- | kuwand- | uwʌndə- | uwand- | βand- | ||
morning | *jʉwʉsa | ubusa | iwisa-t | iβɨta | jiβɨsa |
Medial apical non-stop /*r/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-r- | |||||||
hear/sense/think | *indar- | dara | -indʌ- | -indʌrʌ- ~ dara- | -ndʌr- | ndar- | |
leg/foot | *iŋgʉrʉ | jikr- | -iŋgr | -iŋgər | -iŋgrɨ-pa | -iŋgɨrɨ(-pa) | |
laugh | *irʉmu- | irmu- | irumi- | iramu- | irmʉ- | irɨmu- | |
butterfly | *apapura | apapura | apuparʌː-p | apʌporʌ-p | apapura | ||
tobacco | *asaraN | asara- | asaraŋ | aisʌrʌ-p | atʌra-mba | ||
chicken | *akakura | akakara- | akakara | ʌkʌkʌr̃ʌ-p | akʌkʌrʌ-pa | akakara-(pa) | |
tree | *arʉ | ʌːr ~ ʌr | ʌjɨ-mp (?) | arə-p | arɨ-pa | arɨ-(pa) | |
scratch | *ar[u]- | aru- | ar- | ʌr- | |||
shadow | *uɣuru | oguro- | oŋroŋ (?) | -guru-k | -guru-p | ||
light (of fire) | *mira | mira- | mira | merʌ-k | mira-pa | ||
sit | *mʉnzʉrV- | mʉsirʉ | mʉnzira | mindra- | md- | mʉndr- | mɨnzɨrɨ- ~ mɨnzɨra- |
sap | *mʉrʉŋ | mrʉ- | mʉrʉŋ- | mɨrɨŋʌ-mp | murŋa-mba | ||
dog | *mʉrʉkʉN | mʉrəkŋ | murukŋ-amba | mɨrɨkɨN-(amba) | |||
flying fox | *marambuN | marambuŋ | marambu-ŋa-ŋ | marambuN-(pa) | |||
shoulder | *maraŋgV | -maraŋga-mp | -mʌraŋgin | -mʌraŋgo-pa | |||
sweat | *murʉ | mur̃ | mujɨ-mp (?) | -mor̃ə-p | mor̃-pa | murɨ-pa ~ mor- | |
meat/flesh | *muru | muru- | muru | mɨrɨ-p | muru-k | muru-ka | muru-ka |
sickness/illness | *puraN | urʌ-mp | ura-mp | ura-m- | βɨra | ||
short | *p[u]ru | wuru- | wuru- | wuru- | βɨru- | ||
fall over | *[p]uruɣu- | urugu- | urugu- | urogu-~ur̃ɔɣu- | puruw- | ||
arrow sp. | *tumbʉraŋgi | tombraŋ | tumbraŋgi-pa | ||||
hold | *turV- | turi- | tɔrə- | utur- | tur- ~ tura- | ||
blow (fire) | *tuɣuwar- | rugowar- | tugowar- | tuɣowʌre- | tuguwʌr | tuwu-βar- | |
rain | *sʉra | r̃ːa- | trʌ | sirʌ-p | sɨrʌ-p | tr̃ʌ-pa | tɨra-(pa) |
speak (tr.) | *kisuɣar[u]- | -gisugoru- | isigor- | -gituar- | isɨwar- | ||
watch (intr.) | *kiɣʉr[ʉ]- | jegrʉ- | igr- | igi- | irəgə- | igra-ram- | iɣɨr- ~ iɣɨra |
see | *kiɣʉr[ʉ]- | -kʉ- | igr- | -kiːɣ- | -kɛr̃ɣə- | -kir- | -kiɣɨr-~-kiɣɨra |
burn/roast | *kʉri[]- | ɣrʉ- | gri | kɨr- | ir- | gɨr- | kɨr- ~ kɨra- |
cold | *kʉrʉN | gurun-di | gurun-d- | ɣɨrɨN-tɨ- | |||
betel pepper | *kamura | ramura | amɔːrʌ-p | amurʌ-pʌ | amura- | ||
areca nut | *kariN | ajʌː-mp (?) | ar̃ɛ-mp | ari-mba | ariN-(pa) | ||
flying fox | *karawVn | ɣaraw- | arʌwi-mp | ar̃ʌwɛnʌ-mp | |||
wallaby | *kajuɣara | gaigora- | aigura | aiwara-pa | aiwara- | ||
man | *kuram | oro- | kural (?) | ura-mp | urʌ-mp | kurʌ ~ kura | ɣuraN-(pa) ~ -kura |
snake | *wanzirʉŋ | unzirʉŋ | wʌnzᵊrᵊŋ-ʌmp | wandrɨŋ-amba | wanzirɨN-amba | ||
forest | *waraŋ | wora- | ura ndəmba | wara-mp | wʌrʌ-mp | wʌra-j | waraN |
… /*r/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-r- | r | r | Ø | Ø | Ø | Ø | |
vomit | *miŋʉr[ʉ]- | miŋrʉ- | migri- | mɨg- | mʉŋe- | mʉŋu- | |
pull/tie | *pʉŋgʉr[ʉ]- | wukrʉ- ~ -pʉkrʉ- | wuŋgr- | sɨ-wiŋgi- | sɨ-wiŋgi- | tʉ-bʉŋg- | |
side | *pʉriN | -bri | -pər | -priŋ | |||
fly (v.) | *[p/k]ʉmʉr[ʉ]- | rʉmrʉ- | gumᵋri- | wumə- | bʉm- | ||
jump | *[p/w]uŋgar[ʉ]- | wuŋgari- | wuŋgə- | ||||
chop/fell | *taɣʉr[ʉ]- | rʌgrʉ- | tʌgr- | tʌɣ- | tʌɣə- | tʌg- | taɣ- ~ taɣa- |
boil (v.) | *kʷaŋgʉr[ʉ]- | grʉ- | uŋgri- | waəg- | waŋgə- | waŋg- | waŋgi- |
die | *jʉmbʉr[ʉ]- | prɨ- | nʉmbr- | nɨmb- | imbə- | nʉmb- | nɨmbɨ- |
… /*r/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-r- | r | r | Ø | Ø | Ø | Ø | |
weep/cry | *[j]irʉɣ[ʉ]- | irgʉ- | jigi- | iɣ- | iːɣə- | jiɣ- | jiɣ-~jiɣa-~jiɣu- |
Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-j- | |||||||
charcoal/black | *ajiɣi | aɟiɣi- | aziɣi- | ajig- ~ aiɣi-pa | aiɣi-(pa) | ||
make/work | *ujaN-tɨ- | ujan-di- | ujan-d- | ||||
knife | *mawajiTa | maita | maita | muwajɨt- | moʌit | mʌita | |
vulva/vagina | *paji | waji | wai-p | waji-pa-ŋ | -βaiji- | ||
mouth/speech | *kija | jaː- | gia- | -gia- | ɣɨja-(pa) | ||
mouth | *kija-kumbaN | jaː-goŋba- | -gia-ɣʉmbaŋ-ga | -ɣɨja-ɣʉmbaN-ka | |||
wallaby | *kajuɣara | gaigora- | aigura | aiwara-pa | aiwara- |
When /*j/ …
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-j-/_VN VNC | |||||||
knife | *ajʉm | ajʉŋ | aimomomp | aiN-amba | |||
day b.y./a.t. | *ajuŋ | aɲɨgu | ajuŋ | anuŋ-k | anuŋ | anuŋ ~ anuN- | |
dream (n.) | *kijʉN | giɲi- | gijʉŋ | inə- | ɣunu- | ||
dream (v.) | *kijʉN-was[i]- | gijʉŋ osi | inə-wʌse- | ɣunu-wat- | |||
wind | *kʉjiŋgasa | uɲugasa- | gwingasa | ||||
spear | *[k]uja | ja- | uja | uja-p | uja-p | uijʌ-pa | ɣuja- |
Medial velar non-stop /*ɣ/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-ɣ- | |||||||
cloud | *iɣuN | igo | igum- | iŋguŋo-mp (?) | igum- | ||
sky | *iɣuN-pʉsa | igum-bᵘsa | igum-bɨta-ka | ||||
charcoal/black | *ajiɣi | aɟiɣi- | aziɣi- | ajig- ~ aiɣi-pa | aiɣi-(pa) | ||
how/how many | *ambʉɣiN | ambʉgiŋ | ambowe- | ambuɣ- -ambuɣe | ambʉɣi- (-ambʉɣi) |
||
sugarcane | *aɣaN | aga- | ʌgʌŋ | aɣʌ-mp | aɣa-mba | ||
shadow | *uɣuru | oguro- | oŋroŋ (?) | -guru-k | -guru-p | ||
cassowary | *masuɣuN | masuguŋ | mʌtsuɣu-mp | mʌsogu-mp | matuŋu-mba | masuɣuN | |
buy | *maɣʉwi[ni]- | mʌgə wiɲi- | mawugᵊni- | mʌgɨwɨ- | maiβ- | maiβ- | maiβ- |
net bag | *paɣan | wagaŋ | waɣana-mp | waɣʌnʌ-mp | wʌɣa-mba | βaɣa-mba | |
fall over | *[p]uruɣu- | urugu- | urugu- | urogu-~ur̃ɔɣu- | puruw- | ||
village | *puɣar | wugo- | wugu | uwara-mp | wuɣʌrʌ-mp | wʉga-pa | βwa- ~ βwa-r |
kill | *tʉɣim[u]- | tʉgimi- | tiɣimu- | -tɛgumu- | tʉgim- | ||
cut | *tawVɣV | rʌbugu- ~ raβuɣʉ- | taːwog- | tʌw- | taːβʉg- | taβaɣ-~taβɨɣa- | |
chop/fell | *taɣʉr[ʉ]- | rʌgrʉ- | tʌgr- | tʌɣ- | tʌɣə- | tʌg- | taɣ- ~ taɣa- |
hit/say | *tuɣu- | tuɣu- ~tugu -~rugu- ~ ro- | tugu- ~ tuɣʉ- | tuɣu- ~ tugu- | tugu- ~ tu- | tuɣu- ~ tuwu- | |
cough (v.) | *tuɣu- | rugu- | tugu- | tugu- | tu- | ||
blow (fire) | *tuɣuwar- | rugowar- | tugowar- | tuɣowʌre- | tuguwʌr | tuwu-βar- | |
carry on back | *sʉɣ[ʉ]- | zigʉ- | sʉg- | tɨgɨ- | si- | tʉgʉ- | sɨɣɨ- siɣɨ-~ sɨɣi- |
mosquito | *sawuɣʉ | sagobogo | tuɣu-mp | sʌwuɣə-p | tawuɣu-pa | ||
speak (tr.) | *kisuɣar[u]- | -gisugoru- | isigor- | -gituar- | isɨwar- | ||
watch (intr.) | *kiɣʉr[ʉ]- | jegrʉ- | igr- | igi- | irəgə- | igra-ram- | iɣɨr- ~ iɣɨra |
see | *kiɣʉr[ʉ]- | -kʉ- | igr- | -kiːɣ- | -kɛr̃ɣə- | -kir- | -kiɣɨr-~-kiɣɨra |
ear | *kʉnzʉɣiw | ginsɛgiw | -ɣundəgiwə-pʌ | -ɣɨnzɨɣiβ- ~ -ɣɨnzɨɣɨβ- |
|||
be sick/ill | *kandʉɣi- | katigi-ɲi- | andəgi- | ||||
wallaby | *kajuɣara | gaigora- | aigura | aiwara-pa | aiwara- | ||
slit drum | *kaɣʉndʉ | kʌːgɛnd- | agʉndʉ | ||||
fasten/bind | *kaɣa- | ɣaga-ɲi- | ʌgi- | ʌgə- | aɣa- | ||
dawn | *kuwʉɣV | goβugia | ubugia | ɣʌwɨɣ | uwogaj | uβəɣia | uβɨɣɨ- |
fill | *kʷasʉɣ[ʉ]- | wosigʉ- | asʉgi- (?) | kʷʌtɨg- | wʌs- | wʌtɨɣ- | |
weep/cry | *[j]irʉɣ[ʉ]- | irgʉ- | jigi- | iɣ- | iːɣə- | jiɣ- | jiɣ-~jiɣa-~jiɣu- |
… final consonants …
…:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | |
* |
Final apical nasal /*n/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-n | n Ø | n Ø | ŋ Ø | ŋ | |||
breast | *aman | ama | amaŋ | mʌn-ʌmp | ʌmʌː-mp (?) | ʌmʌ-mba-ŋ | amaN-(pa) |
liver | *mamʉn | mamuŋ | -mʌminʌ-ŋk | -mamɛŋ-amba | |||
flying fox | *karawVn | ɣaraw- | arʌwi-mp (?) | ar̃ʌwɛnʌ-mp | |||
penis | *mʉŋgʉn | maŋr- | mʉgrʉ | -mɨŋgɨn-amp | -məŋgən-ʌmp | -muŋgɨnʌ-mba-ŋ (?) | muŋguN- |
vine | *pʉɣʉn | wʉgʉŋ | wɨgɨnʌ-mp | wugɛnʌ-mp | wuguŋa-mba | βɨŋgɨN- ~ βɨɣ- | |
net bag | *paɣan | wagaŋ | waɣana-mp | waɣʌnʌ-mp | wʌɣa-mba | βaɣa-mba | |
moon | *takun | tʌkuŋ | tʌkuŋ-omp (?) | tʌkuŋ-umba | |||
sea | *tu[w/ɣ]ʉn | towuŋ | suwun-ʌmp | towən-ʌmp | toːgŋ-amba | ||
young/child | *simbun | simbuŋ | simbina-ŋk | simbuN- | |||
pig | *sawun | savuŋ | tʌpun-ump | sʌwon-omp | tawu-mba | sawuN- ~ saɣuN-pa |
|
lime | *su[w/ɣ]an | sugɔŋ | tuwʌn-amp | sugʷʌnʌ-mp | tuwa-mba | suwaN-(pa) | |
flying fox | *karawVn | ɣaraw- | arʌwi-mp (?) | ar̃ʌwɛnʌ-mp | |||
clay pot | *kʷamʉn | umuŋ | wʌmənʌ-mp | wʌmənʌ-mp | wamuŋa-mba | wamiN-amba | |
louse | *jʉman | nʉmaŋ | nimʌn-amp | imʌ-mp (?) | nʉma-mba | nɨmaN-pa |
Final velar nasal /*ŋ/ …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ||||
wing | *ambʉŋ | apʉŋ- | ambuŋ | ||||
sap | *mʉrʉŋ | mrʉ- | mʉrʉŋ- | mɨrɨŋʌ-mp | murŋa-mba | ||
banana | *manʉŋ | manu- | mʌna | manaŋ-amp | manəŋ-ʌmba | manɨN-(amba) | |
cassowary | *masuɣuŋ | masuguŋ | mʌtsuɣu-mp | mʌsogu-mp | matuŋu-mba | masuɣuN | |
forest | *waraŋ | wora- | ura ndəmba | wara-mp | wʌrʌ-mp | wʌra-j | waraN |
Final apical non-stop /*r/… :
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-r | |||||||
tongue | *mir | mir-gʌ- | mir̃ | -mɛr̃ə-k | -mir-pa | -mir-(ka) | |
tree possum | *mukʉr | mokr- | mukr̃ | mɔkər̃-əp | mukr̃-pa | mukɨr-pa |
… /*r/… :
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-r | |||||||
afternoon | *kʉnzʉr | gunzᵋrʉŋ | insər | ɣʉndir | ɣɨnzɨr | ||
arm | *kumbuŋgʉr | umbuŋgʉr | -gɔmbogər̃ | -ɣumbuŋgʉr | ɣumbuŋgɨr |
… /*r/… :
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
*-r | |||||||
wallaby | *ipʉr | ipʌr-amp | iːpʌ-p | ipa-pa | |||
village | *puɣar | wugo- | wugu | uwara-mp | wuɣʌrʌ-mp | wʉga-pa | βwa- ~ βwa-r |
root | *kʉndʉr | gɨndi- | gʉndə | gɨntsir-ʌmp | ndə-k | gundə-pa | ɣɨndɨ- ~ -ɣɨnd |
tooth | *kambur | gʌpɔ- | -gʌmbru-mp | -gʌmbɔ-p | -gambu-pʌ-ŋ |
… vowels …
…
…
Pronouns
Proto-Tomui River pronouns had both subject forms, which consist of only the uninflected base, and objects which are suffixed with /*-ɣʉ/. Osum, Wadaginam and Moresada have collapsed these two paradigms, with Osum and Wadaginam using the object forms of the singulars but the subejt form of the plurals and Moresada using object forms form both numbers; hence the gaps in the paradigms which follow.
Tomui River subject pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with Osum, Pondoma, Wadaginam, Moresada and Ikundun attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 81-82) and Anamuxra from Ingram (2001: 194-203.) Ingram's Anamuxra third person singular looks to have been replaced with the plural, although their associated prefixed forms remain distinct (below):
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
1 sg. | *ja | — | ji ~ ja | — | — | ji | ji ~ ja |
2 sg. | *na | — | na | — | — | na | na |
3 sg. | *nʉ | — | nʉ | — | — | nʉ | [nɨ-ŋ] |
1 pl. | *a-ŋ | a-ŋ | a-ŋ | ɣa-ŋ (?) | — | a-ŋ | a-ŋ |
2 pl. | *na-ŋ | na-ŋ | na-ŋ | na-ŋ | — | na-ŋ | na-ŋ |
3 pl. | *nʉ-ŋ | nu-ŋ | nʉ-ŋ | nɨ-ŋ | — | nʉ-ŋ | nɨ-ŋ |
1 dl. | *a-r | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | a-r |
2 dl. | *na-r | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | na-r |
3 dl. | *nʉ-r | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | nʉ-r |
Tomui River object pronouns are reconstructed as follows:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
1 sg. obj. | *ja-ɣʉ | ji-gᵊ | ja-g | ja-ɣ | jɛ-ɣ | ja-g | |
2 sg. obj | *na-ɣʉ | na-gᵊ | na-g | na-ɣ | na-ɣ | na-g | |
3 sg. obj. | *nʉ-ɣʉ | nʉ-gᵊ | nʉ-g | nɨ-ɣ | nə-ɣ | nʉ-g | |
1 pl. obj. | *a-ŋ-ɣʉ | — | a-ŋᵊ-gʉ | — | a-ŋə-ɣ | a-ŋ-gɨ | |
2 pl. obj. | *na-ŋ-ɣʉ | — | na-ŋᵊ-gʉ | — | na-ŋə-ɣ | na-ŋ-gɨ | |
3 pl. obj. | *nʉ-ŋ-ɣʉ | — | nʉ-ŋᵊ-gʉ | — | nɨ-ŋə-ɣ | nʉ-ŋ-gɨ | |
1 dl. obj. | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ||
2 dl. obj. | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ||
3 dl. obj. | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
While Z'graggen does not give dual forms, the originality of the Ingram's Anamuxra forms is supported by outcomparison to Sogeram River (Daniels 2017: 86.) The separation of plural and dual suffixes is supported by not only the brute force of analogy but the fact that the plural suffix /*-ŋ/ is in Anamuxra used also for ordinary nominals (Ingram 2001: 186-187.)
In addition to subjects and objects, alienable possessve forms are reconstructed as follows (the second /*-ka/ on some forms is a nominal classifier):
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
1 sg. al. | *ja-ka | — | ja-ka-ka | ja-ka(-mp) | ja-ka-k | ja-ka-k | ja-ka |
2 sg. al. | *na-ka | — | na-ka-ka | na-ka(-mp) | na-ka-k | na-ka-k | na-ka |
3 sg. poss. | *nʉ-ka | — | nʉ-ka-ka | nɨ-ka(-mp) | nə-ka-k | nʉ-ka-k | nɨ-ka |
1 pl. al. | *a-ŋ-ka | — | a-ŋ-ka-ka | a-ŋa-ka(-mp) | a-ŋəŋ-ka-k | a-ŋ-ka-k | a-ŋ-ka |
2 pl. al. | *na-ŋ-ka | — | na-ŋ-ka-ka | na-ŋa-ka(-mp) | na-ŋəŋ-ka-k | na-ŋ-ka-k | ? |
3 pl. al. | *nʉ-ŋ-ka | — | nʉ-ŋ-ka-ka | nɨ-ŋa-ka(-mp) | nɨ-ŋəŋ-ka-k | nʉ-ŋ-ka-k | nɨ-ŋ-ka |
2 dl. al. | *na-r-ka | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
3 dl. al. | *nʉ-r-ka | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | nɨ-r-ka |
An alternative alienable possessive series is found in Osum and in Ingram's Anamuxra:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
1 sg. al. | *ja-ɣʉwu | ji-go | — | — | — | — | ja-ɣɨwu |
2 sg. al. | *na-ɣʉwu | na-go | — | — | — | — | na-ɣɨwu |
3 sg. al. | *nʉ-ɣʉwu | nʉ-go | — | — | — | — | nɨ-ɣɨwu |
1 pl. al. | *a-ŋ-ɣʉwu | a-ŋ-go | — | — | — | — | a-ŋ-ɣɨwu |
2 pl. al. | *na-ŋ-ɣʉwu | na-ŋ-go | — | — | — | — | ? |
3 pl. al. | *nʉ-ŋ-ɣʉwu | nʉ-ŋ-go | — | — | — | — | nɨ-ŋ-ɣɨwu |
1 dl. al. | *a-r-ɣʉwu | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | a-r-ɣɨwu |
2 dl. al. | *na-r-ɣʉwu | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
3 dl. al. | *nʉ-r-ɣʉwu | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
In addtion to the free forms, prefixes are used to indicate inalienable possessors: and verbal objects.
…inalienable possessors, which Z'graggen glosses as genitive … kin terms and body parts (Ingram 2001: ):
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
1 sg. inal. | *ja- | ji- | jV- | ja- | ja- | ja- | ji- ~ ja- |
2 sg. inal. | *na- | a- ~ Ø- | na- | na- | na- | na- | na- |
3 sg. inal. | *nʉ- | nʉ- | nʉ- | Ø- | n- | nʉ- | nɨ- |
1 pl. inal. | *a-ŋ- | [ji-] | a-ŋa- | a-ŋa- | a-ŋa- | a-ŋa- | a-ŋ- |
2 pl. inal. | *na-ŋ- | [a- ~ Ø-] | na-ŋa- | na-ŋa- | na-ŋa- | na-ŋa- | na-ŋ- |
3 pl. inal. | *nʉ-ŋ- | [nʉ-] | nʉ-ŋa- | nɨ-ŋa- | nɨ-ŋa- | nʉ-ŋa- | nɨ-ŋ- |
1 dl. inal. | *a-r- | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | a-r- |
2 dl. inal. | *na-r- | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | na-r- |
3 dl. inal. | *nʉ-r- | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | nɨ-r- |
… verbal objects …::
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
1 sg. v. obj. | *ja- | ji- | — | ja- | ja- | ja- | ji- ~ ja- |
2 sg. v. obj. | *na- | na- | — | na- | na- | na- | na- |
3 sg. v. obj. | *nʉ- | nʉ- | — | Ø- | nə- | nʉ- | nɨ- |
1 pl. v. obj. | *a-ŋ- | a-ŋi- | — | a-ŋɨ- | a-ŋəŋ- | a-ŋ- | a-ŋ- |
2 pl. v. obj. | *na-ŋ- | na-ŋi- | — | an-ŋɨ- | na-ŋəŋ- | na-ŋ- | na-ŋ- |
3 pl. v. obj. | *nʉ-ŋ- | nʉ-ŋi- | — | nɨ-ŋɨ- | nɨ-ŋəŋ- | nʉ-ŋ | nɨ-ŋ- |
1 dl. v. obj. | *a-r- | ? | — | ? | ? | ? | a-r- |
2 dl. v. obj. | *na-r- | ? | — | ? | ? | ? | na-r- |
3 dl. v. obj. | *nʉ-r- | ? | — | ? | ? | ? | nɨ-r- |
As the underlying forms are identical to those of the free pronouns (above) we can conclude that prefixation is in both instances of recent origin.
Verbal morphology
[under construction]
Like other subgroups of West Madang, Tomui River languages use suffixes to index pronominal verbal subjects. These suffixes are reconstructed as follows, with Anamuxra attestations drawn from Ingram (2001: 194-197, 203-212)
Tomui River | Anamuxra | |
Ingram | ||
1 sg. | ||
2 sg. | ||
3 sg. | ||
1 pl. | ||
2 pl. | ||
3 pl. | ||
1 dl. | ||
2 dl. | ||
3 dl. |
…
Loans to and from neighboring languages
[under construction]
The most immediately obvious source of loans into Tomui River is the Guam and Moam Rivers family, a subgroup of Ramu River, immediately to the northwest.
Guam-Moam | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
wallaby | *ipʉr | ipʌr-amp | iːpʌ-p | ipa-pa | |||
ground possum | *… | induwan-amba | |||||
water | *anʉm | anɨ- | anuŋ | ani-mp | anəŋʌ-mp | anɨŋa-mba | anɨN-(amba) |
rattan/rope | *andur | andoːrʌ-p | andᵘra-mba | anduraN- | |||
spirit sp. | *asʉŋ | asɨN-(amba) | |||||
vein | *aŋgʉndʉŋ | akində- | aŋg-aŋgʉdɛ | -ŋgugudə-p | |||
bird | *uŋgarak | okara- | ŋgʌr̃ʌ-p | oŋgarʌ-pa | |||
forest | *uraŋ | wora- | ura ndəmba | wara-mp | wʌrʌ-mp | wʌra-j | waraN |
ripe | *munup | muno- ~ munu- | |||||
net bag | *waɣan | wagaŋ | waɣana-mp | waɣʌnʌ-mp | wʌɣa-mba | βaɣa-mba | |
big | *ɣarum | aro- | aro- | arum-akəp | aro- | aru- | aru- |
knife | *ɣajʉm | ajʉŋ | aimomomp | aiN-amba |
The most conspicuous source of loans into Tomui River is the Guam and Moam Rivers family, a subgroup of Ramu River, immediately to the northwest.
Guam-Moam | Osum | Pondoma | Wadaginam | Moresada | Ikundun | Anamuxra | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Ingram | ||
fruit/heart | *… | mɨnɨ-p | munu-k | munu-kwa | |||
meat/flesh | *… | muru- | muru | mɨrɨ-p | muru-k | muru-ka | muru-ka |
bone | *ɣawaŋ | ɣʌwa- | awaŋ | -gʌwʌ-mp | -ɣʌwʌ-ŋk | -ɣawa-mba |
… Osum (Utarmbung) and especially Pondoma (Anam) … Katiati (Mum) immediately to the southeast, a member of the closely-related Sogeram River family These led Z'graggen (1971: 56-61) to wrongly place Katiati and Sileibi (Sirva) within his Josephstaal Stock. Z'graggen ( p.61) gives the lexicostatistical resemblance between Katiati and Pondoma as 42%, higher than any relationship between Pondoma and any Tomui River language except for Ikundun and higher than (p. 68) Katiati's 17% with Emerum (Apalɨ,) with Katiati's figures with other Tomui River languages ranging between 12-19%. It is possible that some of these are legitimate mutual retentions. …:
Tomui River | Osum | Pondoma | Katiati | Sileibi | Sogeram River | |
Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | Z'graggen | |||
laugh | *irʉmu- | irmu- | irumi- | irm- | — | — |
sky | *iɣuN-pʉsa | — | igum-bᵘsa | igumbusa | — | — |
mountain | — | — | apuŋ | ʌpu | — | — |
water | *anʉm | anɨ- | anuŋ | — | aɲi | — |
fish | — | — | asa | asa | — | — |
good | *awiN | awi- | awi- | awi | — | — |
big | *arum | aro- | aro- | aru | — | — |
shadow | *… | oguro- | oŋroŋ | oŋru | — | — |
crocodile | — | — | maβraŋ | mabra | — | *maβɨra |
comb | *mandapiN | — | mandapiŋ | mandapi | — | — |
wooden plate | *makiN | maːki- | makiŋ | mʌːki | — | — |
fly (n.) | — | — | mumb | moːmp | mumbu | — |
cassowary | — | — | mujaŋ | muja | muja | *mujaŋ |
areca nut | — | maŋda- (?) | majnde | majnda | — | — |
sago | *mawa[m] | mawam | mʌwʌ | maβa | — | — |
tree possum | *mukʉr | mokr- | mukr̃ | mokːr | muːkuru | — |
egg | *mukuN | — | mukuŋ | muku | — | — |
bamboo | *pʉkʉ | wuku- | wʉkʉ | pʉkʉ | pɨkɨ | — |
pull/tie | *pʉŋgʉr[ʉ]- | wukrʉ- ~ -pʉkrʉ- | wuŋgr- | pʉngr- | — | — |
look for | — | -pʉgʉr- | — | pugr̃- | — | — |
village | *puɣar | wugo- | wugu | pugu | — | — |
stone | — | — | tʉmba | tʉmba | — | *tamba |
straight | *tʉTʉ- | rtɛ- | tətə- | tʉtʉ | turusimba | — |
snake | — | raːwuː- | tʌβ | — | *takʷɨ | |
house | — | raβ- | — | tʌβ | — | — |
chop/fell | *taɣʉr[ʉ]- | rʌgrʉ- | tʌgr- | tagr̃- ~ tagr̃i- | — | — |
arrow sp. | *tumbʉraŋgi | tombraŋ | tubraŋgi | — | — | |
navel | — | nipirp- | sumbir-p | sumbir-p | simbil | *simbirʉm |
taro | — | — | sis | sis | — | — |
arrow sp. | — | — | siʌŋ | sia | siːa ~ sia | — |
rattan | *sʉkiN | — | skiŋ | siki | — | — |
split/tear | — | — | sʉgri- ~ -sʉgr- | sʉgri- ~ sugri- | — | *sɨkɨra |
stump | — | — | sʌpa | sapa | — | — |
mosquito | *sawuɣʉ | — | sagobogo | tsaːbugo | — | — |
turn | — | gɨmuru- | — | kimr- | — | — |
arrow sp. | — | — | grʉŋaŋ | kʉrŋa | — | — |
bird | — | — | kʌvʌŋ | kawa | kaβa | *kapa |
throw | — | ɣawari- | — | kawar- | kapara- | *kapʉra- |
wallaby | *kajuɣara | gaigora- | aigura | kajgura | — | — |
frog | — | okasa- | — | kukasa | — | *kukasa |
sore | *kuwi | — | gui | uɛ | — | — |
coconut | — | goima | — | koima | kwima | *kuimaŋ |
kunai grass | *[p/w]a[n/nd]aN | una- | ẉnaŋ- | ẉɲa | — | — |
ashes | *japuN | japo- | japu ~ japuŋ- | ipu | — | — |
yam sp, | *jamba[N/r] | japara- | nambaŋ | ɲambara | ɲam | — |
mosquito | — | — | jakur | ɲaːŋgura | nʌŋguru | *jaŋjur |
… Kaukombar River … Pila (Maia) … with Pila attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 1-159):
Kaukombar R. | Pila | Tomui River | |
spear | *… | wiʌb | *[k]uja |
flying fox | *… | marambo | *marambuN |
knife | *… | moʌit | *mawajita |
slit drum | *… | sumbum | *s[i/ʉ]mbuN |
rat | — | sokob | *sʉk[a/u]w |
clay pot | *… | kʷamun | *kʷamʉn |
At least two of these are ultimately from Oceanic:
Oceanic | Kaukombar R. | Pila | Tomui River | |
crayfish | *… | *… | — | *siwʉ |
hand drum | *… | *waŋg | waŋ | *uŋgʉ |
… regional …:
… | Tomui River | |
tobacco | *asaraN- | |
chicken | *akakara- |