Tomui River

Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute

Situation

The Tomui River family consists of four or five languages spoken both north and south of the Tomui river, a tributary of the Guam and Ramu rivers to the west, in the Middle Ramu district of Papua New Guinea's Madang province. Its nearest relatives are the Sogeram River languages spoken immediately to the south and east.

Subclassification

The internal classificaiton of Tomui River is as follows:

Tomui River

Utarmbung (Osum)

Anam (Pondoma)

Anamuxra

Ikundun

Moresada

Wadaginam

Z'graggen (1971: 61) gives lexicostatistical relationships between the languages of the Josephstaal Stock (excluding Katiati i.e. Mum which belongs with the Sogeram River family, Daniels 2010, 2015) as follows:

Osum Pondoma Ikundun Moresada Wadaginam
Osum 34 30 31 28
Pondoma 34 45 37 22
Ikundun 30 45 66 45
Moresada 31 37 66 54
Wadaginam 28 22 45 54

The impression is that of a chaining relationship from Osum in the south to Wagaginam in the north. It is likely that the Pondoma figures have been depressed somewhat by a number of loans from Katiati (Mum) of the Sogeram River family (below.)

A primary division between Osum (Utarmbung) and the other Tomui River languages might be supported by a number of isoglosses in which the Osum word is found also in the Sogeram River family, thus presumably descending from proto-Sogeram and Tomui Rivers, while the other languages have their own term. It is however possible that most of these are loans from Katiati (Mum) (below):

Sogeram RiverOsum non-Osum
egg *maŋga makə- *mukuN
snake *takʷɨ raːwuː-*wanzirʉŋ
coconut *kuimaŋ goima- *aw[ʉ/a]nʉ
mosquito*jaŋgur jakur *sawuɣʉ

Sources

Capell (1951-1952: 201-203) 75 comparative terms for Murusapa

Z'graggen (1971: 72) 17 cognate series for Moresada, Ikundun, Pondoma, Wadaginam and Osum

Z'graggen (1980: 1-80) 330 comparative terms and (pp. 81-82) pronimnal paradigms for Osum, Pondoma, Ikundun, Moresada and Wadaginam

Ingram (2001) grammar of Anamuxra

Ingram (2003) Anamuxra nominal classifiers

History of classification

[under construction]

Capell (1951-1952: 206) placed Murusapa (Moresada) with the Ramu River languages

Wurm (1969) placed Murusapa with his Western Family (Lower Ramu River) while stating that it belongs typologically to his Central Family, i.e. the Adelbert Range languages Bunabun (Brem) and Wanambre.

Z'graggen (1971, 56-61) … Josephstaal Stock … Pomoikan Family … included Katiati (Mum) …

Z'graggen (1975) … added the newly-documented Sileibi (Sirva) language to the Josephstaal Stock, forming with Katiati the Sikan Family

Greenberg (1971: …) …

Daniels (2010: …, 2015: …) removed Mum and Sirva from Z'graggen's Josephstaal Stock, placing them immedaitely with Apalɨ (Emerum) in the Central Sogeram subgroup of his Sogeram River family, an expansion of Z'graggen's (1969: 61-64) Wanang Stock

Historical phonology

[under construction]

Proto-Tomui River had 17 consonants and 4 vowels as follows:

*m *n
*p *t *s *k *kʷ
*mb *nd *nz *ŋg *ŋgʷ
*w *r *j
*i *u
*a

This inventory is very similar to the system reconstructed for proto-Sogeram River in Daniels (2010, 2015,) but with a few key differences. Daniels does not reconstruct a velar non-stop /*ɣ/. Daniels reconstructs a palatal nasal /*ɲ/, but most of the examples are consistent with the interpretation of [ɲ] as a nasalized allophone of non-stop /*j/ as presented here (below.) Daniels reconstructs the prenassalized stops as voiceless because they are devoiced in Mand and Nend and he assumes voiceing rather than devoicing to be the more likely direction of change.

There are also very strong phonological similarities to the Guam and Moam subgroups of Ramu River immediately to the west, as well as a number of common roots which are presumed to be loans in one direciton or the other (below.).



Only a restricted subset of consonants occurs initially:

*m *n
*p *t *s *k *kʷ
*w *j

Any consonant cna occur medially.

Only a restricted subset of consonants occurs finally.

[*m] *n
*r

Initial consonants correspond as follows:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
*m- m m m m m m
*n- n n n n n n
*p- β
*t- r t t t t t
*s- s s ts s t s
*k- ɣ
*kʷ-
*w- w w w w w w
*j-
*j-/_N NC ɲ n n j n n

Medial consonants correspond as follows:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
*-m- m m m m m m
*-n- n n n n n n
*-ŋ-
*-p- p p p p p p
*-t-
*-s- s s ts s t s
*-k- k k k k k k
*-kʷ-
*-mb- p mb mb mb mb mb
*-nd- t nd nd nd nd nd
*-nz- s nz nd nz nd nz
*-ŋg- k ŋg ŋg ŋg ŋg ŋg
*-ŋgʷ-
*-w-
*-r-
*-j-
*-j-/_N NC
*-ɣ -

Final consonants correspond as follows:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
*-…

Vowels correspond as follows:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
*…

These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Osum, Pondoma, Wadaginam, Moresada and Ikundun attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 1-180) and Anamuxra from Ingram (2001.)


… initial consonants …

Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*m- m m m m m m
vomit *miŋʉr[ʉ]- miŋrʉ- migri- mɨg- mʉŋe- mʉŋu-
pour *miŋg[i/u]- meːku- miŋgi- miŋgi- miŋgi- miŋg- miŋg- ~ mɨŋg-
tongue *mir mir-gʌ- mir̃ -mɛr̃ə-k -mir-pa -mir-(ka)
light (of fire)*mira mira- mira merʌ-k mira-pa
one *m[i/ʉ]nza mɨsa-ka minsa-ka mɨnda-mbʌt minzʌ-k minda-ka mɨnza-(ka)
~ minza-
cough (n.) *mʉnʉ mun mʉnu mənə- mʉnʉ-p
fruit/seed *mʉnu mɨnɨ-p munu-k munu-kwa mɨnu-(ka)
~ munu-ka
wet *mʉTʉ- matə-ti mət- mtə-tə- mete- mɨtɨ-
male *mʉndʉ miti- mində-karamindi-mp mində-k mundu
~ mundu-ka
mɨndɨ-
sit *mʉnzʉrV- mʉsirʉ mʉnzira mindra- md- mʉndr- mɨnzɨrɨ-
~ mɨnzɨra-
sap *mʉrʉŋ mrʉ- mʉrʉŋ- mɨrɨŋʌ-mp murŋa-mba
penis *mʉŋgʉn maŋr- mʉgrʉ -mɨŋgɨn-amp -məŋgən-ʌmp-muŋgɨnʌ-mba-ŋ muŋguN-
dog *mʉrʉkʉN mʉrəkŋ murukŋ-amba mɨrɨkɨN-(amba)
liver *mamʉn mamuŋ -mʌminʌ-ŋk -mamɛŋ-amba
liver *mapʉn -mapɨŋ-gᵊna-mp
knee *mamba mamba-kuŋg -mamba-kən
banana *manʉŋ manu- mʌna manaŋ-amp manəŋ-ʌmba manɨN-(amba)
crocodile *maTʉkʉ matak- mʌtiki-p matᵊkʉ-pa-ŋ matɨkɨ-(pa)
comb *mandapiN mandapiŋ mandʌːpi-m mandʌpɛ-mp mandapi-mba mandapiN-
cassowary *masuɣuN masuguŋ mʌtsuɣu-mp mʌsogu-mp matuŋu-mba masuɣuN
wooden plate *makiN maːki- makiŋ
buy *maɣʉwi[ni]-mʌgə wiɲi- mawugᵊni- mʌgɨwɨ- maiβ- maiβ- maiβ-
egg/fruit *maŋga makə- ~ mʌːkə-
sago *mawa[m] mawam mʌwʌ mʌwʌː-mp mawʌ-p mʌwa-pa mawa-(pa)
knife *mawajiTa maita maita muwajɨt- moʌit mʌita
flying fox *marambuN marambuŋ marambu-ŋa-ŋ marambuN-(pa)
shoulder *maraŋgV -maraŋga-mp -mʌraŋgin -mʌraŋgo-pa
yam sp. *muN mo- mɔ-mɔ-k mu-mba muN-(pa)
child *mumuN momo- mumuŋ mumuŋ(-ga) mumuN-(ka)
go up *mundu- mundu- mundu- mundo- mundo- mundu-
ripe *muŋuN muŋu- muŋu- mugu- (?) muŋu- muŋuN-
tree possum *mukʉr mokr- mukr̃ mɔkər̃-əp mukr̃-pa mukɨr-pa
egg *mukuN mukuŋ muku-p mukŋ-aŋga mɨkɨN-aŋga
mɨkɨN-amba
house *muŋgu muŋgu muŋgu-p muŋgu-pa muŋgu-(pa)
go down *muŋgu- moko- muŋgu- muŋgu- muŋgo- muŋgo- muŋgu-
~mɨŋgu-
sweat *murʉ mur̃ mujɨ-mp -mor̃ə-p mor̃-pa murɨ-pa ~ mor-
meat/flesh *muru muru- muru mɨrɨ-p muru-k muru-ka muru-ka

Initial apical nasal /*n/ is found nearly only in monosyllabes, where it is retained as such in all descendants; the sole example of a disyllable with initial /*n/ is probably a reduplication:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*n- n n n n n n
eat *n[i]- ni- ni- ni- jʌ- (?) n- nɨ- ~ na-
3 sg. *nʉ nʉ- nɨ- nə-
3 pl. *nʉ-ŋ nʉ-ŋ nʉ-ŋ nɨ-ŋ nɨ-ŋ- nʉ-ŋ nɨ-ŋ
2 sg. *na na- na na- na- na na
2 pl. *na-ŋ na-ŋ na-ŋ na-ŋ na-ŋ- na-ŋ na-ŋ
old (thing)*nunu- nunu- nuno- nunu- nunu-(ka)

Velar nasal /*ŋ/ has not been found to occur initially.

Initial peripheral voiceless stops /*p *k/ are lenited or dropped in all descendants, a latter-day phenomenon shared with most descendants of Ramu River to the west; however apical and laminal /*t *s/ are not affected by lenition.

Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is lenited to voiced fricative /β/ in Anamuxra and typically to non-stop [w] elsewhere, sometimes making it difficult to distinguish it from non-stop /*w/ (below):

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*p- w w w w w β
come *p[i]- we- wa- wi- we- wi- βi-
take/get *p[i]- ɸi- (?) wi- βɨ-
go *pʉ- o- ~ p- u- wʌ- wi- wu- βɨ-
walk *pʉ-taŋgu- p-raŋgu- wi-tʌŋgu- wu-taŋgu- βɨ-taŋgu-
skin *pʉsa wʉsa- wəsa -wʉtʌ-mbʌ βɨsa- ~ -βɨsa
fear (n.) *pʉ[ŋ/ɣ]i wuŋe- wugi- wugi- βɨɣi-
bamboo *pʉkʉ wuku- wʉkʉ wukɨ-p wukə-p wukʉ-pa βɨkɨ-(pa) ~ -βɨk
pull/tie *pʉŋgʉr[ʉ]-wukrʉ- ~ -pʉkrʉ-wuŋgr- sɨw-iŋgi-sɨ-wiŋgi- tʉ-bʉŋg-
bathe *pʉji- wi- wi- wɨji- ʌnɨm-b- anm-b- (anɨN)-βi-
vine *pʉɣʉn wʉgʉŋ wɨgɨnʌ-mpwugɛnʌ-mp wuguŋa-mbaβɨŋgɨN- ~ βɨɣ-
sharpen *pand[i]- wat- wandi- pʌnd- wʌndə- pand-
grass skirt *pandʉ wand wandɨ-pa βandɨ-pa
vulva/vagina *paji waji wai-p waji-pa-ŋ -βaiji-
net bag *paɣan wagaŋ waɣana-mpwaɣʌnʌ-mp wʌɣa-mba βaɣa-mba
sickness/illness*puraN urʌ-mp ura-mp ura-m- βɨra
short *p[u]ru wuru- wuru- wuru- βɨru-
fall over *[p]uruɣu- urugu- urugu- urogu-~ur̃ɔɣu-puruw-
village *puɣar wugo- wugu uwara-mp wuɣʌrʌ-mp wʉga-pa βwa- ~ βwa-r

Root-initial /*p/ in verbs however is retained as such when it is preceded by a prefix (compare “bathe” above):

Tomui River Osum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*(-)p-
wash*(-)pʉji-tam--pi-ram wi-ram- -pi-tam- -pi-rʌma--pig-ram--pi-ram-

Similarly, the initials of /*pʉsa/ “skin” and /*pʉriN/ “side” are not lenited when they are preceded by another word in a compound:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Ingram
*(-)p-
sky *iɣuN-pʉsa igum-bᵘsa igum-bɨta-ka
loincloth *asʉN-pʉsa asim-bisa-asʉm-psa atɨm-bɨtʌ-pa
right side*kandʉ-pʉriNatə-bri -andə-pərandə-priŋ

One example in which apparent initial /*p/ does not undergoe lenition is mandatorily a loan:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*P-
axe*Putu-Putu polo-polo-putu puru poro-por

Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is usually lenited to non-stop /r/ in Osum, which does not otherwise occur initially, although this appears to be in free variation with [t]:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*t- r [r t] t t t t t
do/make *tʉ- -d- -t- ~ -di- tɨ- tə- t- ~ -d- tɨ- ~ -tɨ-
run/run away*tʉm[i]- r̩m- ~ tum- tʉmi- ~ təmi- tumə- tʉm- tɨm-~tim-~tɨma-
plant/bury *tʉmbu- rʉpu- tumbu- tumbu- tɨmb-
tie/fasten *tʉmbu- rpu- tumbu- tumbu-
straight *tʉTʉ- rtɛ- tətə- tətə- tɨtɨ-
full *tʉk[i]- rku- tukuri- tiki- tuki- tɨkɨ-
mountain *tʉŋgʉ rʉkə- tɨŋgə-k
fence *tʉwa tʌpʌ ~ tuwa tɨwʌː-p tʉwʌ-p tuwa-pa tɨβa-(pa)
kill *tʉɣim[u]- tʉgimi- tiɣimu- -tɛgumu- tʉgim-
put/bury *tam- tam- tam- tʌm- tʌmə- tʌm- ~ tam- tam-
piece/stump *tambuN tʌmbuŋ tambu-ŋga
dambu-mba (?)
-tambuN-
thigh *tandam ɣatam-bat- (?) tʌndam-bat -tʌndʌ-mp -tʌnda-gər̃ -tanda-mba
moon *takun tʌkuŋ tʌkuŋ-omp tʌkuŋ-umba
step *taŋgu- -raŋgu- -tʌŋgu- -taŋgu- taŋgu-
stand *taŋgʷa-tam-rako-ra- tangu-ram- taŋʷa-tam- taŋgʷa-ram-
cut *tawVɣV rʌbugu-
~ raβuɣʉ-
taːwog- tʌw- taːβʉg- taβaɣ-~taβɨɣa-
chop/fell *taɣʉr[ʉ]- rʌgrʉ- tʌgr- tʌɣ- tʌɣə- tʌg- taɣ- ~ taɣa-
cook/burn *tu ro tu to tu-
arrow sp. *tumbʉraŋgi tombraŋ tumbraŋgi-pa
shoulder *tuwuŋguN rubuŋgu- tubuŋguŋ
sea *tu[w/ɣ]ʉn towuŋ suwun-ʌmp (?)towən-ʌmp toːgŋ-amba
basket *tu[w/ɣ]a tuwa-tuwata- tuga tuɣuʌ-p tuwa-p tɨβa-(pa)
hold *turV- turi- tɔrə- utur- tur- ~ tura-
hit/say *tuɣu- tuɣu- ~tugu
-~rugu- ~ ro-
tugu- ~ tuɣʉ- tuɣu- ~ tugu-tugu- ~ tu- tuɣu- ~ tuwu-
cough (v.) *tuɣu- rugu- tugu- tugu- tu-
blow (fire) *tuɣuwar- rugowar- tugowar- tuɣowʌre- tuguwʌr tuwu-βar-

Initial laminal voiceless /*s/ is merged with apical /t/ in Ikundun and varies between [t s] in Wadaginam:

:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*s- s s ts [ts s] s t s
shoot (v.) *simu- simu- ~ sumu-simu- -səmu- -tum- simu-
young/child *simbun simbuŋ simbina-ŋk simbuN-
crayfish *siwʉ siv tiwə-pu siβɨ-pa
slit drum *s[i/ʉ]mbuN tɨmbɨ-mp sumbuno-mptɨmbuŋa-mbasimbuN-amba
be *sʉ- sʉ - si- t- is- ta- s-
pull/tie *sʉ-pʉŋgʉr[ʉ]- sɨw-iŋgi- sɨ-wiŋgi- tʉ-bʉŋg-
navel *sʉndʉwu -tindᵊwu-kən-amp-səndəwi-p-tundəwu-p -sinziwu-
rattan *sʉkiN skiŋ təki-ŋga sikiN-(pa) ~ -siki
carry on back*sʉɣ[ʉ]- zigʉ- sʉg- tɨgɨ- si- tʉgʉ- sɨɣɨ- siɣɨ-~ sɨɣi-
mosquito *sawuɣʉ sagobogo tuɣu-mp sʌwuɣə-p tawuɣu-pa
rat *sʉkaw sikow- skow təkɔː-pa
nose *sʉkuwar skuar -tukwʌr-pʌ sɨkɨwar-
rain *sʉra r̃ːa- (?) trʌ sirʌ-p sɨrʌ-p tr̃ʌ-pa tɨra-(pa) (?)
trunk *sawi sʌwi tʌpa-kᵊnʌ-mp sawɛ-k tʌːβi-ka saβi(-)
stomach *sawʉ sɔ- tawu-tɨŋʌ-p -sʌwi-p -tawu-ka
pig *sawun savuŋ tʌpun-ump sʌwon-omp tawu-mba sawuN-
~ saɣuN-pa
excrement *su su- sugu -sɔː-p -to-pa su-(pa)
lime *su[w/ɣ]an sugɔŋ tuwʌn-amp sugʷʌnʌ-mptuwa-mba suwaN-(pa)

Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*k-
garden *kima[na]N gimanaŋ iːmʌ-mp jɛː-mp
crooked *kina-kina ina-kena- ina-kina- ina-kina- ɣina-kina-
arrow sp. *kindʉ gitʌ- giːndə indɨ-kənʌ-mp ində-pa
speak (tr.) *kisuɣar[u]- -gisugoru- isigor- -gituar- isɨwar-
elbow *kiŋgu[N/ŋga] gikoŋga- -giŋguŋ
dream (n.) *kijʉN giɲi- gijʉŋ inə- ɣunu-
dream (v.) *kijʉN-was[i]- gijʉŋ osi inə-wʌse- ɣunu-wat-
mouth/speech *kija jaː- gia- -gia- ɣɨja-(pa)
mouth *kija-kumbaN jaː-goŋba- -gia-ɣʉmbaŋ-ga -ɣɨja-ɣʉmbaN-ka
watch (intr.)*kiɣʉr[ʉ]- jegrʉ- igr- igi- irəgə- igra-ram- iɣɨr- ~ iɣɨra
bow *kʉmi gumu gʉm ɣɨmi-kʌ-mp iːmi-p ɣɨmu-pa ɣɨmɨ- ~ -ɣɨmb
sleep (v.) *kʉn[i]- ɣuɲi gi- gɨnɨ- in- gʉn ɣɨnɨ-
root *kʉndʉr gɨndi- gʉndə gɨntsir-ʌmp ndə-k gundə-pa ɣɨndɨ- ~ -ɣɨnd
armpit *kʉnzi is- gʉnsi
bean *kʉsipʉ isip- sɛːpi-p ɣutipᵊ-pa ɣɨsi-pa
singsing *kʉnzʉ-kʉnzʉ si-ginsi– gunzi-gunz gundu-gund ɣɨnzɨ-ɣɨnzɨ
afternoon *kʉnzʉr gunzᵋrʉŋ insər ɣʉndir ɣɨnzɨr
ear *kʉnzʉɣiw ginsɛgiw -ɣundəgiwə-pʌ -ɣɨnzɨɣiβ-
~ -ɣɨnzɨɣɨβ-
burn/roast *kʉr[i]- ɣrʉ- gri kɨr- ir- gɨr- kɨr- ~ kɨra-
cold *kʉrʉN gurun-di gurun-d- ɣɨrɨN-tɨ-
wind *kʉjiŋgasa uɲugasa- gwingasa
swell *kamu- ɣʌːɣumu- -ɣʌmu- gam-
tooth *kambur gʌpɔ- -gʌmbru-mp -gʌmbɔ-p -gambu-pʌ-ŋ
right (side) *kandʉ atə- andɛ- -kandə- -andə- andə-
be sick/ill *kandʉɣi- katigi-ɲi- andəgi-
smell (n.) *kanduwa katuwa- ganduwa-p
fat/grease *kasʉ gʌːsi- as-ka -gʌsə-p gatə-pa
sand *kasʉN gasi- asʉmna atɨŋ-amp asəŋ-ʌmp
saliva *kawa - aba -ɣawʌ-pʌ-ŋ ɣaβa- ~ aβa-
bone *kawaŋ ɣʌwa- awaŋ -gʌwʌ-mp -ɣʌwʌ-ŋk -ɣawa-mba
areca nut *kariN ajʌː-mp ar̃ɛ-mp ari-mba ariN-(pa)
flying fox *karawVn ɣaraw- arʌwi-mp ar̃ʌwɛnʌ-mp
wallaby *kajuɣara gaigora- aigura aiwara-pa aiwara-
slit drum *kaɣʉndʉ kʌːgɛnd- agʉndʉ
fasten/bind *kaɣa- ɣaga-ɲi- ʌgi- ʌgə- aɣa-
path *kumbʉ ɣupu- umbu bu-mp mbəː-p gumbu-pa ɣumpɨ-(pa)
hot *kumbʉN gʉpʉn-d- gjumbən-di--gumbaj gumbun-d- ɣɨmbɨN-tɨ-
~ ɣumb
hole *kumbaN -komba-~-goŋba-gumbaŋ ɣʉmbaŋ-ga
~ -giumbaŋ-ga
ɣumbaN-(ka)
arm *kumbuŋgʉr umbuŋgʉr -gɔmbogər̃ -ɣumbuŋgʉr ɣumbuŋgɨr
wooden plate *kunaN unaŋ unʌ-mp una-mba ɣunaN-(pa)
calf *kunzuN utsumak- guntsuŋ -gundɨ-mɨnɨ-p-gunzuŋo-mp-gunduŋ-ump
yellow *kuŋgaN uŋga- uŋga- uŋgaN-(ka)
sore *kuwi gui -goi-pa-ŋ ɣui-
split *kuwand[ʉ]- kuwand- uwʌndə- uwand- βand-
dawn *kuwʉɣV goβugia ubugia ɣʌwɨɣ uwogaj uβəɣia uβɨɣɨ-
man *kuram oro- kural (?) ura-mp urʌ-mp kurʌ ~ kura ɣuraN-(pa)
~ -kura
spear *[k]uja ja- uja uja-p uja-p uijʌ-pa ɣuja-

… /*k/ …:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*k-
betel pepper*kamura ramura amɔːrʌ-p amurʌ-pʌ amura-

Root-initial /*k/ in verbs however is retained as such when it is preceded by a prefix (cf. “watch (intr.)” above):

Tomui River Osum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*(-)k-
see *kiɣʉr[ʉ]- -kʉ- igr- -kiːɣ- -kɛr̃ɣə- -kir- -kiɣɨr-~-kiɣɨra
carry on shoulder*(-)kam[u]- -kam- amu- -kam-
*(-)k-
bite *(-)kʉŋg[i]-nuŋgi- -kɨŋgɨ- -kiŋgi- -kuŋg-

One example in which apparent initial /*k/ does not undergo lenition is mandatorily a loan:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*K-
Sing. taro*K… kondenu- kɔndim kundiː-mpkodem kundim(-)

Initial rounded velar voiceless stop /*kʷ/ …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*kʷ-
clay pot *kʷamʉn umuŋ wʌmənʌ-mpwʌmənʌ-mp wamuŋa-mba wamiN-amba
belly *kʷanʉN wanʉŋ -koʌnŋʌ-mpkʷanaŋa-mba-kʷanɨN-
fill *kʷasʉɣ[ʉ]- wosigʉ- asʉgi- (?)kʷʌtɨg- wʌs- wʌtɨɣ-
boil (v.)*kʷaŋgʉr[ʉ]-grʉ- uŋgri- waəg- waŋgə- waŋg- waŋgi-

As in the closely-related Sogeram River family, prenasalized voiced stops /*mb *nd *nz *ŋg/ do not occur word-initially.

Intiial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is sporadically dropped in Osum and Pondoma:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*w- w [w Ø]w [w Ø]w w w w
kunai grass*[p/w]a[n/nd]aNuna- ẉnaŋ- wʌndamp wʌndʌp wanda-mba
watch/see *was[i]- -osi -wʌse- -wat- was- ~ wasa-
dream (v.) *kijʉN-was[i]- gijʉŋ osi inə-wʌse- ɣunu-wat-
snake *wanzirʉŋ unzirʉŋ wʌnzᵊrᵊŋ-ʌmpwandrɨŋ-ambawanzirɨN-amba
forest *waraŋ wora- ura ndəmba wara-mp wʌrʌ-mp wʌra-j waraN
pandanus *[p/w]uŋga wogiji- wəŋga wuŋgʌ-p wuŋgʌ-p wuŋga-pa
jump *[p/w]uŋgar[ʉ]- wuŋgari- wuŋgə-

Apical non-stop /*r/ does not occur intially.

Intiial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*j-
morning*jʉwʉsa ubusa iwisa-t iβɨta jiβɨsa
1 sg. *ja j- ji ~ ja ja- jɛ- ji ji ~ ja
ashes *japuN japo- japu ~ japuŋ- japɔ-mp japu-mba

When followed by a nasal consonant or a prenasalized voiced stop in the onset of the next syllable, initial /*j/ is retained as such only in Moresada and cocasionally in Osum. Elsewhere it is nasalized to [ɲ] in Osum and merged with apical /n/ in Pondoma, Wadaginam and Ikundun:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Ingram
*j-/_VN VNCɲ j Øn n j Ø n n Ø
hunger *jiŋgi neke- nɨŋgi niŋgi-mp iŋge-p niŋge- niŋgi-
head/top *j[i/ʉ]mbuN nɨmbuŋ
~ numbuŋ
nimbɨŋ-gənʌ-p -mbu- nʉmbuŋa-ŋga
nʉmbuŋ-
nimbuN-
sun *j[i/ʉ]ŋar ɲiŋar-
louse *jʉman nʉmaŋ nimʌn-amp imʌ-mp nʉma-mba nɨmaN-pa
name *jʉmbi pi- numbi- -nimbiː-mp -mbɛ-p -numbi-pa-ŋ -mbi-
die *jʉmbʉr[ʉ]- prɨ- nʉmbr- nɨmb- imbə- nʉmb- nɨmbɨ-
tail *jʉŋaN niŋa- nʉŋaŋ uŋʉn-amba (?)
give *jʉŋgu- -ku- nuŋgu- -ŋgu- (sg.)
-nuŋgu- (pl.)
-ku- -kʷ- -ku-
fog *jʉŋguŋ ɲiku- nuŋguŋ iŋguŋ-ompnuŋguŋ-amba
swallow (v/)*jamuŋgV- ɲamuŋgʉ- namuŋgu- namɣ- jʌːmŋgə- namŋg-
yam sp, *jamba[N/r] japara- nambaŋ jambʌ-b nambʌ-mba nambaN-pa
blood *jaŋguN ɲaku- naŋguŋ nʌːŋgu-mp
~ -nʌŋgu-mp
-ŋgun-umpnaŋguŋ-umbaŋ naŋguN-
red *jaŋguN ɲaku- naŋguŋg- naŋgu- jaŋgu- naŋgu- naŋguN-
mosquito *jaŋgur jakur-

… initial /*j/ …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Ingram
*j-/_VN VNC
star*jʉndiN nʉndʉŋ insəŋʌ-mpindɨŋa-mbaindiN-pa

Initial velar non-stop [*ɣ] exists phonetically, but in most if not all instances is the initial allophone of /*k/ (above.)


… medial consonants

Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-m- m m m m m m
think *indar-tam- dara ram- da-ram-
laugh *irʉmu- irmu- irumi- iramu- irmʉ- irɨmu-
breast *aman ama amaŋ mʌn-ʌmp ʌmʌː-mp ʌmʌ-mba-ŋ amaN-(pa)
tomorrow/td> *amu amu ʌmu ʌmɔ-j amo-j amu
smell (n.) *umi omi umi-
liver *mamʉn mamuŋ -mʌminʌ-ŋk-mamɛŋ-amba
be afraid *pʉ[ŋ/ɣ]i-tʉm[i]-wuŋe-tum- wugi-təmi- wugi-tʉm-; βɨɣi-tɨmɨ-
wash *pʉji-tam- -pi-ram wi-ram- -pi-tam- -pi-rʌma- -pig-ram- -pi-ram-
fly (v.) *[p/k]ʉmʉr[ʉ]- rʉmrʉ- gumᵋri- wumə- bʉm-
run/run away *tʉm[i]- r̩m- ~ tum- tʉmi- ~ təmi- tumə- tʉm- tɨm-~tim-~tɨma-
kill *tʉɣim[u]- tʉgimi- tiɣimu- -tɛgumu- tʉgim-
put/bury *tam- tam- (?) tam- tʌm- tʌmə- tʌm- ~ tam-tam-
stand *taŋgʷa-tam- rako-ra- (?) tangu-ram- taŋʷa-tam- taŋgʷa-ram-
shoot (v.) *simu- simu- ~ sumu-simu- -səmu- -tum- simu-
garden *kima[na]N gimanaŋ iːmʌ-mp jɛː-mp
bow *kʉmi gumu gʉm ɣɨmi-kʌ-mpiːmi-p ɣɨmu-pa ɣɨmɨ- ~ -ɣɨmb
carry on shoulder*kam[u]- -kam- amu- -kam-
betel pepper *kamura ramura amɔːrʌ-p amurʌ-pʌ amura-
swell *kamu- ɣʌːɣumu- -ɣʌmu- gam-
clay pot *kʷamʉn umuŋ wʌmənʌ-mp wʌmənʌ-mp wamuŋa-mba wamiN-amba
louse *jʉman nʉmaŋ nimʌn-amp imʌ-mp nʉma-mba nɨmaN-pa
swallow (v/) *jamuŋgV- ɲamuŋgʉ- namuŋgu- namɣ- jʌːmŋgə- namŋg-

Mdeial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-n- n n n n n n
sun *ina ina iːnʌ-p inʌ-pa
water *anʉm anɨ- anuŋ ani-mp anəŋʌ-mp anɨŋa-mba anɨN-(amba)
salt/saltwater*unuN unu- unuŋo-mp unuŋa-mba
cough (n.) *mʉnʉ mun mʉnu mənə- mʉnʉ-p
fruit/seed *mʉnu mɨnɨ-p munu-k munu-kwa mɨnu-(ka)
~ munu-ka
banana *manʉŋ manu- mʌna manaŋ-amp manəŋ-ʌmba manɨN-(amba)
old (thing) *nunu- nunu- nuno- nunu- nunu-(ka)
crooked *kina-kina ina-kena-ina-kina- ina-kina- ɣina-kina-
sleep (v.) *kʉn[i]- ɣuɲi gi- (?) gɨnɨ- in- gʉn ɣɨnɨ-
wooden plate *kunaN unaŋ unʌ-mp una-mba ɣunaN-(pa)
belly *kʷanʉN wanʉŋ -koʌnŋʌ-mpkʷanaŋa-mba-kʷanɨN-

Medial velar nasal /*ŋ/ …:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*-ŋ-
call out/cry out*aŋi- aŋi- ʌŋe- aŋ- aŋi-
vomit *miŋʉr[ʉ]- miŋrʉ- migri- mɨg- mʉŋe- mʉŋu-
ripe *muŋuN muŋu- muŋu- mugu- (?) muŋu- muŋuN-
sun *j[i/ʉ]ŋar ɲiŋar-
tail *jʉŋaN niŋa- nʉŋaŋ uŋʉn-amba

Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-p- p p p p p p
wallaby *ipar ipʌr-amp iːpʌ-p ipa-pa
butterfly*apapura apapura apuparʌː-p apʌporʌ-p apapura
liver *mapʉn -mapɨŋ-gᵊna-mp
comb *mandapiN mandapiŋ mandʌːpi-m mandʌpɛ-mpmandapi-mbamandapiN-
ashes *japuN japo- japu ~ japuŋ- japɔ-mp japu-mba
bean *kʉsipʉ isip- sɛːpi-p ɣutipᵊ-pa ɣɨsi-pa (?)

Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Ingram
*-t-
think *indar-tam- dara ram- da-ram-
be afraid*pʉ[ŋ/ɣ]i-tʉm[i]-wuŋe-tum-wugi-təmi- wugi-tʉm-; βɨɣi-tɨmɨ-
wash *pʉji-tam- -pi-ram wi-ram- -pi-tam- -pi-rʌma--pig-ram- -pi-ram-
walk *pʉ-taŋgu- p-raŋgu- wi-tʌŋgu-wu-taŋgu- βɨ-taŋgu-
stand *taŋgʷa-tam- rako-ra- tangu-ram-taŋʷa-tam- taŋgʷa-ram-

… /*T/ …:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Ingram
*-T-
wet *mʉTʉ- matə-ti mət- mtə-tə- mete- mɨtɨ-
crocodile*maTʉkʉ matak- mʌtiki-p matᵊkʉ-pa-ŋmatɨkɨ-(pa)
knife *mawajiTa maita maita muwajɨt- moʌit mʌita
straight *tʉTʉ- rtɛ- tətə- tətə- tɨtɨ-

Medial laminal voiceless /*s/ is merged with apical /t/ in Ikundun and varies between [t ts s] in Wadaginam:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Ingram
*-s- s s ts [t ts s]s t s
loincloth *asʉN-pʉsa asim-bisa-asʉm-psa atɨm-bɨtʌ-pa
tobacco *asaraN asara- asaraŋ aisʌrʌ-p atʌra-mba
tail of bird*[a]wasu wasu awatu-pa-ŋ
g-string *usaN wutu- usaŋ utʌ-mp usʌ-mp uta-mba
new *usu us su usu utu wusu
fire *u[w/ɣ]ʉsʉ woɣutɨ- oːwus uwisʌ-p obutɨ-pa uβɨsɨ-(pa)
cassowary *masuɣuŋ masuguŋ mʌtsuɣu-mp mʌsogu-mpmatuŋu-mba masuɣuN
skin *pʉsa wʉsa- wəsa -wʉtʌ-mbʌ βɨsa- ~ -βɨsa
speak (tr.) *kisuɣar[u]- -gisugoru-isigor- -gituar- isɨwar-
bean *kʉsipʉ isip- sɛːpi-p ɣutipᵊ-pa ɣɨsi-pa
wind *kʉjiŋgasa uɲugasa- gwingasa
fat/grease *kasʉ gʌːsi- as-ka -gʌsə-p gatə-pa
sand *kasʉN gasi- asʉmna atɨŋ-amp asəŋ-ʌmp
fill *kʷasʉɣ[ʉ]- wosigʉ- asʉgi- (?)kʷʌtɨg- wʌs- wʌtɨɣ-
watch/see *was[i]- -osi -wʌse- -wat- was- ~ wasa-
dream (v.) *kijʉN-was[i]- gijʉŋ osi inə-wʌse-ɣunu-wat-
morning *jʉwʉsa ubusa iwisa-t iβɨta jiβɨsa

Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in all descendants:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-k- k k k k k k
chicken *akakura akakara- akakara ʌkʌkʌr̃ʌ-pakʌkʌrʌ-pa akakara-(pa)
heart *akuN aku- akuŋ-
all/many *akuŋ okuŋu akuŋ
dog *mʉrʉkʉN mʉrəkŋ murukŋ-ambamɨrɨkɨN-(amba)
crocodile *maTʉkʉ matak- mʌtiki-p matᵊkʉ-pa-ŋmatɨkɨ-(pa)
wooden plate*makiN maːki- makiŋ
tree possum *mukʉr mokr- mukr̃ mɔkər̃-əp mukr̃-pa mukɨr-pa
egg *mukuN mukuŋ muku-p mukŋ-aŋga mɨkɨN-aŋga
mɨkɨN-amba
bamboo *pʉkʉ wuku- wʉkʉ wukɨ-p wukə-p wukʉ-pa βɨkɨ-(pa) ~ -βɨk
full *tʉk[i]- rku- tukuri- tiki- tuki- tɨkɨ-
moon *takun tʌkuŋ tʌkuŋ-omp tʌkuŋ-umba
rattan *sʉkiN skiŋ təki-ŋga sikiN-(pa) ~ -siki
rat *sʉk[a/u]w sikow- skow təkɔː-pa
nose *sʉkuwar skuar -tukwʌr-pʌ sɨkɨwar-
crooked *kina-kina ina-kena-ina-kina- ina-kina- ɣina-kina-
sharp *[j]ikaN jika- iŋʌ- (?) ika ikaN

Medial bilabial prenasalized voiced stop /*mb/ is devoiced and denasalized to /p/ in Osum:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-mb- p mb mb mb mb mb
wing *ambʉŋ apʉŋ- ambuŋ
how/how many*ambʉɣiN ambʉgiŋ ambowe- ambuɣ-
-ambuɣe
ambʉɣi-
(-ambʉɣi)
knee *mamba mamba-kuŋg -mamba-kən
flying fox *marambuN marambuŋ marambu-ŋa-ŋ marambuN-(pa)
arrow sp. *tumbʉraŋgi tombraŋ tumbraŋgi-pa
plant/bury *tʉmbu- rʉpu- tumbu- tumbu- tɨmb-
tie/fasten *tʉmbu- rpu- tumbu- tumbu-
piece/stump *tambuN tʌmbuŋ tambu-ŋga
dambu-mba
-tambuN-
young/child *simbun simbuŋ simbina-ŋk simbuN-
slit drum *s[i/ʉ]mbuN tɨmbɨ-mp sumbuno-mptɨmbuŋa-mba simbuN-amba
tooth *kambur gʌpɔ- -gʌmbru-mp -gʌmbɔ-p -gambu-pʌ-ŋ
path *kumbʉ ɣupu- umbu bu-mp mbəː-p gumbu-pa ɣumpɨ-(pa)
hot *kumbʉN gʉpʉn-d- gjumbən-di- -gumbaj gumbun-d- ɣɨmbɨN-tɨ-
~ ɣumb
hole *kumbaN -komba-
- -goŋba- (?)
gumbaŋ ɣʉmbaŋ-ga
~ -giumbaŋ-ga
ɣumbaN-(ka)
arm *kumbuŋgʉr umbuŋgʉr -gɔmbogər̃-ɣumbuŋgʉr ɣumbuŋgɨr
head/top *j[i/ʉ]mbuN nɨmbuŋ
~ numbuŋ
nimbɨŋ-gənʌ-p-mbu- nʉmbuŋa-ŋga
nʉmbuŋ-
nimbuN-
name *jʉmbi pi- numbi- -nimbiː-mp -mbɛ-p -numbi-pa-ŋ -mbi-
die *jʉmbʉr[ʉ]-prɨ- nʉmbr- nɨmb- imbə- nʉmb- nɨmbɨ-
yam sp, *jamba[N/r]japara- nambaŋ jambʌ-b nambʌ-mba nambaN-pa

Onr example in which [*mb] remains as such in Osum results from a compound with /*-pʉsa/ “skin”:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Ingram
*-N-p-
sky *iɣuN-pʉsa igum-bᵘsa igum-bɨta-ka
loincloth*asʉN-pʉsa asim-bisa-asʉm-psa atɨm-bɨtʌ-pa

Medial apical prenasalized voiced stop /*nd/ is generally devoiced and denasalized to /t/ in Osum:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-nd- t nd nd nd nd nd
hear/sense/think*indar- dara -indʌ- -indʌrʌ- ~ dara- -ndʌr- ndar-
think *indar-tam- dara ram- da-ram-
woman/female *awundʉ awund
awundə-ka
awundi-mp
~ ʌwundi-mp
awondə-k
awondə-nʌnt
awundə-)
awundə-ka
awundɨ-(pa)
male *mʉndʉ miti- mində-kara mindi-mp mində-k mundu
~ mundu-ka
mɨndɨ-
comb *mandapiN mandapiŋ mandʌːpi-m mandʌpɛ-mp mandapi-mba mandapiN-
go up *mundu- mundu- mundu- mundo- mundo- mundu-
sharpen *pand[i]- wat- wandi- pʌnd- wʌndə- pand-
grass skirt *pandʉ wand wandɨ-pa βandɨ-pa
thigh *tandam ɣatam-bat-tʌndam-bat -tʌndʌ-mp -tʌnda-gər̃ -tanda-mba
navel *sʉndʉwu -tindᵊwu-kən-amp -səndəwi-p -tundəwu-p -sinziwu- (?)
arrow sp. *kindʉ gitʌ- giːndə indɨ-kənʌ-mp ində-pa
right (side) *kandʉ atə- andɛ- -kandə- -andə- andə-
be sick/ill *kandʉɣi- katigi-ɲi-andəgi-
smell (n.) *kanduwa katuwa- ganduwa-p
slit drum *kaɣʉndʉ kʌːgɛnd- agʉndʉ
split *kuwand[ʉ]- kuwand- uwʌndə- uwand- βand-
star *jʉndiN nʉndʉŋ insəŋʌ-mp (?) indɨŋa-mba indiN-pa

There are everal unexplained exceotions in which /*nd/ is retained as such in Osum, two of which strangely look to have irregular reflexes /nz/ in other Tomui River languages::

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-nd- nd nd nd nd nd nd
vein *aŋgʉndʉ akində- aŋg-aŋgʉdɛ -ŋgugudə-p
fly (n.)*u[w/ɣ]ʉndʉwundək- ʌwiːndʉ-p winzʌ-p (?)wuɣundə-pa-ŋ
root *kʉndʉr gɨndi- gʉndə gɨntsir-ʌmp (?)ndə-k gundə-pa ɣɨndɨ- ~ -ɣɨnd

Some examples of medial [nd] arise from the suffixation of auxilliary verb /*tɨ/ “do/male” to a root with a final nasal consonant:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*-N-t-
speak (intr.)*aŋgaN-tɨ- (a)ka-t- aŋgan-d-
make/work *ujaN-tɨ- ujan-di- ujan-d-
be cold *kʉrʉN-tɨ- gurun-di gurun-d- ɣɨrɨN-tɨ-
be hot *kumbʉN-tɨ-gʉpʉn-d- gjumbən-di--gumbaj gumbun-d-ɣɨmbɨN-tɨ-
~ ɣumb

Medial laminal prenasalized voiced /*nz/ is devoiced and denasalized to /s/ in Osum and merged with apical /nd/ in Ikundun and Wadaginam:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-nz- s nz [nz ns]nd nz nd nz
one *m[i/ʉ]nza mɨsa-ka minsa-ka mɨnda-mbʌt minzʌ-k minda-ka mɨnza-(ka)
~ minza-
sit *mʉnzʉrV- mʉsirʉ mʉnzira mindra- md- mʉndr- mɨnzɨrɨ-
~ mɨnzɨra-
armpit *kʉnzi is= gʉnsi
singsing *kʉnzʉ-kʉnzʉsi-ginsi–gunzi-gunz gundu-gund ɣɨnzɨ-ɣɨnzɨ
afternoon*kʉnzʉr gunzᵋrʉŋ insər ɣʉndir ɣɨnzɨr
ear *kʉnzʉɣiw ginsɛgiw -ɣundəgiwə-pʌ-ɣɨnzɨɣiβ-
~ -ɣɨnzɨɣɨβ-
calf *kunzuN utsumak- guntsuŋ -gundɨ-mɨnɨ-p-gunzuŋo-mp -gunduŋ-ump
snake *wanzirʉŋ unzirʉŋ wʌnzᵊrᵊŋ-ʌmpwandrɨŋ-amba wanzirɨN-amba

Medial velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋg/ is generally devoiced and denasalized to /k/ in Osum:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-ŋg- k ŋg ŋg ŋg ŋg ŋg
leg/foot *iŋgʉrʉ jikr- -iŋgr -iŋgər -iŋgrɨ-pa -iŋgɨrɨ(-pa)
vein *aŋgʉndʉ akində- aŋg-aŋgʉdɛ -ŋgugudə-p
wild fowl *aŋga aŋga aŋgʌ-p aŋa-pa-ŋ (?)aŋga-(pa)
speak (intr.)*aŋgaN- (a)ka-t- aŋgan-d-
hand drum *uŋgʉ uŋk uŋgʉ-pa uŋgu-pa ~ uŋgɨ-
pour *miŋg[i/u]- meːku- miŋgi- miŋgi- miŋgi- miŋg- miŋg- ~ mɨŋg-
egg/fruit *maŋga makə- ~ mʌːkə-
shoulder *maraŋgV -maraŋga-mp -mʌraŋgin -mʌraŋgo-pa
house *muŋgu muŋgu muŋgu-p muŋgu-pa muŋgu-(pa)
go down *muŋgu- moko- muŋgu- muŋgu- muŋgo- muŋgo- muŋgu-
~mɨŋgu-
pull/tie *pʉŋgʉr[ʉ]- wukrʉ- ~ -pʉkrʉ-wuŋgr- sɨ-wiŋgi- sɨ-wiŋgi- tʉ-bʉŋg-
vine *pʉɣʉn wʉgʉŋ wɨgɨnʌ-mp wugɛnʌ-mp wuguŋa-mba βɨŋgɨN-
~ βɨɣ- (?)
mountain *tʉŋgʉ rʉkə- tɨŋgə-k
step *taŋgu- -raŋgu- -tʌŋgu- -taŋgu- taŋgu-
arrow sp. *tumbʉraŋgi tombraŋ (?) tumbraŋgi-pa
elbow *kiŋgu[N/ŋga] gikoŋga- -giŋguŋ
bite *kʉŋg[i]- nuŋgi- -kɨŋgɨ- -kiŋgi- -kuŋg-
wind *kʉjiŋgasa uɲugasa- gwingasa
arm *kumbuŋgʉr umbuŋgʉr -gɔmbogər̃-ɣumbuŋgʉr ɣumbuŋgɨr
yellow *kuŋgaN uŋga- uŋga- uŋgaN-(ka)
boil (v.) *kʷaŋgʉr[ʉ]- grʉ- uŋgri- waəg- waŋgə- waŋg- waŋgi-
pandanus *[p/w]uŋga wogiji- wəŋga wuŋgʌ-p wuŋgʌ-p wuŋga-pa
jump *[p/w]uŋgar[ʉ]- wuŋgari- wuŋgə-
hunger *jiŋgi neke- nɨŋgi niŋgi-mp iŋge-p niŋge- niŋgi-
give *jʉŋgu- -ku- nuŋgu- -ŋgu- (sg.)
-nuŋgu- (pl.)
-ku- (?) -kʷ- (?) -ku- (?)
fog *jʉŋguŋ ɲiku- nuŋguŋ iŋguŋ-omp nuŋguŋ-amba
blood *jaŋguN ɲaku- naŋguŋ nʌːŋgu-mp
~ -nʌŋgu-mp
-ŋgun-ump naŋguŋ-umbaŋnaŋguN-
red *jaŋguN ɲaku- naŋguŋg- naŋgu- jaŋgu- naŋgu- naŋguN-
mosquito *jaŋgur jakur-

… medial /*ŋg/ …:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-ŋg- ŋg ŋg ŋg ŋg
penis *mʉŋgʉn maŋr- (?)mʉgrʉ (?)-mɨŋgɨn-amp-məŋgən-ʌmp-muŋgɨnʌ-mba-ŋmuŋguN-
walk *pʉ-taŋgu- p-raŋgu- wi-tʌŋgu- wu-taŋgu- βɨ-taŋgu-
shoulder *tuwuŋguN rubuŋgu- tubuŋguŋ
swallow (v/)*jamuŋgV- ɲamuŋgʉ- namuŋgu- namɣ- (?) jʌːmŋgə- namŋg-

Medial rounded velar prenasalized voiced stop /*ŋgʷ/ …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Ingram
*-ŋgʷ-
stand*taŋgʷa-tam-rako-ra- tangu-ram-taŋʷa-tam- taŋgʷa-ram-

Medial bilabial non-stop /*w'/ …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-w-
good *awiN awi- awi- avi- awe- awi- aβiN-ka
coconut *aw[ʉ/a]nʉ ʌβʌŋ awanə-p awɨnɨ-pa aβɨnɨ-(pa)
tail of bird*[a]wasu wasu awatu-pa-ŋ
woman/female*awundʉ awund
awundə-ka
awundi-mp
~ ʌwundi-mp
awondə-k
awondə-nʌnt
awundə-)
awundə-ka
awundɨ-(pa)
few *uwaŋ owaŋ uwaŋ wʌŋg- owaŋ
sago *mawa[m] mawam mʌwʌ mʌwʌː-mp mawʌ-p mʌwa-pa mawa-(pa)
knife *mawajiTa maita maita muwajɨt- moʌit mʌita
buy *maɣʉwi[ni]-mʌgə wiɲi- mawugᵊni- mʌgɨwɨ- maiβ- maiβ- maiβ-
fence *tʉwa tʌpʌ ~ tuwa tɨwʌː-p tʉwʌ-p tuwa-pa tɨβa-(pa)
cut *tawVɣV rʌbugu-
~ raβuɣʉ-
taːwog- tʌw- taːβʉg- taβaɣ-~taβɨɣa-
shoulder *tuwuŋguN rubuŋgu- tubuŋguŋ
crayfish *siwʉ siv tiwə-pu siβɨ-pa
navel *sʉndʉwu -tindᵊwu-kən-amp -səndəwi-p -tundəwu-p -sinziwu-
nose *sʉkuwar skuar -tukwʌr-pʌ sɨkɨwar-
trunk *sawi sʌwi tʌpa-kᵊnʌ-mp sawɛ-k tʌːβi-ka saβi(-)
stomach *sawʉ sɔ- tawu-tɨŋʌ-p -sʌwi-p -tawu-ka
mosquito *sawuɣʉ sagobogo tuɣu-mp sʌwuɣə-p tawuɣu-pa
pig *sawun savuŋ tʌpun-ump sʌwon-omp tawu-mba sawuN-
~ saɣuN-pa
smell (n.) *kanduwa katuwa- ganduwa-p
saliva *kawa - aba -ɣawʌ-pʌ-ŋ ɣaβa- ~ aβa-
bone *kawaŋ ɣʌwa- awaŋ -gʌwʌ-mp -ɣʌwʌ-ŋk -ɣawa-mba
flying fox *karawVn ɣaraw- arʌwi-mp ar̃ʌwɛnʌ-mp
sore *kuwi gui -goi-pa-ŋ ɣui-
dawn *kuwʉɣV goβugia ubugia ɣʌwɨɣ uwogaj uβəɣia uβɨɣɨ-
split *kuwand[ʉ]- kuwand- uwʌndə- uwand- βand-
morning *jʉwʉsa ubusa iwisa-t iβɨta jiβɨsa

Medial apical non-stop /*r/ …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-r-
hear/sense/think*indar- dara -indʌ- -indʌrʌ- ~ dara--ndʌr- ndar-
leg/foot *iŋgʉrʉ jikr- -iŋgr -iŋgər -iŋgrɨ-pa -iŋgɨrɨ(-pa)
laugh *irʉmu- irmu- irumi- iramu- irmʉ- irɨmu-
butterfly *apapura apapura apuparʌː-p apʌporʌ-p apapura
tobacco *asaraN asara- asaraŋ aisʌrʌ-p atʌra-mba
chicken *akakura akakara- akakara ʌkʌkʌr̃ʌ-p akʌkʌrʌ-pa akakara-(pa)
tree *arʉ ʌːr ~ ʌr ʌjɨ-mp (?) arə-p arɨ-pa arɨ-(pa)
scratch *ar[u]- aru- ar- ʌr-
shadow *uɣuru oguro- oŋroŋ (?) -guru-k -guru-p
light (of fire) *mira mira- mira merʌ-k mira-pa
sit *mʉnzʉrV- mʉsirʉ mʉnzira mindra- md- mʉndr- mɨnzɨrɨ-
~ mɨnzɨra-
sap *mʉrʉŋ mrʉ- mʉrʉŋ- mɨrɨŋʌ-mp murŋa-mba
dog *mʉrʉkʉN mʉrəkŋ murukŋ-amba mɨrɨkɨN-(amba)
flying fox *marambuN marambuŋ marambu-ŋa-ŋmarambuN-(pa)
shoulder *maraŋgV -maraŋga-mp-mʌraŋgin -mʌraŋgo-pa
sweat *murʉ mur̃ mujɨ-mp (?)-mor̃ə-p mor̃-pa murɨ-pa ~ mor-
meat/flesh *muru muru- muru mɨrɨ-p muru-k muru-ka muru-ka
sickness/illness*puraN urʌ-mp ura-mp ura-m- βɨra
short *p[u]ru wuru- wuru- wuru- βɨru-
fall over *[p]uruɣu- urugu- urugu- urogu-~ur̃ɔɣu- puruw-
arrow sp. *tumbʉraŋgi tombraŋ tumbraŋgi-pa
hold *turV- turi- tɔrə- utur- tur- ~ tura-
blow (fire) *tuɣuwar- rugowar- tugowar- tuɣowʌre- tuguwʌr tuwu-βar-
rain *sʉra r̃ːa- trʌ sirʌ-p sɨrʌ-p tr̃ʌ-pa tɨra-(pa)
speak (tr.) *kisuɣar[u]--gisugoru-isigor- -gituar- isɨwar-
watch (intr.) *kiɣʉr[ʉ]- jegrʉ- igr- igi- irəgə- igra-ram- iɣɨr- ~ iɣɨra
see *kiɣʉr[ʉ]- -kʉ- igr- -kiːɣ- -kɛr̃ɣə- -kir- -kiɣɨr-~-kiɣɨra
burn/roast *kʉri[]- ɣrʉ- gri kɨr- ir- gɨr- kɨr- ~ kɨra-
cold *kʉrʉN gurun-di gurun-d- ɣɨrɨN-tɨ-
betel pepper *kamura ramura amɔːrʌ-p amurʌ-pʌ amura-
areca nut *kariN ajʌː-mp (?)ar̃ɛ-mp ari-mba ariN-(pa)
flying fox *karawVn ɣaraw- arʌwi-mp ar̃ʌwɛnʌ-mp
wallaby *kajuɣara gaigora- aigura aiwara-pa aiwara-
man *kuram oro- kural (?) ura-mp urʌ-mp kurʌ ~ kura ɣuraN-(pa)
~ -kura
snake *wanzirʉŋ unzirʉŋ wʌnzᵊrᵊŋ-ʌmp wandrɨŋ-ambawanzirɨN-amba
forest *waraŋ wora- ura ndəmbawara-mp wʌrʌ-mp wʌra-j waraN

… /*r/ …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*-r- r r Ø Ø Ø Ø
vomit *miŋʉr[ʉ]- miŋrʉ- migri- mɨg- mʉŋe- mʉŋu-
pull/tie *pʉŋgʉr[ʉ]- wukrʉ- ~ -pʉkrʉ-wuŋgr- sɨ-wiŋgi-sɨ-wiŋgi-tʉ-bʉŋg-
side *pʉriN -bri -pər -priŋ
fly (v.) *[p/k]ʉmʉr[ʉ]- rʉmrʉ- gumᵋri- wumə- bʉm-
jump *[p/w]uŋgar[ʉ]- wuŋgari- wuŋgə-
chop/fell*taɣʉr[ʉ]- rʌgrʉ- tʌgr- tʌɣ- tʌɣə- tʌg- taɣ- ~ taɣa-
boil (v.)*kʷaŋgʉr[ʉ]- grʉ- uŋgri- waəg- waŋgə- waŋg- waŋgi-
die *jʉmbʉr[ʉ]- prɨ- nʉmbr- nɨmb- imbə- nʉmb- nɨmbɨ-

… /*r/ …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*-r- r r Ø Ø Ø Ø
weep/cry*[j]irʉɣ[ʉ]-irgʉ- jigi- iɣ- iːɣə- jiɣ- jiɣ-~jiɣa-~jiɣu-

Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Ingram
*-j-
charcoal/black*ajiɣi aɟiɣi- aziɣi- ajig- ~ aiɣi-paaiɣi-(pa)
make/work *ujaN-tɨ- ujan-di- ujan-d-
knife *mawajiTa maita maita muwajɨt- moʌit mʌita
vulva/vagina *paji waji wai-p waji-pa-ŋ -βaiji-
mouth/speech *kija jaː- gia- -gia- ɣɨja-(pa)
mouth *kija-kumbaNjaː-goŋba- -gia-ɣʉmbaŋ-ga -ɣɨja-ɣʉmbaN-ka
wallaby *kajuɣara gaigora- aigura aiwara-pa aiwara-

When /*j/ …

Tomui River Osum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*-j-/_VN VNC
knife *ajʉm ajʉŋ aimomomp aiN-amba
day b.y./a.t.*ajuŋ aɲɨgu ajuŋ anuŋ-k anuŋ anuŋ ~ anuN-
dream (n.) *kijʉN giɲi- gijʉŋ inə- ɣunu-
dream (v.) *kijʉN-was[i]- gijʉŋ osi inə-wʌse-ɣunu-wat-
wind *kʉjiŋgasa uɲugasa- gwingasa
spear *[k]uja ja- uja uja-p uja-p uijʌ-pa ɣuja-

Medial velar non-stop /*ɣ/ …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-ɣ-
cloud *iɣuN igo igum- iŋguŋo-mp (?) igum-
sky *iɣuN-pʉsa igum-bᵘsa igum-bɨta-ka
charcoal/black*ajiɣi aɟiɣi- aziɣi- ajig- ~ aiɣi-pa aiɣi-(pa)
how/how many *ambʉɣiN ambʉgiŋ ambowe- ambuɣ-
-ambuɣe
ambʉɣi-
(-ambʉɣi)
sugarcane *aɣaN aga- ʌgʌŋ aɣʌ-mp aɣa-mba
shadow *uɣuru oguro- oŋroŋ (?) -guru-k -guru-p
cassowary *masuɣuN masuguŋ mʌtsuɣu-mpmʌsogu-mp matuŋu-mba masuɣuN
buy *maɣʉwi[ni]-mʌgə wiɲi- mawugᵊni- mʌgɨwɨ- maiβ- maiβ- maiβ-
net bag *paɣan wagaŋ waɣana-mp waɣʌnʌ-mp wʌɣa-mba βaɣa-mba
fall over *[p]uruɣu- urugu- urugu- urogu-~ur̃ɔɣu-puruw-
village *puɣar wugo- wugu uwara-mp wuɣʌrʌ-mp wʉga-pa βwa- ~ βwa-r
kill *tʉɣim[u]- tʉgimi- tiɣimu- -tɛgumu- tʉgim-
cut *tawVɣV rʌbugu-
~ raβuɣʉ-
taːwog- tʌw- taːβʉg- taβaɣ-~taβɨɣa-
chop/fell *taɣʉr[ʉ]- rʌgrʉ- tʌgr- tʌɣ- tʌɣə- tʌg- taɣ- ~ taɣa-
hit/say *tuɣu- tuɣu- ~tugu
-~rugu- ~ ro-
tugu- ~ tuɣʉ- tuɣu- ~ tugu- tugu- ~ tu- tuɣu- ~ tuwu-
cough (v.) *tuɣu- rugu- tugu- tugu- tu-
blow (fire) *tuɣuwar- rugowar- tugowar- tuɣowʌre- tuguwʌr tuwu-βar-
carry on back *sʉɣ[ʉ]- zigʉ- sʉg- tɨgɨ- si- tʉgʉ- sɨɣɨ- siɣɨ-~ sɨɣi-
mosquito *sawuɣʉ sagobogo tuɣu-mp sʌwuɣə-p tawuɣu-pa
speak (tr.) *kisuɣar[u]--gisugoru- isigor- -gituar- isɨwar-
watch (intr.) *kiɣʉr[ʉ]- jegrʉ- igr- igi- irəgə- igra-ram- iɣɨr- ~ iɣɨra
see *kiɣʉr[ʉ]- -kʉ- igr- -kiːɣ- -kɛr̃ɣə- -kir- -kiɣɨr-~-kiɣɨra
ear *kʉnzʉɣiw ginsɛgiw -ɣundəgiwə-pʌ -ɣɨnzɨɣiβ-
~ -ɣɨnzɨɣɨβ-
be sick/ill *kandʉɣi- katigi-ɲi- andəgi-
wallaby *kajuɣara gaigora- aigura aiwara-pa aiwara-
slit drum *kaɣʉndʉ kʌːgɛnd- agʉndʉ
fasten/bind *kaɣa- ɣaga-ɲi- ʌgi- ʌgə- aɣa-
dawn *kuwʉɣV goβugia ubugia ɣʌwɨɣ uwogaj uβəɣia uβɨɣɨ-
fill *kʷasʉɣ[ʉ]- wosigʉ- asʉgi- (?) kʷʌtɨg- wʌs- wʌtɨɣ-
weep/cry *[j]irʉɣ[ʉ]-irgʉ- jigi- iɣ- iːɣə- jiɣ- jiɣ-~jiɣa-~jiɣu-

… final consonants …

…:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*

Final apical nasal /*n/ …:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-n n Ø n Ø ŋ Ø ŋ
breast *aman ama amaŋ mʌn-ʌmp ʌmʌː-mp (?) ʌmʌ-mba-ŋ amaN-(pa)
liver *mamʉn mamuŋ -mʌminʌ-ŋk -mamɛŋ-amba
flying fox *karawVn ɣaraw- arʌwi-mp (?)ar̃ʌwɛnʌ-mp
penis *mʉŋgʉn maŋr- mʉgrʉ -mɨŋgɨn-amp -məŋgən-ʌmp -muŋgɨnʌ-mba-ŋ (?)muŋguN-
vine *pʉɣʉn wʉgʉŋ wɨgɨnʌ-mp wugɛnʌ-mp wuguŋa-mba βɨŋgɨN- ~ βɨɣ-
net bag *paɣan wagaŋ waɣana-mp waɣʌnʌ-mp wʌɣa-mba βaɣa-mba
moon *takun tʌkuŋ tʌkuŋ-omp (?)tʌkuŋ-umba
sea *tu[w/ɣ]ʉn towuŋ suwun-ʌmp towən-ʌmp toːgŋ-amba
young/child*simbun simbuŋ simbina-ŋk simbuN-
pig *sawun savuŋ tʌpun-ump sʌwon-omp tawu-mba sawuN-
~ saɣuN-pa
lime *su[w/ɣ]an sugɔŋ tuwʌn-amp sugʷʌnʌ-mp tuwa-mba suwaN-(pa)
flying fox *karawVn ɣaraw- arʌwi-mp (?)ar̃ʌwɛnʌ-mp
clay pot *kʷamʉn umuŋ wʌmənʌ-mp wʌmənʌ-mp wamuŋa-mba wamiN-amba
louse *jʉman nʉmaŋ nimʌn-amp imʌ-mp (?) nʉma-mba nɨmaN-pa

Final velar nasal /*ŋ/ …:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Ingram
*-ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ
wing *ambʉŋ apʉŋ- ambuŋ
sap *mʉrʉŋ mrʉ- mʉrʉŋ- mɨrɨŋʌ-mpmurŋa-mba
banana *manʉŋ manu- mʌna manaŋ-ampmanəŋ-ʌmbamanɨN-(amba)
cassowary*masuɣuŋ masuguŋ mʌtsuɣu-mpmʌsogu-mpmatuŋu-mbamasuɣuN
forest *waraŋ wora- ura ndəmbawara-mp wʌrʌ-mp wʌra-j waraN

Final apical non-stop /*r/… :

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
*-r
tongue *mir mir-gʌ- mir̃ -mɛr̃ə-k -mir-pa -mir-(ka)
tree possum*mukʉr mokr- mukr̃ mɔkər̃-əpmukr̃-pa mukɨr-pa

… /*r/… :

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
*-r
afternoon*kʉnzʉr gunzᵋrʉŋ insər ɣʉndir ɣɨnzɨr
arm *kumbuŋgʉr umbuŋgʉr -gɔmbogər̃-ɣumbuŋgʉrɣumbuŋgɨr

… /*r/… :

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Ingram
*-r
wallaby*ipʉr ipʌr-amp iːpʌ-p ipa-pa
village*puɣar wugo- wugu uwara-mp wuɣʌrʌ-mpwʉga-pa βwa- ~ βwa-r
root *kʉndʉr gɨndi- gʉndə gɨntsir-ʌmpndə-k gundə-pa ɣɨndɨ- ~ -ɣɨnd
tooth *kambur gʌpɔ- -gʌmbru-mp -gʌmbɔ-p -gambu-pʌ-ŋ

… vowels …




Pronouns

Proto-Tomui River pronouns had both subject forms, which consist of only the uninflected base, and objects which are suffixed with /*-ɣʉ/. Osum, Wadaginam and Moresada have collapsed these two paradigms, with Osum and Wadaginam using the object forms of the singulars but the subejt form of the plurals and Moresada using object forms form both numbers; hence the gaps in the paradigms which follow.

Tomui River subject pronouns are reconstructed as follows, with Osum, Pondoma, Wadaginam, Moresada and Ikundun attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 81-82) and Anamuxra from Ingram (2001: 194-203.) Ingram's Anamuxra third person singular looks to have been replaced with the plural, although their associated prefixed forms remain distinct (below):

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
1 sg.*ja ji ~ ja ji ji ~ ja
2 sg.*na na na na
3 sg.*nʉ [nɨ-ŋ]
1 pl.*a-ŋ a-ŋ a-ŋ ɣa-ŋ (?) a-ŋ a-ŋ
2 pl.*na-ŋ na-ŋ na-ŋ na-ŋ na-ŋ na-ŋ
3 pl.*nʉ-ŋ nu-ŋ nʉ-ŋ nɨ-ŋ nʉ-ŋ nɨ-ŋ
1 dl.*a-r ? ? ? ? ? a-r
2 dl.*na-r ? ? ? ? ? na-r
3 dl.*nʉ-r ? ? ? ? ? nʉ-r

Tomui River object pronouns are reconstructed as follows:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
1 sg. obj.*ja-ɣʉ ji-gᵊ ja-g ja-ɣ jɛ-ɣ ja-g
2 sg. obj *na-ɣʉ na-gᵊ na-g na-ɣ na-ɣ na-g
3 sg. obj.*nʉ-ɣʉ nʉ-gᵊ nʉ-g nɨ-ɣ nə-ɣ nʉ-g
1 pl. obj.*a-ŋ-ɣʉ a-ŋᵊ-gʉ a-ŋə-ɣ a-ŋ-gɨ
2 pl. obj.*na-ŋ-ɣʉ na-ŋᵊ-gʉ na-ŋə-ɣ na-ŋ-gɨ
3 pl. obj.*nʉ-ŋ-ɣʉ nʉ-ŋᵊ-gʉ nɨ-ŋə-ɣ nʉ-ŋ-gɨ
1 dl. obj. ? ? ? ? ?
2 dl. obj. ? ? ? ? ?
3 dl. obj. ? ? ? ? ?

While Z'graggen does not give dual forms, the originality of the Ingram's Anamuxra forms is supported by outcomparison to Sogeram River (Daniels 2017: 86.) The separation of plural and dual suffixes is supported by not only the brute force of analogy but the fact that the plural suffix /*-ŋ/ is in Anamuxra used also for ordinary nominals (Ingram 2001: 186-187.)

In addition to subjects and objects, alienable possessve forms are reconstructed as follows (the second /*-ka/ on some forms is a nominal classifier):

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma Wadaginam Moresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggenIngram
1 sg. al. *ja-ka ja-ka-ka ja-ka(-mp) ja-ka-k ja-ka-k ja-ka
2 sg. al. *na-ka na-ka-ka na-ka(-mp) na-ka-k na-ka-k na-ka
3 sg. poss.*nʉ-ka nʉ-ka-ka nɨ-ka(-mp) nə-ka-k nʉ-ka-k nɨ-ka
1 pl. al. *a-ŋ-ka a-ŋ-ka-ka a-ŋa-ka(-mp) a-ŋəŋ-ka-k a-ŋ-ka-k a-ŋ-ka
2 pl. al. *na-ŋ-ka na-ŋ-ka-kana-ŋa-ka(-mp)na-ŋəŋ-ka-kna-ŋ-ka-k?
3 pl. al. *nʉ-ŋ-ka nʉ-ŋ-ka-kanɨ-ŋa-ka(-mp)nɨ-ŋəŋ-ka-knʉ-ŋ-ka-knɨ-ŋ-ka
2 dl. al. *na-r-ka ? ? ? ? ? ?
3 dl. al. *nʉ-r-ka ? ? ? ? ? nɨ-r-ka

An alternative alienable possessive series is found in Osum and in Ingram's Anamuxra:

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
1 sg. al.*ja-ɣʉwu ji-go ja-ɣɨwu
2 sg. al.*na-ɣʉwu na-go na-ɣɨwu
3 sg. al.*nʉ-ɣʉwu nʉ-go nɨ-ɣɨwu
1 pl. al.*a-ŋ-ɣʉwu a-ŋ-go a-ŋ-ɣɨwu
2 pl. al.*na-ŋ-ɣʉwu na-ŋ-go ?
3 pl. al.*nʉ-ŋ-ɣʉwu nʉ-ŋ-go nɨ-ŋ-ɣɨwu
1 dl. al.*a-r-ɣʉwu ? ? ? ? ? a-r-ɣɨwu
2 dl. al.*na-r-ɣʉwu ? ? ? ? ? ?
3 dl. al.*nʉ-r-ɣʉwu ? ? ? ? ? ?

In addtion to the free forms, prefixes are used to indicate inalienable possessors: and verbal objects.

…inalienable possessors, which Z'graggen glosses as genitive … kin terms and body parts (Ingram 2001: ):

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
1 sg. inal.*ja- ji- jV- ja- ja- ja- ji- ~ ja-
2 sg. inal.*na- a- ~ Ø- na- na- na- na- na-
3 sg. inal.*nʉ- nʉ- nʉ- Ø- n- nʉ- nɨ-
1 pl. inal.*a-ŋ- [ji-] a-ŋa- a-ŋa- a-ŋa- a-ŋa- a-ŋ-
2 pl. inal.*na-ŋ- [a- ~ Ø-]na-ŋa- na-ŋa- na-ŋa- na-ŋa- na-ŋ-
3 pl. inal.*nʉ-ŋ- [nʉ-] nʉ-ŋa- nɨ-ŋa- nɨ-ŋa- nʉ-ŋa- nɨ-ŋ-
1 dl. inal.*a-r- ? ? ? ? ? a-r-
2 dl. inal.*na-r- ? ? ? ? ? na-r-
3 dl. inal.*nʉ-r- ? ? ? ? ? nɨ-r-

… verbal objects …::

Tomui RiverOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
1 sg. v. obj.*ja- ji- ja- ja- ja- ji- ~ ja-
2 sg. v. obj.*na- na- na- na- na- na-
3 sg. v. obj.*nʉ- nʉ- Ø- nə- nʉ- nɨ-
1 pl. v. obj.*a-ŋ- a-ŋi- a-ŋɨ- a-ŋəŋ- a-ŋ- a-ŋ-
2 pl. v. obj.*na-ŋ- na-ŋi- an-ŋɨ- na-ŋəŋ- na-ŋ- na-ŋ-
3 pl. v. obj.*nʉ-ŋ- nʉ-ŋi- nɨ-ŋɨ- nɨ-ŋəŋ- nʉ-ŋ nɨ-ŋ-
1 dl. v. obj.*a-r- ? ? ? ? a-r-
2 dl. v. obj.*na-r- ? ? ? ? na-r-
3 dl. v. obj.*nʉ-r- ? ? ? ? nɨ-r-

As the underlying forms are identical to those of the free pronouns (above) we can conclude that prefixation is in both instances of recent origin.

Verbal morphology

[under construction]

Like other subgroups of West Madang, Tomui River languages use suffixes to index pronominal verbal subjects. These suffixes are reconstructed as follows, with Anamuxra attestations drawn from Ingram (2001: 194-197, 203-212)

Tomui RiverAnamuxra
Ingram
1 sg.
2 sg.
3 sg.
1 pl.
2 pl.
3 pl.
1 dl.
2 dl.
3 dl.


Loans to and from neighboring languages

[under construction]

The most immediately obvious source of loans into Tomui River is the Guam and Moam Rivers family, a subgroup of Ramu River, immediately to the northwest.

Guam-MoamOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggenZ'graggen Z'graggen Ingram
wallaby *ipʉr ipʌr-amp iːpʌ-p ipa-pa
ground possum*… induwan-amba
water *anʉm anɨ- anuŋ ani-mp anəŋʌ-mp anɨŋa-mba anɨN-(amba)
rattan/rope *andur andoːrʌ-p andᵘra-mba anduraN-
spirit sp. *asʉŋ asɨN-(amba)
vein *aŋgʉndʉŋakində- aŋg-aŋgʉdɛ -ŋgugudə-p
bird *uŋgarak okara- ŋgʌr̃ʌ-p oŋgarʌ-pa
forest *uraŋ wora- ura ndəmbawara-mp wʌrʌ-mp wʌra-j waraN
ripe *munup muno- ~ munu-
net bag *waɣan wagaŋ waɣana-mpwaɣʌnʌ-mp wʌɣa-mba βaɣa-mba
big *ɣarum aro- aro- arum-akəparo- aru- aru-
knife *ɣajʉm ajʉŋ aimomomp aiN-amba

The most conspicuous source of loans into Tomui River is the Guam and Moam Rivers family, a subgroup of Ramu River, immediately to the northwest.

Guam-MoamOsum Pondoma WadaginamMoresada Ikundun Anamuxra
Z'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenZ'graggenIngram
fruit/heart*… mɨnɨ-p munu-k munu-kwa
meat/flesh *… muru- muru mɨrɨ-p muru-k muru-ka muru-ka
bone *ɣawaŋ ɣʌwa- awaŋ -gʌwʌ-mp -ɣʌwʌ-ŋk -ɣawa-mba

… Osum (Utarmbung) and especially Pondoma (Anam) … Katiati (Mum) immediately to the southeast, a member of the closely-related Sogeram River family These led Z'graggen (1971: 56-61) to wrongly place Katiati and Sileibi (Sirva) within his Josephstaal Stock. Z'graggen ( p.61) gives the lexicostatistical resemblance between Katiati and Pondoma as 42%, higher than any relationship between Pondoma and any Tomui River language except for Ikundun and higher than (p. 68) Katiati's 17% with Emerum (Apalɨ,) with Katiati's figures with other Tomui River languages ranging between 12-19%. It is possible that some of these are legitimate mutual retentions. …:

Tomui River Osum Pondoma Katiati Sileibi Sogeram River
Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen Z'graggen
laugh *irʉmu- irmu- irumi- irm-
sky *iɣuN-pʉsa igum-bᵘsa igumbusa
mountain apuŋ ʌpu
water *anʉm anɨ- anuŋ aɲi
fish asa asa
good *awiN awi- awi- awi
big *arum aro- aro- aru
shadow *… oguro- oŋroŋ oŋru
crocodile maβraŋ mabra *maβɨra
comb *mandapiN mandapiŋ mandapi
wooden plate*makiN maːki- makiŋ mʌːki
fly (n.) mumb moːmp mumbu
cassowary mujaŋ muja muja *mujaŋ
areca nut maŋda- (?) majnde majnda
sago *mawa[m] mawam mʌwʌ maβa
tree possum *mukʉr mokr- mukr̃ mokːr muːkuru
egg *mukuN mukuŋ muku
bamboo *pʉkʉ wuku- wʉkʉ pʉkʉ pɨkɨ
pull/tie *pʉŋgʉr[ʉ]- wukrʉ- ~ -pʉkrʉ-wuŋgr- pʉngr-
look for -pʉgʉr- pugr̃-
village *puɣar wugo- wugu pugu
stone tʉmba tʉmba *tamba
straight *tʉTʉ- rtɛ- tətə- tʉtʉ turusimba
snake raːwuː- tʌβ *takʷɨ
house raβ- tʌβ
chop/fell *taɣʉr[ʉ]- rʌgrʉ- tʌgr- tagr̃- ~ tagr̃i-
arrow sp. *tumbʉraŋgi tombraŋ tubraŋgi
navel nipirp- sumbir-p sumbir-p simbil *simbirʉm
taro sis sis
arrow sp. siʌŋ sia siːa ~ sia
rattan *sʉkiN skiŋ siki
split/tear sʉgri- ~ -sʉgr-sʉgri- ~ sugri- *sɨkɨra
stump sʌpa sapa
mosquito *sawuɣʉ sagobogo tsaːbugo
turn gɨmuru- kimr-
arrow sp. grʉŋaŋ kʉrŋa
bird kʌvʌŋ kawa kaβa *kapa
throw ɣawari- kawar- kapara- *kapʉra-
wallaby *kajuɣara gaigora- aigura kajgura
frog okasa- kukasa *kukasa
sore *kuwi gui
coconut goima koima kwima *kuimaŋ
kunai grass *[p/w]a[n/nd]aNuna- ẉnaŋ- ẉɲa
ashes *japuN japo- japu ~ japuŋ- ipu
yam sp, *jamba[N/r] japara- nambaŋ ɲambara ɲam
mosquito jakur ɲaːŋgura nʌŋguru *jaŋjur

… Kaukombar River … Pila (Maia) … with Pila attestations drawn from Z'graggen (1980: 1-159):

Kaukombar R.Pila Tomui River
spear *… wiʌb *[k]uja
flying fox*… marambo*marambuN
knife *… moʌit *mawajita
slit drum *… sumbum *s[i/ʉ]mbuN
rat sokob *sʉk[a/u]w
clay pot *… kʷamun *kʷamʉn

At least two of these are ultimately from Oceanic:

OceanicKaukombar R.PilaTomui River
crayfish *… *… *siwʉ
hand drum*… *waŋg waŋ *uŋgʉ

… regional …:

Tomui River
tobacco *asaraN-
chicken *akakara-