Tebi-Towe
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
[under construction]
The Terbi-Towe family consists of two languages, Tebi, also known as Dubu, and Towe (Towei,) spoken …
Subclassification
The internal classificaiton of Tebi-Towe is as follows:
Tebi-Towe
Tebi
Towe
Sources
[under construction]
Anceaux (Smits and Voorhoeve 1994) 104 comparative terms for Dubu of Afi village, Tobima of Dubu village after Walton, Dubu after D.A. Mallo and Towei after D.A. Mallo
Galis (1956: appendix 1-12, i.e. 85-97) … comparative terms for Doeboe and Towei
Voorhoeve (1971: 98-109) 84 comparative terms for Dubu after Galis (1956)
Voorhoeve (1975: 114) 37 comparative terms for Dubu and Towei after Galis (1956)
Wambaliau (2004) … comparative terms for Towe of Towe Hitam village
Im (2005) … comparative terms for Tebi of Dubu village
HIstory of classification
[under construction]
Voorhoeve (1971: …) … (1975: …) … Wuerm (1982: …) …
…
Foley (2018: …) …
HIstorical phonology
[under construction]
Proto-Tebi-Towe had perhaps 12 consonants and 5 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | *ŋ | |
*p | *t | *k | |
*ɸ | *s | ||
*r | |||
*w | *l | *j |
*i | *u | |
*e | *o | |
*a |
In addition to the simple vowels given above, four diphthongs are found as follows:
*eⁱ | *oᵘ |
*aⁱ | *aᵘ |
Tebi-Towe lacks phonemic voiced stops because Pauwasi River prenasalized voiced stops have been both denasalized and devoiced.
The distinction between apical non-stops /*r/ and /*l/ is unusual for New Guinean languages.
There re no final consonants.
Consonant clusters are found in onsets. Observed consonant cluters include:
*w | *r | *l | |
*… | *… | *… | *… |
Initial consonants correspond as follows:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Tebi |
*m- | m | m |
*n- | n | n |
*ŋ- | ŋ | n |
*p- | p | p |
*t- | t | t |
*k- | k | k |
*ɸ- | ɸ | ɸ |
*s- | s | s |
*w- | w | w |
*j- | j | j |
Medial consonants correspond as follows:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Tebi |
*-m- | m | m |
*-n- | n | n |
*-nV | ŋ | nV |
*-p- | p | p |
*-p-/NV_ | ||
*-t- | t | t |
*-t-/NV_ | nd | nd |
*-k- | ||
*-k-/NV_ | ŋg | ŋg |
*-ɸ- | ɸ | ɸ |
*-s- | s | s |
*-r- | ||
*-w- | w | w |
*-l- | j | |
*-j- | j | j |
Vowels and diphthongs correspond as follows:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Tebi |
*i | ||
*u | ||
*e | ||
*o | ||
*a | ||
*eⁱ | ||
*oᵘ | ||
*aⁱ | ||
*aᵘ |
These correspondences are exemplified as follows, with Towe attestations drawn from … and Tebi from … and ….
Any consonant can occur initially except for apical non-stops /*r *l/.
Initial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both languages:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*m- | m | m | m | m | m | m | |
louse | *mi | mi | mi | ˈmi | mi | mi | mi |
mosquito | *mVmV | meme- | mem- | muˈmi | mimi | mimi | mimi |
flesh/meat | *meⁱpi | meiːp | míbi | ||||
bad | *mene | meŋ- | ˈməne | ||||
nose | *menri | mendri | mendri | minˈdi | məndi | məndi | mendi |
head | *mendini | mendiŋ- | mindi- ~minde- | mindin- ~ mendinin- | məndini ~ məndidi- | məndini ~ mɛndi- | mendeni ~ mendini- |
short | *mendV | meˈnda- | mənde | ||||
inside | *meŋge | meg- | ˈmɛŋgɛ | ||||
neck | *meŋga… | mɛngabere | məŋgabini | mɛŋgafînî | meŋguigo | ||
liver | *meŋgani | mɛˈŋgaŋ | meˈŋgani | ||||
language | *ma | maː | maː | ||||
who? | *ma | ma-de | maː-dé | ||||
breast | *mamV | maˈmu | mamo | mamu | mamũ | mamu | mamo |
sun/moon | *ma[p] | ˈmap | -map | maː ~ -ma | ma | ma | ma |
arrow | *mani | maˈni | mani | ||||
bandicoot | *mawi | mawi | |||||
green/blue | *moŋgwar[u] | moŋkor | moŋgor | muŋgʷaˈru | moŋgɔr | moŋgwar | moŋguː |
tree | *mu | -mu | -ˈmumu | momuŋ |
Initial apical nasal /*n/ is retained as such in both languages:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*n- | n | n | n | n | n | n | |
house | *neme | neˈme | nəˈme | ||||
child | *nemareki | nemaˈrek | nəmargi | ||||
mother | *na | naː | ˈnaː | ||||
dry | *noŋgwani | joŋgoŋ (?) | nukwe | noŋgʷaˈnɨ | noŋguane | nuŋgwani | nuŋwani |
1 pl. | *nu | nu | nu | nuˈmu | nəmu | numu- | nu- |
Initial velar nasal /*ŋ/ is merged with the reflexes of apical nasal /*n/ in Tebi:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*ŋ- | ŋ | ŋ [n ŋg g] | n | n | n | n | |
eat/drink | *ŋeⁱ | ŋei | ne- ~ ge | ne | nî ~ ni | nɛ ~ -ni | nie ~ -ni |
wep/cry | *ŋeⁱ | ˈŋei | -ŋgei | -ˈna’ | -nɛ | -ne | -nei |
excrement | *ŋeme | ŋeme | neˈme | ||||
1 sg. | *ŋo | ŋo | nŋgo | nó | no | no | nok |
In one examples where initial/*ŋ/ is followed immediately by lateral non-stop /*l/ in a cluster, it is realized as prenasalized or plain voiced stop [ŋg g] in both languages:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*ŋ-/_l | ŋ [g] | ŋ [g] | ŋ [ŋg] | ŋ [ŋg] | ŋ [g] | ŋ [k] (?) | |
one | *ŋlo | ge- ~ -gie | gio- | ŋglo | uŋgoro | golɔ | klo- |
Initial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ is retained as such in both languages:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*p- | p | p | p | p | p | p | |
ant | *pe | pe- | |||||
tie | *petV | peti- | pəˈde | ||||
tree kangaroo | *pesi | peˈsi | piˈsi | ||||
cold | *peka | peka | pega | paka | pəka | -pka | |
3 sg./pl. | *pejaᵘ | pijau ~ -ˈpeja | pɛˈa | peao | piau | ||
wind | *poɸike | peˈɸik | pofi | ˈpɔfˈgɛ | pəfəke | pofəkɛ | pofiki- |
foot/leg | *pu | pu- | po- | pú- | pu- | pu- | po- |
bow | *pri | pri | pli | ||||
red | *plaⁱ | pie | peai | pra | prae | pərai | peai |
In one example, root-initial /*p/ is sometimes realized as voiced [b] because it is the second member of a compound:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*p- | p [p b] | p [b] | p | p | p [b] | ||
elbow/knee | *parini | pˈeriŋ ~ -ˈbariŋ ~ -ˈbariŋ | -bori | -páːlini ~ -ˈpaləni | -parini | -balini |
Initial apical voiceless stop /*t/ is retained as such in both languages:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*t- | t | t | t | t | t | t | |
sky | *ti | ti | ˈti | ||||
forest | *tepa | teˈpa | |||||
knife | *tepa | teˈpa | |||||
leaf | *teɸV | teɸe | tefe | teˈfe | təfi | təfu | tefi |
earth/ground | *tete | ʈeˈʈé | tede | teˈdeʔ | tede | tede | tɛtu |
hair/feather(s) | *teke | tiːk | teke | -ˈtɛgɛ ~ ˈtage | -təke | -tɛkɛ | -tke |
axe | *teka | teˈka | |||||
white | *teli | dei (?) | teˈri | ter | ter | teri | |
hit | *tari | dari- (?) | ˈtaˈri | ||||
goanna | *tawa | taˈwa | |||||
man/person | *toŋgwarV | tokʷar ~ towar | tokwoar | tɔˈŋgaːr | teŋgwar | tuŋgwar | toŋkwar |
yrllow | *tVkVr[e] | tokoˈre | tukʰər | ||||
tail | *tumu | tum- | tum- | túmú | təmu | tumu | -tumu |
Initial velar voiceless stop /*k/ is retained as such in both languages:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*k- | k | k | k | k | k | k | |
weeping/crying | *keme | kemi | keme- | kem- | kəmə- | kəmə- | keme- |
die | *kema | kemá | kema | kma | kəma | kəmah | kmaː |
when? | *kema | kema | kma- | ||||
name | *keni | keiŋ | kin | kni | kəni | kinî | kini |
machete | *kenemba | keneˈmba | |||||
woman | *keke | keke | keke | kɛˈgɛ | kege | kɛkɛ | keki |
lime | *kVlV | kei | |||||
lie down/sleep | *kale | ˈkaje | kei | gari | |||
come | *kwaro | koro- | kaːɭœ ~ ˈkalú- | koarɔ | kwalɔ | klawai | |
cloud | *koᵘ | kuː | kuː | kow | ku | kau | |
leech | *kole | kʷije | kɔˈlɛ | ||||
stone | *kola | kla | kora | kwola | kola | ||
rain | *kweⁱ | kʷé | kʷɛ | kʰwi | kʰwi | kwei | |
wing | *k[w]amu | kam- | kʷaˈmu | ||||
outside | *kwali | kwai- | kʷali- | ||||
search/seek | *kwall | kwaj- | kʷaˈli | ||||
two | *kre | ker- | kra- | kre | kr | kər | kre |
teeth/mouth | *krV | k(e)re- - kro- | ker- ~ kero- | klé ~ kle- | krî ~ kri- | kəli ~ kɛlɛ- | kli- |
cough | *krVma | kroma- | ˈkluma’ | ||||
sit | *kru | kru- | -ˈklu- | -gry | -kru |
Initial bilabial voiceless fricative /*ɸ/ is retained as uch in both languages. often realized as labiodental [f]:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*ɸ- | [ɸ f] | [f] | [f] | [ɸ f] | [f] | [f] | |
hear | *ɸeⁱ | fi- | fei | fi | fi | fi | fei |
ear | *ɸa | ɸa- | fa- | fa | fa | fa | faʔa |
fence | *ɸa | faː | fa | ||||
smoke | *ɸat[e] | ˈɸat | -fade | -faˈre | -far | -far | -far |
blow | *ɸalo | -fiˈe | ˈfaˈro | ||||
2 sg. | *ɸo | fo | [check source] | fó | ɸo | fo | |
hot | *ɸVfakle | fieke | fefeki | ˈfufagle | ɸəɸəgre | fofaqəli | fafaklai |
stab | *ɸro | fro- | fro | ||||
fly (v.) | *ɸruka… | furuˈkati | ˈfrugar | ||||
arm/hand | *ɸlo | ɸi- | fio- | flɔː- | ɸoro | folo | folo |
Initial laminal voiceless fricative /*s/ is retained as such in both languages:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*s- | s | s | s | s | s | s | |
skin/bark | *seri | sir ~ ˈsir | ser | siˈri ~ ˈsiri | seri | sir | sere |
dog | *saⁱ | saj | sa | ||||
worm | *s[o]mondo | somoˈndo | |||||
wallaby | *sukuisi | sukuˈsi | suiˈsi | ||||
long | *suru | suru- | suru- | ||||
shoot/kill | *sra | sera | sra |
Initial bilabial non-stop /*w/ is retained as such in both languages:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*w- | w | w | w | w | w | w | |
fire/wood | *we | we | we- | wɛː ~ wɛ- | ui | wi- | weː ~ we |
thorn/sharp | *weni | wiŋ ~ weiŋ- | wɛˈnɛ ~ ˈwəne | ||||
night | *weri | weri | wuˈli | wəri | wəli | weli | |
burn (intr.) | *wa | wa- | -wa | -wa ~ –wá- | -ua | -wa | -wa |
taro/garden | *waɸo | waɸo ~ waˈfo | wafo ~ ˈwaf- | ||||
ashes | *waɸu | ˈwafu | wafea | wáfu | uafu | wafuw | wafu |
sick/ill | *wandi | wadi- | ˈwaˈndi | ||||
above | *wole | wi- | wole |
There are no unambiguous examples of lateral non-stop /*l/ in initial position, though some examples of medial /*l/ may arise from the vowel prosthesis in Tebi (below.)
Initial palatal non-stop /*j/ is retained as such in both languages. It appears that Pauwasi River initial /*j/ has been lost before front vowels (cf. “eye” below) and thus is attested here only when followed by low central vowel /*a/:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*j- | j | j | j | ||||
bite | *ja | ||||||
insect/td> | *jani | jaŋ | -ia | -(j)aˈni | |||
five | *jane | jaŋ- | ˈjanə- | ianɛŋ |
Any consonant can occur medially except for velar nasal / *ŋ/.
Medial bilabial nasal /*m/ is retained as such in both languages:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-m- | m | m | m | m | m | m | |
mosquito | *mVmV | meme- | mem- | muˈmi | mimi | mimi | mimi |
num. suffix (?) | *-make | -ˈmak | -ˈmage ~ -maˈge | ||||
bird | *olumu | jumu | jemu | lúmú | ərəmu ~ -rum | lumu ~ -lumu | olmu ~ -lmu |
breast | *mamV | maˈmu | mamo | mamu | mamũ | mamu | mamo |
house | *neme | neˈme | nəˈme | ||||
child | *nemareki | nemaˈrek | nəmargi | ||||
tail | *tumu | tum- | tum- | túmú | təmu | tumu | -tumu |
worm | *s[o]mondo | somoˈndo | |||||
excrement | *ŋeme | ŋeme | neˈme | ||||
weeping/crying | *keme | kemi | keme- | kem- | kəmə- | kəmə- | keme- |
die | *kema | kemá | kema | kma | kəma | kəmah | kmaː |
when? | *kema | kema | kma- | ||||
cough | *krVma | kroma- | ˈkluma’ | ||||
wing | *k[w]amu | kam- | kʷaˈmu |
Medial apical nasal /*n/ is as a matter of principle retained as such in both lanuages:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-n- | n | n | |||||
arrow | *mani | maˈni | mani | ||||
machete | *kenemba | keneˈmba |
Most examples of medial /*n/ followed by a final vowel are reduced to /ŋ/ in Towe with loss of the final vowel. The fact that all of these examples have front vowels [i e] in Tebi allows for the alternative interpretation that these segments /*nV/ should be reconstructed as merely final /*n/:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-nV | ŋ | ŋ [n k] | nV | nV | nV | nV | |
egg | *alani | jeŋ | ɟek | aːlaˈni | arane | alani | |
bad | *mene | meŋ- | ˈməne | ||||
head | *mendini | mendiŋ- | mindi- ~minde- | mindin- ~ mendinin- | məndini ~ məndidi- | məndini ~ mɛndi- | mendeni ~ mendini- |
liver | *meŋgani | mɛˈŋgaŋ | meˈŋgani | ||||
elbow/knee | *parini | pˈeriŋ ~ -ˈbariŋ ~ -ˈbariŋ | -bori | -páːlini ~ -ˈpaləni | -parini | -balini | |
right hand | *ɸlo-ndini | fi-ndiŋ | flo-tiˈni | ||||
dry | *noŋgwani | joŋgoŋ | nukwe | noŋgʷaˈnɨ | noŋguane | nuŋgwani | nuŋwani |
name | *keni | keiŋ | kin | kni | kəni | kinî | kini |
thorn/sharp | *weni | wiŋ ~ weiŋ- | wɛˈnɛ ~ ˈwəne | ||||
insect/td> | *jani | jaŋ | -ia | -(j)aˈni | |||
five | *jane | jaŋ- | ˈjanə- | ianɛŋ |
Velar nasal /*ŋ/ has not ben found to occur medially, unless the examlpes given with final segment /*nV/ above are taken to represent it.
Medial bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-p- | p | p [b] | |||||
father's father | *ape | aˈbe | |||||
father | *apa | aˈba | |||||
flesh/meat | *meⁱpi | meiːp | míbi | ||||
forest | *tepa | teˈpa | |||||
knife | *tepa | teˈpa |
… [*mb] …
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-mb-/NV_ | mb | ||||||
machete | *kenemba | keneˈmba |
Medial apical voiceless stop /*t/… :
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-t- | t [t d] | t [d] | t [t] | t [t] | t [t] | ||
interrogative | *-te | -ˈde | -dé ~ -dɛ | -te | -ti | -te | |
mother's mother | *ataᵘ | atau | ˈada | ||||
tie | *petV | peti- | pəˈde | ||||
smoke | *ɸat[e] | ˈɸat | -fade | -faˈre | -far | -far | -far |
earth/ground | *tete | ʈeˈʈé | tede | teˈdeʔ | tede | tede | tɛtu |
… [*nd] …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-nd-/NV_ | |||||||
head | *mendini | mendiŋ- | mindi- ~minde- | mindin- ~ mendinin- | məndini ~ məndidi- | məndini ~ mɛndi- | mendeni ~ mendini- |
short | *mendV | meˈnda- | mənde | ||||
worm | *s[o]mondo | somoˈndo |
… [nd] …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*(-)nd- | nd | t | |||||
right hand | *ɸlo-ndini | fi-ndiŋ | flo-tiˈni | ||||
locative | *-nde | -ˈnte ~ ˈnde ~ -nɖe | -ˈnde ~ -ndɨ | ||||
sick/ill | *wandi | wadi- | ˈwaˈndi |
Medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-k- | k | k | k [g] | k […] | k […] | k […] | |
num. suffix (?) | *-make | -ˈmak | -ˈmage ~ -maˈge | ||||
cold | *peka | peka | pega | paka | pəka | -pka | |
wind | *poɸike | peˈɸik | pofi (?) | ˈpɔfˈgɛ | pəfəke | pofəkɛ | pofiki- |
hot | *ɸVfakle | fieke | fefeki | ˈfufagle | ɸəɸəgre | fofaqəli | fafaklai |
fly (v.) | *ɸruka… | furuˈkati | ˈfrugar | ||||
hair/feather(s) | *teke | tiːk | teke | -ˈtɛgɛ ~ ˈtage | -təke | -tɛkɛ | -tke |
axe | *teka | teˈka | |||||
yrllow | *tVkVr[e] | tokoˈre | tukʰər | ||||
wallaby | *sukuisi | sukuˈsi | suiˈsi (?) | ||||
woman | *keke | keke | keke | kɛˈgɛ | kege | kɛkɛ | keki |
Medial bilabial voiceless fricative /*ɸ/ is retained as such in both languages, often realized as labiodental [f]:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-ɸ- | ɸ | f | |||||
dig | *aɸo | aɸo- | afo | ||||
wind | *poɸike | peˈɸik | pofi | ˈpɔfˈgɛ | pəfəke | pofəkɛ | pofiki- |
hot | *ɸVfakle | fieke | fefeki | ˈfufagle | ɸəɸəgre | fofaqəli | fafaklai |
leaf | *teɸV | teɸe | tefe | teˈfe | təfi | təfu | tefi |
taro/garden | *waɸo | waɸo ~ waˈfo | wafo ~ ˈwaf- | ||||
ashes | *waɸu | ˈwafu | wafea | wáfu | uafu | wafuw | wafu |
Medial laminal voiceless fricative /*s/ is retained as such in both languages:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-s- | s | s | |||||
tree kangaroo | *pesi | peˈsi | piˈsi |
… [*ŋg] …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-ŋg-/NV_ | |||||||
inside | *meŋge | meg- | ˈmɛŋgɛ | ||||
neck | *meŋga… | mɛngabere | məŋgabini | mɛŋgafînî | meŋguigo | ||
liver | *meŋgani | mɛˈŋgaŋ | meˈŋgani | ||||
green/blue | *moŋgwar[u] | moŋkor | moŋgor | muŋgʷaˈru | moŋgɔr | moŋgwar | moŋguː |
dry | *noŋgwani | joŋgoŋ | nukwe | noŋgʷaˈnɨ | noŋguane | nuŋgwani | nuŋwani |
… [*ŋg] …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*(-)ŋg-/ | ŋg | ŋg | |||||
burn (tr.) | *we-ŋgaᵘ | we-ŋgao | ˈwe-ŋga |
… [*ŋg] …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-ŋg- | |||||||
man/person | *toŋgwarV | tokʷar ~ towar | tokwoar | tɔˈŋgaːr | teŋgwar | tuŋgwar | toŋkwar |
three | *sVŋgle | seŋgie- | seŋsie (?) | ˈsiŋgri | siŋgr | səŋgər | siŋkre |
Medial bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-w- | w | ||||||
bandicoot | *mawi | mawi | |||||
goanna | *tawa | taˈwa |
Medial rhotic non-stop /*r/… :
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-r- | |||||||
net bag | *ara | aˈra | aˈla | ||||
urine | *aro | ˈaro | aˈlo- | ||||
roof | *aro | -ˈor | -aˈlo | ||||
green/blue | *moŋgwar[u] | moŋkor | moŋgor | muŋgʷaˈru | moŋgɔr | moŋgwar | moŋguː |
elbow/knee | *parini | pˈeriŋ ~ -ˈbariŋ ~ -ˈbariŋ | -bori | -páːlini ~ -ˈpaləni | -parini | -balini | |
bow | *pri | pri | pli | ||||
stab | *ɸro | fro- | fro | ||||
fly (v.) | *ɸruka… | furuˈkati | ˈfrugar | ||||
child | *nemareki | nemaˈrek | nəmargi | ||||
hit | *tari | dari- | ˈtaˈri | ||||
yrllow | *tVkVr[e] | tokoˈre | tukʰər | ||||
man/person | *toŋgwarV | tokʷar ~ towar | tokwoar | tɔˈŋgaːr | teŋgwar | tuŋgwar | toŋkwar |
skin/bark | *seri | sir ~ ˈsir | ser | siˈri ~ ˈsiri | seri | sir | sere |
long | *suru | suru- | suru- | ||||
shoot/kill | *sra | sera | sra | ||||
come | *kwaro | koro- | kaːɭœ ~ ˈkalú- | koarɔ | kwalɔ | klawai | |
two | *kre | ker- | kra- | kre | kr | kər | kre |
teeth/mouth | *krV | k(e)re- - kro- | ker- ~ kero- | klé ~ kle- | krî ~ kri- | kəli ~ kɛlɛ- | kli- |
cough | *krVma | kroma- | ˈkluma’ | ||||
sit | *kru | kru- | -ˈklu- | -gry | -kru | ||
night | *weri | weri | wuˈli | wəri | wəli | weli |
… /*r/… :
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-nr- | ndr | ndr | nd | nd | nd | nd | |
nose | *menri | mendri | mendri | minˈdi | məndi | məndi | mendi |
Medial lateral non-stop /*l/ is palatalized and deoccluded to palatal /j/ in Towe:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-l- | j | j [j ɟ] | [l r] | [r] | [l] | [l] | |
cassowary | *[i]leⁱ | jei | le | ||||
see | *ale | ji- | ji | aˈɭe | are | ali- | ale- |
near | *alekV | jeˈke | argi | ||||
egg | *alani | jeŋ | ɟek | aːlaˈni | arane | alani | |
bird | *olumu | jumu | jemu | lúmú | ərəmu ~ -rum | lumu ~ -lumu | olmu ~ -lmu |
red | *plaⁱ | pie | peai | pra | prae | pərai | peai |
blow | *ɸalo | -fiˈe | ˈfaˈro | ||||
hot | *ɸVfakle | fieke | fefeki | ˈfufagle | ɸəɸəgre | fofaqəli | fafaklai |
arm/hand | *ɸlo | ɸi- | fio- | flɔː- | ɸoro | folo | folo |
white | *teli | dei | teˈri | ter | ter | teri | |
one | *ŋlo | ge- ~ -gie | gio- | ŋglo | uŋgoro | golɔ | klo- |
lime | *kVlV | kei | |||||
lie down/sleep | *kale | ˈkaje | kei | gari | |||
leech | *kole | kʷije | kɔˈlɛ | ||||
stone | *kola | kla | kora | kwola | kola | ||
above | *wole | wi- | wole |
Medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*-j- | j | j | |||||
water | *aje | ejé | eje | a | ae | a | ai |
3 sg./pl. | *pejaᵘ | pijau ~ -ˈpeja | pɛˈa | peao | piau |
… vowels and diphthongs …
High front vowel /*i/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | |
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | |
*i | ||||||
*… |
High back rounded vowel /*u/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | |
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | |
*u | ||||||
*… |
Mid fron vowel /*e/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | |
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | |
*…- | ||||||
*e |
Mid back rounded vowel /*o/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | |
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | |
*o | ||||||
*… |
Low central vowel /*a/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | |
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | |
*a | ||||||
*… |
… /*eⁱ/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*eⁱ | |||||||
eye | *eⁱ | e- | ei | iʔ | əj | ii | ei |
hear | *peⁱ | fi- | fei | fi | fi | fi | fei |
eat/drink | *ŋeⁱ | ŋei | ne- ~ ge | ne | nî ~ ni | nɛ ~ -ni | nie ~ -ni |
wep/cry | *ŋeⁱ | ˈŋei | -ŋgei | -ˈna’ | -nɛ | -ne | -nei |
rain | *kweⁱ | kʷé | kʷɛ | kʰwi | kʰwi | kwei | |
flesh/meat | *meⁱpi | meiːp | míbi | ||||
cassowary | *[i]leⁱ | jei | le |
… /*oᵘ/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*oᵘ | |||||||
cloud | *koᵘ | kuː | kuː | kow | ku | kau |
… /*aⁱ/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*aⁱ | |||||||
dog | *saⁱ | saj | sa | ||||
red | *mblaⁱ | pie | peai | pra | prae | pərai | peai |
… /*aᵘ/ …:
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
*aᵘ | |||||||
mother's mother | *ataᵘ | atau | ˈada | ||||
3 sg./pl. | *mbejaᵘ | pijau ~ -ˈpeja | pɛˈa | peao | piau | ||
burn (tr.) | *-ŋgaᵘ | -ŋgao | -ŋga |
Pronouns
[under construction]
Free pronouns for Tebi and Towe are given as follows, with …
Tebi-Towe | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
1 sg. | *ŋo | ŋo | nŋgo | nó | no | no | nok |
2 sg. | *ɸo | fo | [check source] | fó | ɸo | fo | ? |
3 sg. | *pejaᵘ | pijau ~ -ˈpeja | ? | pɛˈa | peao | piau | ? |
1 pl. | *… | ||||||
2 pl. | *… | ||||||
3 pl. | *… |
Verbal morphology
No information about the verbal morphology of any South Pauwasi River languages is currently available to us.
Loans to and from neighboring languages
[under construction]
…
Tebi in particular shares a number of words with Emem (Emumu) of the East Pauwasi River family. … with Emem attestations from Yuruf village drawn from Lebold and Lee (2016: 24-31):
Emem | Tebi | |
Yuruf | Dubu | |
Lebold | Im | |
grandchild | amamu | amˈamu |
rattan/rope | taŋkɨ | ˈtaŋgɛ ~ taŋgi- |
crocodile | wɔ | ˈwu |
belly | ˈjaɭɨ | jaˈlí |
Emem has in turn borrowed from Tebi, with the following term for “bird” found in three of Lebold and Lee's four villages, with Yambraf Dua's [and] continuing the native East Pauwasi /*and/:
Tebi-Towe | Emem | Emem | Emem | Emem | |
Yuruf | Umuaf | Yambraf Dua | Semografi | ||
Lebold | Lebold | Lebold | Lebold | ||
bird | *olumu | ɔˈɭumu | ɔˈɭumu | [and] | ɔˈɭumu |
… regional …:
Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | ||
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
sweet potato | sipro | soˈbro |
… Indonesian …:
Indonesian | Towe | Towe | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | Tebi | |
Towe Hitam | Towei | Dubu | Dubu | Afi | ? | ||
Wambaliau | Mallo | Im | Walton | Anceaux | Mallo | ||
rice | nasi | nasi | nasi |