East Wambon
Timothy Usher, Santa Fe Institute
Situation
East Wambon, also known as Yonggom Wambon or simply Wambon, is comprised of two closely-related languages or dialects spoken in at least eight villages located west of the Kao river and south of the Murup in the Mandobo and Waropko districts of the Merauke regency of Indonesian's Papua province (Jang 2003: 25-26, q.v. pp. 14, 38.)
De Vries (1986: 9-10, 1992: 1-2) asserts that East Wambon, called Yonggom (a name which more properly refers to varieties of the Muyu languages to the east, hence “Yonggom Wambon”) by the Digul Wambon to the northwest, is a dialect of the latter, but this is not supported by a comparative examination of the materials and is contradicted by both Voorhoeve's (2000: 362) lexicostatistics and Jang's (2003) lexical similarity figures, which show East Wambon to be somewhat more similar to the Mandobo language to the southwest than it is to Digul Wambon.
Subclassification
The internal classification of East Wambon is as follows:
East Wambon
Agayop
Kokenop
This is in accordance with Jang's (2003: 20, 23-26) lexical similarity findings, although we reject the interpretation of these two language varieties as dialects (“sublanguages”) of Mandobo. Jang's designation “Upper Mandobo” more naturally refers to the Wambon dialect of Mandobo, which is spoken along the upper reaches of the Mandobo river (Drabbe 1959: 4,) while most of Jang's villages are somewhat to the northeast. The term Agayop has been adopted in parallel with Kokenop, the terms for “what?” in Wanaktit (Winiktit) and Bukit respectively (q.v. Drabbe 1959: 180-181, Jang 2003: 47.) The appropriateness of this terminology might be debated as the speakers of Wombon village likewise designate their dialect as Agayop, even though Jang's figures place it somewhat closer to the varieties spoken in Bukit and Anyumka than to that spoken in Winiktit (Jang 2003: 24;) however the inhabitants of Wombon state that their dialect is exactly the same as that of Winiktit but somewhat different from that of Bukit and Anyumka (p. 26)
Sources
Stokhof ed. (1982: 129-130) unattributed 44 comparative terms for Uwimerah (observation post) (Kokenop)
Drabbe (1959: 115-…) grammar and (pp. 162-181) 430 comparative terms for Wambon (Agayop) of Waniktit village
Healey (1970) proto Awyu-Dumut
de Vries and de Vries-Wiersma (1992) grammar of Digul-Wambon includes notes on Yonggom-Wambon
de Vries (1986) Wambon relators
Voorhoeve (2000) revision of Healey's proto-Awyu-Dumut
Jang (2003) 239 comparative terms for Kokenop of Bukit village
Wester (2014) Awyu-Dumut comparative morphology including (pp. 195-210) 430 comparative terms for Yonggom Wambon after Drabbe (1959: 162-181)
Historical phonology
[under construction]
Proto-East Wambon had 12 consonants and 5 vowels as follows:
*m | *n | ||
*p | *t | *s | *k |
*mb | *nd | *ŋg | |
*w | *ɾ | *j |
*i | *u | |
*e | *o | |
*a |
Any consonant can occur initially or medially, except for bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ which has been lenited to non-stop /*w/ or lost in these positions and occurs only root-finally.
…
…
…
Initial and medial bilabial nasal /*m/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*m- | ||||
drink | *mi- | mi- | mi- | |
bone | *mit | mit | mit̚ | |
blind | *mit | mit-pan | mit̚-'kɛɾɐn | |
star/firefly | *minduj | minduⁱ | 'minduj | |
rain | *miɾip | mirip | mə'lip̚ | |
tendon/vein | *met | mɛt | ||
hot | *mamin | mamin | 'mɐmin | |
young | *mamaj | mamaᵉ | mɐ'mɐj | |
daughter | *matip | matip | ||
old/traditional | *matom | mɐ'tom | ||
son | *mandup | ma:ndup | ||
shoulder/ten | *mak | mak | mɐk̚ | mah- |
mouth | *maŋgot | maŋgot | mɐŋgot̚ | |
afraid | *mop | mop̚ | ||
eight | *mujop | mujop̚ | mujaᵘ-ge | |
*-m- | ||||
two | *iɾumo | irumo | ɾu'mo | |
ripe | *amu[ɾ/j] | amuⁱ | ||
one | *om[o]j | omaᵉ | 'omɔj | |
hot | *mamin | mamin | 'mɐmin | |
young | *mamaj | mamaᵉ | mɐ'mɐj | |
rat | *t[e]mon | tɛmon | ||
dry | *tomap | to'mɐp̚ | ||
termite | *tomaj | tomaᵉ | ||
far | *komam | kamam | ko'mɐm | |
big | *komaj | kamaᵉ | komɐ'j-op̚ | |
thunder/sky | *kumut | kumut | 'kumut̚ ≈ qɐmut' | |
wrist/six | *kumuk | kumuk | qumup̚ | kumuh |
inside | *wamip | 'wɐmip̚ | ||
sand | *j[a]man | jaman | d͜ʒɔmɐn |
Initial and medial apical nasal /*n/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*n- | ||||
*-n- | ||||
tooth | *inim | inim | i'nim | ɪnim |
fire/tree | *enop | ɛnop | ɛ'nɔp̚ | ɪnob |
tongue | *anop | anop | 'ɐnɔp̚ | |
crocodile | *mbanep | mbanɛp | bɐnɛp̚ | |
red | *tenop | tɛnop | dɛno-'ɢop̚ | |
bow | *sinam | sinam | si'nɐm | |
cassowary | *sanip | 'sɐnip̚ | ||
sleep | *kinum | kinum | 'qinum | |
canoe | *konoj | konoⁱ | ko'nɐj |
Bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:
Initial and medial apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*t- | ||||
banana | *tit | tit | tit̚ | |
rattan/rope | *tik | tik | tik̚ | |
rat | *t[e]mon | tɛmon | ||
red | *tenop | tɛnop | dɛno-'ɢop̚ | |
leech | *teɾen | tɛrɛn | tɛ'lɛn | |
yellow | *t[e]jan | tɛ'jɐn | ||
cuscus | *takip | tɐ'gip̚ | ||
shoot | *tajem- | taᵉm- | tɐm- | |
dry | *tomap | to'mɐp̚ | ||
termite | *tomaj | tomaᵉ | ||
go up/above | *tuɾu- | turu- | -tuɾu- | |
ear | *tuɾun-top | turutop | 'tulutop̚ | turutop |
hide | *tuɾuk- | turuk-oa- | ||
*-t- | ||||
cassowary | *itit | itit | ||
three | *iti[t]-mo | itipmo | ɛ'tippo | |
earth/ground | *itop | itop | i'top̚' | |
see | *etok- | ɛto- | ɛ'toɢ- | |
bite | *atik- | atigo- | ɐtiŋg- | |
daughter | *matip | matip | ||
old/traditional | *matom | mɐ'tom | ||
house | *mbitip | mbitip | bi'tip̚ | |
hand/arm | *mbitit | bitit̚ | bɪdit | |
night | *kitip | ki'tip̚ | ||
thigh | *kitup | kitup | 'kitop̚ | kɪtup |
saliva/spittle | *katet | katɛt | ||
sweat | *kotet | kotɛt | ||
skin/bark | *kotaj | kotaᵉ | ko'tɐj | |
many | *kutok | kutok | ɢutok̚ | |
urine | *jetok | jɛtok | æ'tɔk̚ | |
upper arm/nine | *jawet | jawɛt | 'jɐwɛt̚ | jawir- |
Laminal voiceless /*s/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*s- | ||||
bow | *sinam | sinam | si'nɐm | |
near | *s[e]ndik | sindik | sɛn'dik̚ | |
sun | *s[e/a]t | sat | sɛt̚ | |
cassowary | *sanip | 'sɐnip̚ | ||
wife | *saɾip | sarip | nɛ-'sɐlip | |
cold | *saɾu[n] | saruⁱ | 'sɐlun | |
dig | *so- | so- | ||
paddle | *sukujan | sugujaŋ | 'sugujɐn | |
*-s- | ||||
ashes | *kosep | kosɛp | qo'sɛp̚ | |
bandicoot | *kosot | ko'sɔt̚ |
Initial and medial velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*k- | ||||
bathe | *kim- | kim- | -qim- | |
die | *kim- | kim- | kim- | |
sleep | *kinum | kinum | 'qinum | |
night | *kitip | ki'tip̚ | ||
thigh | *kitup | kitup | 'kitop̚ | kɪtup |
wind | *kiwuɾ | kiwuⁱ | 'kiwujt | |
flower | *ket | ket | ||
eye | *keɾop | kerop | 'kɛɾop̚ | |
worm | *kambot | ɢɐm'bot̚ | ||
outside | *kat | kat | qɐt | |
saliva/spittle | *katet | katɛt | ||
flesh | *kandu[n] | kɐn'dun | ||
man/person | *kakup | kagup | kɐ'gup̚ | |
heavy | *kakun | kagun | ||
nose | *kaɾit | kɐ'rit̚ | karip | |
enough | *kaɾe | karɛ | ||
walk/go | *ko- | ko- | ko- | |
far | *komam | kamam | ko'mɐm | |
big | *komaj | kamaᵉ | komɐ'j-op̚ | |
husband | *kop-mbaɾi[n] | kop pari | nɐ-ko'pɐlin | |
canoe | *konoj | konoⁱ | ko'nɐj | |
sweat | *kotet | kotɛt | ||
skin/bark | *kotaj | kotaᵉ | ko'tɐj | |
foot/leg | *kondok | kondok | 'kondɔk̚ | konak |
ashes | *kosep | kosɛp | qo'sɛp̚ | |
bandicoot | *kosot | ko'sɔt̚ | ||
now/today | *kowandut | kowandut | ɢo'ɐndut̚ | |
tell | *komaj | kamaᵉ | ||
thunder/sky | *kumut | kumut | 'kumut̚ ≈ qɐmut' | |
wrist/six | *kumuk | kumuk | qumup̚ | kumuh |
many | *kutok | kutok | ɢutok̚ | |
fence/wall | *kuk | kuk | kug- | |
index finger/four | *kuɾukut | kurugut | 'kulugut | koregor- |
evil/sharp | *kujom | kujom | qu'jɔm | |
*-k- | ||||
bamboo | *ekop | ɛgop | ɛ'gop̚ | |
swallow | *akum[o]- | agumo- | ||
cuscus | *takip | tɐ'gip̚ | ||
paddle | *sukujan | sugujaŋ | 'sugujɐn | |
man/person | *kakup | kagup | kɐ'gup̚ | |
heavy | *kakun | kagun | ||
index finger/four | *kuɾukut | kurugut | 'kulugut | koregor- |
egg | *wakot | wagot | 'wɐɢot̚ | |
moon | *wakoɾ | wogoⁱ | 'wɐɢoj | |
fish | *ɾakaj | ragaᵉ | lɐ'gɐj | |
speak | *ɾoko- | rogo- | lo'ɢo- | |
garden | *jakip | jagip |
Bilabial prenasalized stop /*mb/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*mb- | ||||
shin | *mbin | mbin | ||
house | *mbitip | mbitip | bi'tip̚ | |
hand/arm | *mbitit | bitit̚ | bɪdit | |
forearm/seven | *mben | mbɛn | bɛn | |
small | *mbeɾon | mbɛron | ||
sit | *mba- | mba- | 'bɐ- | |
crocodile | *mbanep | mbanɛp | bɐnɛp̚ | |
old (person) | *mbaɾi[n] | mbari | 'bɐɬin | |
lip(s) | *mbaɾaŋgat | mbaraŋgat | bɐɾɐŋgɐt̚ | |
kunai grass | *mbup | mbup | bup̚ | |
wing | *mbuɾu[n] | mburuⁱ | buɾun | |
*-mb- | ||||
scabies/tinea | *iɾombut | irombut | ||
laughter | *amben | ɐm'bɛn | ||
thumb/five | *ambuɾop | ɐmbɐ'lop̚ | amboraᵘ | |
worm | *kambot | ɢɐm'bot̚ | ||
elbow/eight | *ŋgambim | ŋgambim | gɐmbim | |
neck | *ŋgomben | ŋgombɛn | ||
incorrect | *ŋgomban | ŋgamban | ||
tail | *wambit | wambit | 'wɐmbit̚ |
Apical prenasalized stop /*nd/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*nd- | ||||
root | *ndit | ndit | ||
hear | *ndat- | ndat- | dɐ'ɾ- | |
fence | *ndaɾa[t] | dɐ'lɐt̚ | ||
not/nothing | *ndoj | ndoⁱ | ⁿdɔj | |
island | *ndum | ndum | ||
sago | *ndu[n] | ndun | dun | |
*-nd- | ||||
deaf | *indom | indomaran | -ⁿdomɔp̚ | |
enemy | *endom | ɛndom | ||
body | *andi[n] | 'ɐndin | ||
eat (fut.) | *ande- | andɛ- | ɐn'd̪ɛ- | |
tie/bind | *andap- | andap- | ɐndoʔ- (?) | |
star/firefly | *minduj | minduⁱ | 'minduj | |
son | *mandup | ma:ndup | ||
near | *s[e]ndik | sindik | sɛn'dik̚ | |
flesh | *kandu[n] | kɐn'dun | ||
foot/leg | *kondok | kondok | 'kondɔk̚ | konak |
now/today | *kowandut | kowandut | ɢo'ɐndut̚ | |
path | *jandit | 'jɐndit̚ |
Velar prenasalized stop /*ŋg/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*ŋg- | ||||
head | *ŋgin | ŋgin | ᵑgin | kɪn |
elbow/eight | *ŋgambim | ŋgambim | gɐmbim | |
blood | *ŋgom | ŋgom | ngɔm | |
arrow | *ŋgop | ŋgop | ɢɔp̚ | |
neck | *ŋgomben | ŋgombɛn | ||
incorrect | *ŋgomban | ŋgamban | ||
blunt/dull | *ŋgon | ŋgoŋ | ɢɔn | |
knowledge | *ŋgoɾop | ŋgorop-mo- | ɢo'ɾɔp̚ | |
louse | *ŋgut | ŋgut | ɢut̚ | |
long/tall | *ŋguɾup | ŋgurup | 'ɢulup̚ ≈ ɢu'lup̚ | |
*-ŋg- | ||||
dog | *aŋgaj | aŋgaᵉ | ɐŋ'gɐj | |
thumb/five | *aŋgu | aŋgu | ||
snake | *aŋgun | aŋgun | ɐŋ'gun | |
mouth | *maŋgot | maŋgot | mɐŋgot̚ | |
lip(s) | *mbaɾaŋgat | mbaraŋgat | bɐɾɐŋgɐt̚ |
Bilabial non-stop /*w/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*w- | ||||
arm/hand | *wit | wit | ||
inside | *wamip | 'wɐmip̚ | ||
tail | *wambit | wambit | 'wɐmbit̚ | |
left | *wak | wɐq̚ | ||
bamboo knife | *waki[n] | waki | 'wɐgin | |
egg | *wakot | wagot | 'wɐɢot̚ | |
moon | *wakoɾ | wogoⁱ | 'wɐɢoj | |
*-w- | ||||
wind | *kiwuɾ | kiwuⁱ | 'kiwujt | |
now/today | *kowandut | kowandut | ɢo'ɐndut̚ | |
upper arm/nine | *jawet | jawɛt | 'jɐwɛt̚ | jawir- |
Initial and medial apical non-stop /*ɾ/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*ɾ- | ||||
take | *ɾap- | rap- | ||
woman | *ɾan | ran | lan | |
fish | *ɾakaj | ragaᵉ | lɐ'gɐj | |
cry/weep | *ɾom- | rom- | lom- | |
fruit/seed | *ɾop | rop | lɔp̚ | |
hair/leaf/feather | *ɾon | ron | lɔn ≈ lon | ron |
speak | *ɾoko- | rogo- | lo'ɢo- | |
voice/speech | *ɾuk | ruk | luk̚ | |
*-ɾ- | ||||
stone | *iɾop | irop | iɾop̚ | |
scabies/tinea | *iɾombut | irombut | ||
two | *iɾumo | irumo | ɾu'mo | |
thumb/five | *ambuɾop | ɐmbɐ'lop̚ | amboraᵘ | |
thorn | *aɾin | arin | ɐ'ɾin | |
liver | *aɾum | ahum [sic] | ɐlum | |
rain | *miɾip | mirip | mə'lip̚ | |
small | *mbeɾon | mbɛron | ||
old (person) | *mbaɾi[n] | mbari | 'bɐɬin | |
lip(s) | *mbaɾaŋgat | mbaraŋgat | bɐɾɐŋgɐt̚ | |
wing | *mbuɾu[n] | mburuⁱ | buɾun | |
leech | *teɾen | tɛrɛn | tɛ'lɛn | |
go up/above | *tuɾu- | turu- | -tuɾu- | |
ear | *tuɾun-top | turutop | 'tulutop̚ | turutop |
ear | *tuɾun-top | turutop | 'tulutop̚ | turutop |
hide | *tuɾuk- | turuk-oa- | ||
wife | *saɾip | sarip | nɛ-'sɐlip | |
eye | *keɾop | kerop | 'kɛɾop̚ | |
nose | *kaɾit | kɐ'rit̚ | karip | |
enough | *kaɾe | karɛ | ||
index finger/four | *kuɾukut | kurugut | 'kulugut | koregor- |
knowledge | *ŋgoɾop | ŋgorop-mo- | ɢo'ɾɔp̚ | |
long/tall | *ŋguɾup | ŋgurup | 'ɢulup̚ ≈ ɢu'lup̚ | |
smoke | *jaɾuk | uruk | -jɐluk̚ |
Initial and medial palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*j- | ||||
bird | *jet | jɛt | 'ɛt̚ | |
urine | *jetok | jɛtok | æ'tɔk̚ | |
sand | *j[a]man | jaman | d͜ʒɔmɐn | |
path | *jandit | 'jɐndit̚ | ||
garden | *jakip | jagip | ||
upper arm/nine | *jawet | jawɛt | 'jɐwɛt̚ | jawir- |
smoke | *jaɾuk | uruk | -jɐluk̚ | |
*-j- | ||||
cough/phlegm | *ajak | ajak | ɐjɐk̚ | |
eight | *mujop | mujop̚ | mujaᵘ-ge | |
yellow | *t[e]jan | tɛ'jɐn | ||
paddle | *sukujan | sugujaŋ | 'sugujɐn | |
evil/sharp | *kujom | kujom | qu'jɔm |
Final consonants …
Final bilabial nasal /*m/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*-m | ||||
tooth | *inim | inim | i'nim | ɪnim |
deaf | *indom | indomaran | -ⁿdomɔp̚ | |
enemy | *endom | ɛndom | ||
liver | *aɾum | ahum [sic] | ɐlum | |
breast | *om | om | ɔm | aᵘm |
old/traditional | *matom | mɐ'tom | ||
shoot | *tajem- | taᵉm- | tɐm- | |
island | *ndum | ndum | ||
bow | *sinam | sinam | si'nɐm | |
bathe | *kim- | kim- | -qim- | |
die | *kim- | kim- | kim- | |
sleep | *kinum | kinum | 'qinum | |
far | *komam | kamam | ko'mɐm | |
evil/sharp | *kujom | kujom | qu'jɔm | |
elbow/eight | *ŋgambim | ŋgambim ≈ ŋgambin | gɐmbim | |
blood | *ŋgom | ŋgom | ngɔm | |
cry/weep | *ɾom- | rom- | lom- |
Final apical nasal /*n/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*-n | ||||
hit/kill | *in- | in- | ||
eat | *en- | ɛn- | ||
laughter | *amben | ɐm'bɛn | ||
snake | *aŋgun | aŋgun | ɐŋ'gun | |
thorn | *aɾin | arin | ɐ'ɾin | |
hot | *mamin | mamin | 'mɐmin | |
shin | *mbin | mbin | ||
forearm/seven | *mben | mbɛn | bɛn | |
small | *mbeɾon | mbɛron | ||
rat | *t[e]mon | tɛmon | ||
leech | *teɾen | tɛrɛn | tɛ'lɛn | |
yellow | *t[e]jan | tɛ'jɐn | ||
paddle | *sukujan | sugujaŋ | 'sugujɐn | |
heavy | *kakun | kagun | ||
head | *ŋgin | ŋgin | ᵑgin | kin |
neck | *ŋgomben | ŋgombɛn | ||
incorrect | *ŋgomban | ŋgamban | ||
blunt/dull | *ŋgon | ŋgoŋ | ɢɔn | |
woman | *ɾan | ran | lan | |
hair/leaf/feather | *ɾon | ron | lɔn ≈ lon | ron |
sand | *j[a]man | jaman | d͜ʒɔmɐn |
Final bilabial voiceless stop /*p/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*-p | ||||
name | *ip | ip | ip̚' | |
right | *ip | ip̚' | ||
earth/ground | *itop | itop | i'top̚' | |
stone | *iɾop | irop | iɾop̚ | |
bamboo | *ekop | ɛgop | ɛ'gop̚ | |
thumb/five | *ambuɾop | ɐmbɐ'lop̚ | amboraᵘ (?) | |
tongue | *anop | anop | 'ɐnɔp̚ | |
rain | *miɾip | mirip | mə'lip̚ | |
daughter | *matip | matip | ||
son | *mandup | ma:ndup | ||
afraid | *mop | mop̚ | ||
eight | *mujop | mujop̚ | mujaᵘ-ge | |
house | *mbitip | mbitip | bi'tip̚ | |
crocodile | *mbanep | mbanɛp | bɐnɛp̚ | |
kunai grass | *mbup | mbup | bup̚ | |
cuscus | *takip | tɐ'gip̚ | ||
dry | *tomap | to'mɐp̚ | ||
ear | *tuɾun-top | turutop | 'tulutop̚ | turutop |
cassowary | *sanip | 'sɐnip̚ | ||
wife | *saɾip | sarip | nɛ-'sɐlip | |
night | *kitip | ki'tip̚ | ||
thigh | *kitup | kitup | 'kitop̚ | kɪtup |
eye | *keɾop | kerop | 'kɛɾop̚ | |
man/person | *kakup | kagup | kɐ'gup̚ | |
ashes | *kosep | kosɛp | qo'sɛp̚ | |
arrow | *ŋgop | ŋgop | ɢɔp̚ | |
knowledge | *ŋgoɾop | ŋgorop-mo- | ɢo'ɾɔp̚ | |
long/tall | *ŋguɾup | ŋgurup | 'ɢulup̚ ≈ ɢu'lup̚ | |
inside | *wamip | 'wɐmip̚ | ||
take | *ɾap- | rap- | ||
fruit/seed | *ɾop | rop | lɔp̚ | |
garden | *jakip | jagip |
… root-final /*p/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*-p | ||||
tie/bind | *andap- | andap- | ɐndoʔ- (?) |
Final apical voiceless stop /*t/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*-t | ||||
cassowary | *itit | itit | ||
scabies/tinea | *iɾombut | irombut | ||
bone | *mit | mit | mit̚ | |
blind | *mit | mit-pan | mit̚-'kɛɾɐn | |
tendon/vein | *met | mɛt | ||
mouth | *maŋgot | maŋgot | mɐŋgot̚ | |
hand/arm | *mbitit | bitit̚ | bɪdit | |
lip(s) | *mbaɾaŋgat | mbaraŋgat | bɐɾɐŋgɐt̚ | |
banana | *tit | tit | tit̚ | |
root | *ndit | ndit | ||
fence | *ndaɾa[t] | dɐ'lɐt̚ | ||
sun | *s[e/a]t | sat | sɛt̚ | |
flower | *ket | ket | ||
worm | *kambot | ɢɐm'bot̚ | ||
outside | *kat | kat | qɐt | |
saliva/spittle | *katet | katɛt | ||
nose | *kaɾit | kɐ'rit̚ | karip | |
sweat | *kotet | kotɛt | ||
bandicoot | *kosot | ko'sɔt̚ | ||
now/today | *kowandut | kowandut | ɢo'ɐndut̚ | |
thunder/sky | *kumut | kumut | 'kumut̚ ≈ qɐmut' | |
index finger/four | *kuɾukut | kurugut | 'kulugut | koregor- (?) |
louse | *ŋgut | ŋgut | ɢut̚ | |
arm/hand | *wit | wit | ||
tail | *wambit | wambit | 'wɐmbit̚ | |
egg | *wakot | wagot | 'wɐɢot̚ | |
bird | *jet | jɛt | 'ɛt̚ | |
path | *jandit | 'jɐndit̚ |
… root-final /*t/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*-t | ||||
hear | *ndat- | ndat- | dɐ'ɾ- |
Final velar voiceless stop /*k/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*-k | ||||
see | *etok- | ɛto- (?) | ɛ'toɢ- | |
cough/phlegm | *ajak | ajak | ɐjɐk̚ | |
water | *ok | ok | og̚ | |
shoulder/ten | *mak | mak | mɐk̚ | mah- (?) |
rattan/rope | *tik | tik | tik̚ | |
hide | *tuɾuk- | turuk-oa- | ||
near | *s[e]ndik | sindik | sɛn'dik̚ | |
foot/leg | *kondok | kondok | 'kondɔk̚ | konak |
wrist/six | *kumuk | kumuk | qumup̚ (?) | kumuh (?) |
many | *kutok | kutok | ɢutok̚ | |
fence/wall | *kuk | kuk | kug- | |
left | *wak | wɐq̚ | ||
voice/speech | *ɾuk | ruk | luk̚ | |
urine | *jetok | jɛtok | æ'tɔk̚ | |
smoke | *jaɾuk | uruk | -jɐluk̚ |
Final apical non-stop /*ɾ/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*-ɾ | ||||
excrement | *oɾ | oⁱ | ɔjt̚ ≈ ɔj | |
pig | *uɾ | uⁱ | uj | ui |
wind | *kiwuɾ | kiwuⁱ | 'kiwujt | |
moon | *wakoɾ | wogoⁱ | 'wɐɢoj |
When final /*ɾ/ …
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*-ɾ | ||||
body | *andi[n] | 'ɐndin | ||
old (person) | *mbaɾi[n] | mbari | 'bɐɬin | |
wing | *mbuɾu[n] | mburuⁱ | buɾun | |
sago | *ndu[n] | ndun | dun | |
flesh | *kandu[n] | kɐn'dun |
…
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*… | ||||
cold | *saɾu[n] | saruⁱ | 'sɐlun | |
bamboo knife | *waki[n] | waki | 'wɐgin |
Final palatal non-stop /*j/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*-j | ||||
dog | *aŋgaj | aŋgaᵉ | ɐŋ'gɐj | |
one | *om[o]j | omaᵉ | 'omɔj | |
star/firefly | *minduj | minduⁱ | 'minduj | |
young | *mamaj | mamaᵉ | mɐ'mɐj | |
termite | *tomaj | tomaᵉ | ||
not/nothing | *ndoj | ndoⁱ | ⁿdɔj | |
big | *komaj | kamaᵉ | komɐ'j-op̚ | |
canoe | *konoj | konoⁱ | ko'nɐj | |
skin/bark | *kotaj | kotaᵉ | ko'tɐj | |
fish | *ɾakaj | ragaᵉ | lɐ'gɐj |
Vowels …
High front vowel /*i/ …
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*i | ||||
hit/kill (fut.) | *i- | i- | ||
drink | *mi- | mi- | mi- | |
name | *ip | ip | ip̚' | |
right | *ip | ip̚' | ||
hit/kill | *in- | in- | ||
bone | *mit | mit | mit̚ | |
blind | *mit | mit-pan | mit̚-'kɛɾɐn | |
shin | *mbin | mbin | ||
banana | *tit | tit | tit̚ | |
rattan/rope | *tik | tik | tik̚ | |
root | *ndit | ndit | ||
bathe | *kim- | kim- | -qim- | |
die | *kim- | kim- | kim- | |
head | *ŋgin | ŋgin | ᵑgin | kɪn |
arm/hand | *wit | wit | ||
tooth | *inim | inim | i'nim | ɪnim |
cassowary | *itit | itit | ||
rain | *miɾip | mirip | mə'lip̚ | |
house | *mbitip | mbitip | bi'tip̚ | |
hand/arm | *mbitit | bitit̚ | bɪdit | |
night | *kitip | ki'tip̚ | ||
star/firefly | *minduj | minduⁱ | 'minduj | |
sleep | *kinum | kinum | 'qinum | |
thigh | *kitup | kitup | 'kitop̚ | kɪtup |
wind | *kiwuɾ | kiwuⁱ | 'kiwujt | |
two | *iɾumo | irumo | ɾu'mo | |
earth/ground | *itop | itop | i'top̚' | |
deaf | *indom | indomaran | -ⁿdomɔp̚ | |
stone | *iɾop | irop | iɾop̚ | |
three | *iti[t]-mo | itipmo | ɛ'tippo | |
scabies/tinea | *iɾombut | irombut | ||
bow | *sinam | sinam | si'nɐm | |
near | *s[e]ndik | sindik | sɛn'dik̚ | |
bite | *atik- | atigo- | ɐtiŋg- | |
body | *andi[n] | 'ɐndin | ||
thorn | *aɾin | arin | ɐ'ɾin | |
hot | *mamin | mamin | 'mɐmin | |
daughter | *matip | matip | ||
old (person) | *mbaɾi[n] | mbari | 'bɐɬin | |
cuscus | *takip | tɐ'gip̚ | ||
cassowary | *sanip | 'sɐnip̚ | ||
wife | *saɾip | sarip | nɛ-'sɐlip | |
nose | *kaɾit | kɐ'rit̚ | karip | |
elbow/eight | *ŋgambim | ŋgambim | gɐmbim | |
inside | *wamip | 'wɐmip̚ | ||
tail | *wambit | wambit | 'wɐmbit̚ | |
path | *jandit | 'jɐndit̚ | ||
garden | *jakip | jagip | ||
husband | *kop-mbaɾi[n] | kop pari | nɐ-ko'pɐlin |
High back vowel /*u/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*u | ||||
pig | *uɾ | uⁱ | uj | ui |
kunai grass | *mbup | mbup | bup̚ | |
island | *ndum | ndum | ||
sago | *ndu[n] | ndun | dun | |
fence/wall | *kuk | kuk | kug- | |
louse | *ŋgut | ŋgut | ɢut̚ | |
voice/speech | *ɾuk | ruk | luk̚ | |
go up/above | *tuɾu- | turu- | -tuɾu- | |
hide | *tuɾuk- | turuk-oa- | ||
wing | *mbuɾu[n] | mburuⁱ | buɾun | |
thunder/sky | *kumut | kumut | 'kumut̚ ≈ qɐmut' | |
wrist/six | *kumuk | kumuk | qumup̚ | kumuh |
long/tall | *ŋguɾup | ŋgurup | 'ɢulup̚ ≈ ɢu'lup̚ | |
index finger/four | *kuɾukut | kurugut | 'kulugut | koregor- |
paddle | *sukujan | sugujaŋ | 'sugujɐn | |
eight | *mujop | mujop̚ | mujaᵘ-ge | |
many | *kutok | kutok | ɢutok̚ | |
evil/sharp | *kujom | kujom | qu'jɔm | |
ear | *tuɾun-top | turutop | 'tulutop̚ | turutop |
star/firefly | *minduj | minduⁱ | 'minduj | |
sleep | *kinum | kinum | 'qinum | |
thigh | *kitup | kitup | 'kitop̚ | kɪtup |
wind | *kiwuɾ | kiwuⁱ | 'kiwujt | |
two | *iɾumo | irumo | ɾu'mo | |
scabies/tinea | *iɾombut | irombut | ||
thumb/five | *aŋgu | aŋgu | ||
ripe | *amu[ɾ/j] | amuⁱ | ||
snake | *aŋgun | aŋgun | ɐŋ'gun | |
liver | *aɾum | ahum [sic] | ɐlum | |
son | *mandup | ma:ndup | ||
cold | *saɾu[n] | saruⁱ | 'sɐlun | |
flesh | *kandu[n] | kɐn'dun | ||
man/person | *kakup | kagup | kɐ'gup̚ | |
heavy | *kakun | kagun | ||
smoke | *jaɾuk | uruk | -jɐluk̚ | |
swallow | *akum[o]- | agumo- | ||
thumb/five | *ambuɾop | ɐmbɐ'lop̚ | amboraᵘ (?) | |
now/today | *kowandut | kowandut | ɢo'ɐndut̚ |
Mid front vowel /*e/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*e | ||||
eat | *en- | ɛn- | ||
tendon/vein | *met | mɛt | ||
forearm/seven | *mben | mbɛn | bɛn | |
flower | *ket | ket | ||
bird | *jet | jɛt | 'ɛt̚ | |
leech | *teɾen | tɛrɛn | tɛ'lɛn | |
fire/tree | *enop | ɛnop | ɛ'nɔp̚ | ɪnob |
see | *etok- | ɛto- | ɛ'toɢ- | |
enemy | *endom | ɛndom | ||
bamboo | *ekop | ɛgop | ɛ'gop̚ | |
small | *mbeɾon | mbɛron | ||
rat | *t[e]mon | tɛmon | ||
eye | *keɾop | kerop | 'kɛɾop̚ | |
urine | *jetok | jɛtok | æ'tɔk̚ | |
yellow | *t[e]jan | tɛ'jɐn | ||
sweat | *kotet | kotɛt | ||
ashes | *kosep | kosɛp | qo'sɛp̚ | |
neck | *ŋgomben | ŋgombɛn | ||
eat (fut.) | *ande- | andɛ- | ɐn'd̪ɛ- | |
enough | *kaɾe | karɛ | ||
laughter | *amben | ɐm'bɛn | ||
crocodile | *mbanep | mbanɛp | bɐnɛp̚ | |
saliva/spittle | *katet | katɛt | ||
upper arm/nine | *jawet | jawɛt | 'jɐwɛt̚ | jawir- (?) |
Mid back vowel /*o/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*o | ||||
dig | *so- | so- | ||
walk/go | *ko- | ko- | ko- | |
breast | *om | om | ɔm | aᵘm |
water | *ok | ok | og̚ | |
excrement | *oɾ | oⁱ | ɔjt̚ ≈ ɔj | |
afraid | *mop | mop̚ | ||
not/nothing | *ndoj | ndoⁱ | ⁿdɔj | |
blood | *ŋgom | ŋgom | ngɔm | |
arrow | *ŋgop | ŋgop | ɢɔp̚ | |
blunt/dull | *ŋgon | ŋgoŋ | ɢɔn | |
cry/weep | *ɾom- | rom- | lom- | |
fruit/seed | *ɾop | rop | lɔp̚ | |
hair/leaf/feather | *ɾon | ron | lɔn ≈ lon | ron |
speak | *ɾoko- | rogo- | lo'ɢo- | |
one | *om[o]j | omaᵉ (?) | 'omɔj | |
canoe | *konoj | konoⁱ | ko'nɐj (?) | |
bandicoot | *kosot | ko'sɔt̚ | ||
foot/leg | *kondok | kondok | 'kondɔk̚ | konak |
knowledge | *ŋgoɾop | ŋgorop-mo- | ɢo'ɾɔp̚ | |
sweat | *kotet | kotɛt | ||
ashes | *kosep | kosɛp | qo'sɛp̚ | |
neck | *ŋgomben | ŋgombɛn | ||
dry | *tomap | to'mɐp̚ | ||
termite | *tomaj | tomaᵉ | ||
skin/bark | *kotaj | kotaᵉ | ko'tɐj | |
husband | *kop-mbaɾi[n] | kop pari | nɐ-ko'pɐlin | |
now/today | *kowandut | kowandut | ɢo'ɐndut̚ | |
earth/ground | *itop | itop | i'top̚' | |
deaf | *indom | indomaran | -ⁿdomɔp̚ | |
stone | *iɾop | irop | iɾop̚ | |
three | *iti[t]-mo | itipmo | ɛ'tippo | |
scabies/tinea | *iɾombut | irombut | ||
eight | *mujop | mujop̚ | mujaᵘ-ge | |
many | *kutok | kutok | ɢutok̚ | |
evil/sharp | *kujom | kujom | qu'jɔm | |
ear | *tuɾun-top | turutop | 'tulutop̚ | turutop |
two | *iɾumo | irumo | ɾu'mo | |
thumb/five | *ambuɾop | ɐmbɐ'lop̚ | amboraᵘ | |
fire/tree | *enop | ɛnop | ɛ'nɔp̚ | ɪnob |
see | *etok- | ɛto- | ɛ'toɢ- | |
enemy | *endom | ɛndom | ||
bamboo | *ekop | ɛgop | ɛ'gop̚ | |
small | *mbeɾon | mbɛron | ||
rat | *t[e]mon | tɛmon | ||
eye | *keɾop | kerop | 'kɛɾop̚ | |
urine | *jetok | jɛtok | æ'tɔk̚ | |
tongue | *anop | anop | 'ɐnɔp̚ | |
old/traditional | *matom | mɐ'tom | ||
mouth | *maŋgot | maŋgot | mɐŋgot̚ | |
worm | *kambot | ɢɐm'bot̚ | ||
egg | *wakot | wagot | 'wɐɢot̚ | |
moon | *wakoɾ | wogoⁱ | 'wɐɢoj |
In several examples in which /*o/ is followed by low central vowel /*a/ in the next syllable, it is given as /a/ in Drabbe's Wambon of Wanaktit; however this is not exceptionless (cf. /*kotaj/ “skin” above):
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*o/_Ca | ||||
far | *komam | kamam | ko'mɐm | |
big | *komaj | kamaᵉ | komɐ'j-op̚ | |
incorrect | *ŋgomban | ŋgamban |
Low central vowel /*a/ …:
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | ||
*a | ||||
sit | *mba- | mba- | 'bɐ- | |
shoulder/ten | *mak | mak | mɐk̚ | mah- |
hear | *ndat- | ndat- | dɐ'ɾ- | |
outside | *kat | kat | qɐt | |
left | *wak | wɐq̚ | ||
take | *ɾap- | rap- | ||
woman | *ɾan | ran | lan | |
tie/bind | *andap- | andap- | ɐndoʔ- (?) | |
dog | *aŋgaj | aŋga* | ɐŋ'gɐj | |
cough/phlegm | *ajak | ajak | ɐjɐk̚ | |
young | *mamaj | mamaᵉ | mɐ'mɐj | |
fence | *ndaɾa[t] | dɐ'lɐt̚ | ||
fish | *ɾakaj | ragaᵉ | lɐ'gɐj | |
sand | *j[a]man | ok jaman | og-'d͜ʒɔmɐn (?) | |
lip(s) | *mbaɾaŋgat | mbaraŋgat | bɐɾɐŋgɐt̚ | |
bite | *atik- | atigo- | ɐtiŋg- | |
body | *andi[n] | 'ɐndin | ||
thorn | *aɾin | arin | ɐ'ɾin | |
hot | *mamin | mamin | 'mɐmin | |
daughter | *matip | matip | ||
old (person) | *mbaɾi[n] | mbari | 'bɐɬin | |
cuscus | *takip | tɐ'gip̚ | ||
cassowary | *sanip | 'sɐnip̚ | ||
wife | *saɾip | sarip | nɛ-'sɐlip | |
nose | *kaɾit | kɐ'rit̚ | karip | |
elbow/eight | *ŋgambim | ŋgambim | gɐmbim | |
inside | *wamip | 'wɐmip̚ | ||
tail | *wambit | wambit | 'wɐmbit̚ | |
path | *jandit | 'jɐndit̚ | ||
garden | *jakip | jagip | ||
thumb/five | *aŋgu | aŋgu | ||
ripe | *amu[ɾ/j] | amuⁱ | ||
snake | *aŋgun | aŋgun | ɐŋ'gun | |
liver | *aɾum | ahum [sic] | ɐlum | |
son | *mandup | ma:ndup | ||
cold | *saɾu[n] | saruⁱ | 'sɐlun | |
flesh | *kandu[n] | kɐn'dun | ||
man/person | *kakup | kagup | kɐ'gup̚ | |
heavy | *kakun | kagun | ||
smoke | *jaɾuk | uruk (?) | -jɐluk̚ | |
swallow | *akum[o]- | agumo- | ||
thumb/five | *ambuɾop | ɐmbɐ'lop̚ | amboraᵘ | |
eat (fut.) | *ande- | andɛ- | ɐn'd̪ɛ- | |
enough | *kaɾe | karɛ | ||
laughter | *amben | ɐm'bɛn | ||
crocodile | *mbanep | mbanɛp | bɐnɛp̚ | |
shoot | *tajem- | taᵉm- | tɐm- | |
saliva/spittle | *katet | katɛt | ||
upper arm/nine | *jawet | jawɛt | 'jɐwɛt̚ | jawir- |
tongue | *anop | anop | 'ɐnɔp̚ | |
old/traditional | *matom | mɐ'tom | ||
mouth | *maŋgot | maŋgot | mɐŋgot̚ | |
worm | *kambot | ɢɐm'bot̚ | ||
egg | *wakot | wagot | 'wɐɢot̚ | |
moon | *wakoɾ | wogoⁱ | 'wɐɢoj | |
bow | *sinam | sinam | si'nɐm | |
paddle | *sukujan | sugujaŋ | 'sugujɐn | |
yellow | *t[e]jan | tɛ'jɐn | ||
dry | *tomap | to'mɐp̚ | ||
termite | *tomaj | tomaᵉ | ||
far | *komam | kamam | ko'mɐm | |
big | *komaj | kamaᵉ | komɐ'j-op̚ | |
skin/bark | *kotaj | kotaᵉ | ko'tɐj | |
incorrect | *ŋgomban | ŋgamban | ||
husband | *kop-mbaɾi[n] | kop pari | nɐ-ko'pɐlin | |
now/today | *kowandut | kowandut | ɢo'ɐndut̚ |
…
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | |
*… | |||
Pronouns
[under construction]
…
East Wambon | Waniktit | Bukit | |
Drabbe | Jang | ||
1 sg. | nup | nuk̚ | |
2 sg. | ŋgup | ɢup̚ | |
3 sg. | jup | ɟuk̚ | |
1 pl. | naŋgup | nɐp̚ | |
2 pl. | ŋgaŋgup | ɛwɛŋ'gap̚ | |
3 pl. | jaŋgup | jp̚ |
…
East Wambon | Waniktit | |
Drabbe | ||
1 sg. | na | |
2 sg. | ŋgo | |
3 sg. | ja | |
1 pl. | naŋgo | |
2 pl. | ŋgaŋgo | |
3 pl. | jaŋgo |
Verbal morphology
[under construction]
…
Counting system
[under construction]
East Wambon has a body-part counting system of the type characteristic of the central west New Guinea region, in which, excepting one, two, and three, the term for the number is generally the same as that for the body part which is touched during tallying. Counting begins from the left pinkie at one, proceeding to the thumb and then up the left side of the body until reaching the top of the head, then proceeding downward on the right side of the body as follows (q.v. Drabbe 1959: 125-126):
left side | right side | |||
[pinkie] | 1 | 27 | ||
[ring finger] | 2 | 26 | ||
[middle finger] | 3 | 25 | ||
index finger | 4 | 24 | ||
thumb | 5 | 23 | ||
wrist (pulse) | 6 | 22 | ||
forearm | 7 | 21 | ||
elbow | 8 | 20 | ||
upper arm | 9 | 19 | ||
shoulder | 10 | 18 | ||
side of neck | 11 | 17 | ||
ear | 12 | 16 | ||
temple | 13 | 15 | ||
top of skull | 14 | — | — |
Loans from neighboring languages
[under construction]
The most significant differences between Agayop and Kokenop are lexical, with Agayop sometimes sharing a word with Mandobo to the southwest where Kokenop shares one with Digul Wambon to the northwest:
Mandobo | Waniktit | Bukit | Uwimerah | North Wambon | |
Drabbe | Jang | Holle | |||
cassowary | *itit | itit | 'sɐnip̚ | *sanip | |
thumb/five | *aŋgʷo̞ | aŋgu | ɐmbɐ'lop̚ | amboraᵘ | *ambaɾop |
eight | *ŋgambum | ŋgambim | mujop̚ | mujaᵘ-ge | *mujop |
… loans from Lowland Ok:
…